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Mathematical and physical papers, by Sir William Thomson. Collected
from different scientific periodicals from May, 1841, to the present
time.
Kelvin, William Thomson, Baron, 1824-1907.
Cambridge, University Press, 1882-1911.
http://hdl.handle.net/2027/miun.aat1571.0004.001
Public Domain
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MAT HEMATIAL
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Tambtrbtge:
PRINTED Y HN CLAY M.A.
AT THE NI ERSITY PRESS
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PRE ACE.
TN the frst three oumes of ths reprnt the papers were
numbered consecut ey from I to CI those whch had
aready been coected n the oume of Papers on Eectrostatcs and Magnetsm Macmans 1872 reprnted 1884
beng nserted ony n tte wth a reference to ther pace n
that oume. Lord e n hmsef began the preparaton of
a oume I . and matera whch had been standng n type
to form the frst sheets was utmatey prnted off as an
Append pp. 569-59 to the oume of atmore Lectures
pubshed n 1904 but the numberng of these papers s n
error on account of addtons afterwards made to oume III.
as mentoned beow. In the oume of atmore Lectures
he aso reprnted ether n the te t or as Appendces a consderabe number of ater papers connected wth the Dynamca
Theory of Lght. Moreo er at the end of oume III. of the
Mathematca and Physca Papers 1890 he nserted a
coecton of papers then ony ust wrtten on the reatons
of the ether to eectrodynamc propagaton stmuated thereto
by the phenomena of aternatng currents n cabes and of
Hert an eectrc wa es n space both then undergong e poraton. Aso a consderabe number of the ess abstract
papers ha e been seected and reprnted wthout regard to date
n the three oumes of Popuar Lectures and Addresses
Macmans: o. I. Consttuton of Matter 1889 o. II.
Geoogy and Genera Physcs 1894 o. III. Na gatona
Affars 1891 .
It appeared to the Edtor when he was re uested by Lady
e n to ta e charge of the competon of the coected edton
of Lord e n s wor that n conse uence of the arety of
procedure n these parta reprnts any attempt at contnung
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PRE ACE
the pre ous numberng of the papers must be abandoned. It
seemed moreo er that a cearer ew of the se uence of Lord
e n s scentfc act ty coud be obtaned by cassfyng the
sub ect-matter under a number of broad headngs coectng
together under each head n chronoogca order the matera
that beonged to t and at the same tme ma ng the record
practcay compete by ncudng ttes of other papers wth
references to the paces where they had aready been repubshed. Ths procedure has been carred bac n tme far
enough to brng t nto conne on wth Lord e n s own
chronoogca scheme of hs earer wor as reprnted n the
pre ous oumes of ths coecton. In order to secure the
con enence of fuer contnuty under arous headngs where
t coud ready be obtaned t has been thought ad sabe
to reprnt some pages aready ncuded n the atmore
Lectures and esewhere.
The dffcutes n o ed n ths rearrangement of the
matera were ghtened by the use of two mportant bbographes of Lord e n s wor . or the papers up to 1884
the pubshed oumes of the Roya Socety s Cataogue of
Scentfc Papers were a aabe and for the remanng perod
access was obtaned through the courtesy of Prof. McLeod to
the ttes now prepared for the contnuaton of that cataogue.
or the atter haf of the present oume and a the ne t
the ery compete bbography of 661 ttes appended to
Prof. S anus Thompson s Lfe of Lord e n has ndy been
made a aabe for the same purpose. In that st the crossreferences to reprnts or abstracts of the arous papers are
remar aby fu yet such s the compe ty of the matera
that consderabe research has been re ured to estabsh the
reatons between the arous entres. A consderabe proporton of the st conssts of ttes of erba communcatons
often hstorcay nterestng made to earned Socetes where
nothng or at most ony an accdenta press abstract has been
pubshed and n that respect t s of course more compete
than the st of substanta pubcatons whch aone s g en
here and s summarsed n the tabe of Contents.
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PRE ACE

The greater part of the present oume s ta en up by
papers on the sub ect of Hydrodynamcs the theory of the
motons of fuds. The pages 1-2 0 form a connected reprnt
of the papers on orte Moton such as has for a ong tme
been a desderatum. ew sub ects n modern physca mathematcs can e wth ths one n orgnaty and eegance and
we may add n dffcuty of de eopment and the great names
of Hemhot and e n are nseparaby connected n regard
to t. The path-brea ng memor of the former ta es ran
among the cassca e ampes of eegant and fna mathematca
formuaton of the abstract essentas of a physca phenomenon
carryng on the reader n ts sweep and compeng hs ready
assent whe the een geometrca ntuton and the ob ect e
presentaton of Lord e n s more fragmentary efforts towards
the fuer de eopment of the sub ect made under the stmuus
of hs romantc concepton of an atomc theory based on ortca moton n a perfect fud admts the student n a manner
behnd the scenes where new nowedge s beng forged and
prepared by a master for ncorporaton n the forma scheme
of scence. Hardy any dscpne s more nformng for the
tranng of a physca mathematcan than an ntermsson of the
engrossng ogca detas of agebrac anayss n fa our of such
drect and tentat e ntutona sege of the suggestons of order
presented by natura phenomena as s recorded n these papers.
The ne t secton pp. 2 1-269 contans Lord e n s contrbutons to the Dynamca Theory of the Tdes n whch
hs orgna am was to restore the mpugned authorty of
Lapace s anayss but at the same tme by the e hbton
of many new features and new ponts of ew he ntated
the e tens e modern de eopment and mpro ement of ths
beautfu theory. These dynamca papers thus form a ft compement to ther author s wor n ntatng and gudng the
compete practca ache ement of tda predcton through the
forma harmonc anayss of the actua perodc motons whch
consttute the tdes of the rreguar terrestra oceans as we now
them. In regard to ths secton the ad ce of Sr GE RGE DAR IN
has been a aabe and he has ndy contrbuted the hstorca
note on p. 269.
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PRE ACE
Then foows a secton pp. 270-456 on a es on ater.
Ths has been on ts physca sde a sub ect pre-emnenty
rtsh e er snce ts mathematca machnery was formuated
by Cauchy and Posson -perhaps many owng to the re urements of the scentfc engneers who de eoped frst the
na gaton of canas and afterwards the desgnng of shps
wth a ew to dmnshng the dran on the propeng energy
whch arses from the producton of wa es. Lord e n s
nowedge of the sