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1. INTRODUCTION TO BATTERIES
An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert
stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first
battery in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common
power source for many household and industrial applications.
Batteries are represented symbolically as

Fig. 1a Symbolic view Fig. 1b conventional battery
Electrons flow from the negative terminal towards the positive terminal.
Based on the rechargeable nature batteries are classified as
a. Non rechargeable or primary cells
b. Rechargeable or secondary cells
Based on the size they are classified as
a. Miniature batteries
b. Industrial batteries
Based on nature of electrolyte
a. Dry cell
b. Wet cell


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1.1 Terminologies

1.1.1 Accumulator - A rechargeable battery or cell

1.1.2 Ampere-Hour Capacity - The number of ampere-hours which
can be delivered by a battery on a single discharge.

1.1.3 Anode - During discharge, the negative electrode of the cell is
the anode. During charge, that reverses and the positive
electrode of the cell is the anode. The anode gives up electrons
to the load circuit and dissolves into the electrolyte.

1.1.4 Battery Capacity - The electric output of a cell or battery on a
service test delivered before the cell reaches a specified final
electrical condition and may be expressed in ampere-hours,
watt- hours, or similar units. The capacity in watt-hours is equal
to the capacity in ampere-hours multiplied by the battery
voltage.

1.1.5 Cutoff Voltage - The prescribed lower-limit voltage at which
battery discharge is considered complete. The cutoff or final
voltage is usually chosen so that the maximum useful capacity
of the battery is realized.

1.1.6 C - Used to signify a charge or discharge rate equal to the
capacity of a battery divided by 1 hour. Thus C for a 1600 mAh
battery would be 1.6 A, C/5 for the same battery would be 320
mA and C/10 would be 160 mA.


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1.1.7 Capacity - The capacity of a battery is a measure of the amount
of energy that it can deliver in a single discharge. Battery
capacity is normally listed as amp-hours (or milliamp-hours) or
as watt-hours.

1.1.8 Cathode - Is an electrode that, in effect, oxidizes the anode or
absorbs the electrons. During discharge, the positive electrode
of a voltaic cell is the cathode. When charging, that reverses and
the negative electrode of the cell is the cathode.

1.1.9 Cycle - One sequence of charge and discharge.

1.1.10 Cycle Life - For rechargeable batteries, the total number of
charge/discharge cycles the cell can sustain before its capacity
is significantly reduced. End of life is usually considered to be
reached when the cell or battery delivers only 80% of rated
ampere- hour capacity.

1.1.11 Electrochemical Couple - The system of active materials
within a cell that provides electrical energy storage through an
electrochemical reaction.

1.1.12 Electrode - An electrical conductor through which an electric
current enters or leaves a conducting medium

1.1.13 Electrolyte - A chemical compound which, when fused or
dissolved in certain solvents, usually water, will conduct an
electric current.

1.1.14 Internal Resistance - The resistance to the flow of an electric

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current within the cell or battery.

1.1.15 Open-Circuit Voltage - The difference in potential between the
terminals of a cell when the circuit is open (i.e., a no-load
condition).

1.1.16 Voltage, cutoff - Voltage at the end of useful discharge. (See
Voltage, end-point.)

1.1.17 Voltage, end-point - Cell voltage below which the connected
equipment will not operate or below which operation is not
recommended.

1.2 Principal of Operation of cell
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to
electrical energy. It consists of a number of voltaic cells. Each voltaic cell
consists of two half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte
containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the
electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode
or negative electrode. The other half-cell includes electrolyte and the
electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode
or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery, cations
are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized
(electrons are removed) at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other
but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-
cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half cells allows ions to
flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.

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Fig. 1.2 principle operation
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its
ability to drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy
release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline
and carbon-zinc cells have different chemistries but approximately the same
emf of 1.5 volts. Likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries,
but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high
electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds
give lithium cells emf of 3 volts or more.

1.3 Types of batteries
Batteries are classified into two broad categories. Primary batteries
irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to
electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy
cannot be readily restored to the battery by electrical means. Secondary
batteries can be recharged. That is, they can have their chemical reactions
reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original
composition.
Primary Batteries: This can produce current immediately on

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assembly. Disposable batteries are intended to be used once and discarded.
These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current
drain, are only used intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative
power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other
electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells
cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily
reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery
manufacturers recommend against attempting recharging primary cells.
Common types of disposable batteries include zinc-carbon batteries and
alkaline batteries.

Secondary Batteries: These batteries must be charged before use.
They are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state.
Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by applying
electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its
use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or
rechargers.



Fig. 1.3a Primary cell Fig. 1.3b Secondary cell

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1.4 Recent developments
Recent developments include batteries with embedded functionality
such as USBCELL, with a built-in charger and USB connector within the
AA format, enabling the battery to be charged by plugging into a USB port
without a charger USB Cell is the brand of NiMH rechargeable battery
produced by a company called Moixa Energy. The batteries include a USB
connector to allow recharging using a powered USB port. The product range
currently available is limited to a 1300 mAh.

Fig. 1.4 USB cell

1.5 Life of battery
Even if never taken out of the original package, disposable (or
"primary") batteries can lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge every
year at a temperature of about 2030C. [54] This is known as the "self-
discharge" rate and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical
reactions, which occur within the cell even if no load is applied to it. The
rate of the side reactions is reduced if the batteries are stored at low

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temperature, although some batteries can be damaged by freezing. High or
low temperatures may reduce battery performance. This will affect the initial
voltage of the battery. For an AA alkaline battery this initial voltage is
approximately normally distributed around 1.6 volts.
Rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline
batteries, especially nickel-based batteries a freshly charged NiCd loses 10%
of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about
10% a month. Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when
purchased, and must be charged before first use.



1.6 Hazards related to batteries
1.6.1 Explosion
A battery explosion is caused by the misuse or malfunction of a
battery, such as attempting to recharge a primary (non-
rechargeable) battery, or short circuiting a battery.
1.6.2 Corrosion
Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous, or both. If
leakage occurs, either spontaneously or through accident, the
chemicals released may be dangerous
Fig 1.5 Life cycle

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1.6.3 Environmental pollution
The widespread use of batteries has created many
environmental concerns, such as toxic metal pollution. Battery
manufacture consumes resources and often involves hazardous
chemicals. Used batteries also contribute to electronic waste.
Americans purchase nearly three billion batteries annually, and
about 179,000 tons of those end up in landfills across the
country.
1.6.4 Ingestion
Small button/disk batteries can be swallowed by young
children. While in the digestive tract the battery's electrical
discharge can burn the tissues and can be serious enough to lead
to death.



Fig 1.6 Electronic waste

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2. PAPER BATTERY
Energy has always been spotlighted. In the past few years a lot of
inventions have been made in this particular field. The tiny nuclear batteries
can provide energy for 10 years, but they use radioactive elements and are
quite expensive. Few years back some researchers from Stanford University
started experiments concerning the ways in which a copier paper could be
used as a battery source. After a long way of struggle they, recently,
concluded that the idea was right. The batteries made from a plain copier
paper could make for the future energy storage that is truly thin.
The anatomy of paper battery is based on the use of Carbon Nanotubes
tiny cylinders to collect electric charge. The paper is dipped in lithium
containing solution. The nanotubes will act as electrodes allowing storage
device to conduct electricity. Its astounding to know that all the components
of a conventional battery are integrated in a single paper structure; hence the
complete mechanism for a battery is minimized to a size of paper.
One of the many reasons behind choosing the paper as a medium for
battery is the well-designed structure of millions of interconnected fibers in
it. These fibers can hold on carbon nanotubes easily. Also a paper has the
capability to bent or curl.
You can fold it in different shapes and forms plus it as light as feather.
Output voltage is modest but it could be increased if we use a stack of
papers. Hence the voltage issues can be easily controlled without difficulty.
Usage of paper as a battery will ultimately lead to weight diminution of
batteries many times as compared to traditional batteries.
Specialized paper batteries could act as power sources for any number of
devices implanted in humans and animals, including RFID tags, cosmetics,

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drug-delivery systems and pacemakers. A capacitor introduced into an
organism could be implanted fully dry and then be gradually exposed to
bodily fluids over time to generate voltage. Paper batteries are also
biodegradable, a need only partially addressed by current e-cycling and other
electronics disposal methods increasingly advocated for by the green
computing movement.
It is said that the paper battery also has the capability of releasing the
energy quickly. That makes it best utilization for devices that needs burst of
energy, mostly electric vehicles. Further, the medical uses are particularly
attractive because they do not contain any toxic materials.

Fig.2 paper battery









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3. CARBON NANOTUBES

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical
nanostructure. Nanotubes have been constructed with length-to-diameter
ratio of up to 132,000,000:1, significantly larger than any other material.
These cylindrical carbon molecules have novel properties, making them
potentially useful in many applications in nanotechnology, electronics,
optics, and other fields of materials science, as well as potential uses in
architectural fields.
They may also have applications in the construction of body armor.
They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties, and are
efficient thermal conductors.Their name is derived from their size, since the
diameter of a nanotube is on the order of a few nanometers (approximately
1/50,000th of the width of a human hair), while they can be up to 18
centimeters in length (as of 2010). Nanotubes are categorized as single-
walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs).
In theory, metallic nanotubes can carry an electric current density of 4
109 A/cm2 which is more than 1,000 times greater than metals such as
copper, where for copper interconnects current densities are limited by
electro migration.
In paper batteries the nanotubes act as electrodes, allowing the storage
devices to conduct electricity. The battery, which functions as both a
lithium-ion battery and a super capacitor, can provide a long, steady power
output comparable to a conventional battery, as well as a super capacitors
quick burst of high energy and while a conventional battery contains a

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number of separate components, the paper battery integrates all of the battery
components in a single structure, making it more energy efficient.
Carbon nanotubes have been implemented in Nano electromechnical
systems, including mechanical memory elements (NRAM being developed
by Nantero Inc.)

Fig 3. Carbon nanotubes
Current use and application of nanotubes has mostly been limited to
the use of bulk nanotubes, which is a mass of rather unorganized fragments
of nanotubes. Bulk nanotube materials may never achieve a tensile strength
similar to that of individual tubes, but such composites may, nevertheless,
yield strengths sufficient for many applications. Bulk carbon nanotubes have
already been used as composite fibers in polymers to improve the
mechanical, thermal and electrical properties of the bulk product.




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4. FABRICATION OF PAPER BATTERY

The materials required for the preparation of paper battery are
a. Copier paper
b. Carbon nano ink
c. Oven
The steps involved in the preparation of the paper battery are as follows
Step 1: The copier paper is taken.
Step 2: carbon Nano ink which is black in color is taken. Carbon nano ink is
a solution of nano rods, surface adhesive agent and ionic salt solutions.
Carbon nano ink is spread on one side of the paper.
Step 3: the paper is kept inside the oven at 150C temperature. This
evaporates the water content on the paper. The paper and the nano rods get
attached to each other.
Step 4: place the multi meter on the sides of the paper and we can see
voltage drop is generated.

Fig 4 (a). Fabrication process

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Fig 4 (b). Fabrication steps

After drying the paper becomes flexible, light weight in nature. The paper is
scratched and rolled to protect the nano rods on paper.






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5. WORKING OF PAPER BATTERY
The battery produces electricity in the same way as the conventional
lithium-ion batteries that power so many of today's gadgets, but all the
components have been incorporated into a lightweight, flexible sheet of
paper.
The devices are formed by combining cellulose with an infusion of
aligned carbon nanotubes. The carbon is what gives the batteries their black
color.
These tiny filaments act like the electrodes found in a traditional
battery, conducting electricity when the paper comes into contact with an
ionic liquid solution.
Ionic liquids contain no water, which means that there is nothing to
freeze or evaporate in extreme environmental conditions. As a result, paper
batteries can function between -75 and 1500C.
The paper is made conducting material by dipping in ink. The paper
works as a conductive layer. Two sheets of paper kept facing inward act like
parallel plates (high energy electrodes). It can store energy like a super
capacitor and it can discharge bursts of energy because of large surface area
of nano tubes.

Fig.5 Working of a paper battery

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Fig 6. Similarity between conventional and paper battery
Chlorine ions flow from the positive electrode to the negative one,
while electrons travel through the external circuit, providing current. The
paper electrode stores charge while recharging in tens of seconds because
ions flow through the thin electrode quickly. In contrast, lithium batteries
take 20 minutes to recharge.









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6. ADVANTAGES
The flexible shape allows the paper battery to be used small or
irregularly-shaped electronics:
One of the unique features of the paper battery is that it can be bent to
any such shape or design that the user might have in mind. The battery
can easily squeeze into tight crevasses and can be cut multiple times
without ruining the battery's life. For example if a battery is cut in
half, each piece will function, however, each piece will only contain
1/2 the amount of original power. Conversely, placing two sheets of
paper battery on top of one-another will double the power.
The paper battery may replace conventional batteries completely:
By layering sheets of this paper, the battery's voltage and current can be
increased that many times. Since the main components of the paper
battery are carbon nanotubes and cellulose, the body structure of the
battery is very thin, "paper-thin". Thus to maximize even more power, the
sheets of battery paper can be stacked on top of one another to give off
tremendous power. This can allow the battery to have a much higher
amount of power for the same size of storage as a current battery and also
be environmentally friendly at the same time.
Supply power to an implanted pacemaker in the human body by
using the electrolytes in human blood:
An improvement in the techniques used in the health field can be
aided by the paper battery. Experiments have taken place showing that
batteries can be energized by the electrolyte emitted from one's own
blood or body sweat. This can conserve the usage of battery acid and

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rely on an environmental friendly mechanism of fueling battery cells
with the help from our bodies.
The paper battery can be molded to take the shape of large objects,
like a car door:
As stated earlier, the key characteristics that make the paper battery
very appealing are that it can be transformed into any shape or size, it
can be cut multiple times without damaging it, and it can be fueled
through various ways besides the typical harmful battery acid that is
used in the current day battery.



















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7. LIMITATIONS

Presently, the devices are only a few inches across and they have to be
scaled up to sheets of newspaper size to make it commercially viable.
Carbon nanotubes are very expensive, and batteries with large enough
power are unlikely to be cost effective.
Cutting of trees leading to destroying of the nature.













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8. APPLICATIONS
Pace makers in heart (uses blood as electrolyte)

Used as alternate to conventional batteries in gadgets

Powered smart cards RF id tags

Smart toys, children sound books

E-cards, greetings, talking posters
Girls/boys apparel



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9. CONCLUSION
We have discussed the various terminologies, principle of operation
of a battery and recent developments related to it. The life of a battery is an
important parameter which decides the area of application of the battery.
Increased use of batteries gives rise to E-waste which poses great damage to
our environment.
In the year 2007 paper battery was manufactured. The technology is
capable of replacing old bulky batteries. The paper batteries can further
reduce the weight of the electronic gadgets.
The adaptations to the paper battery technique in the future could
allow for simply painting the nanotube ink and active materials onto surfaces
such as walls. These surfaces can produce energy.










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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Websites:
www.wikipedia.org
www.google.com
www.powerpaper.com

Books:
Flexible Nanocomposite Thin Film Energy Storage Devices by V. L
Pushparaj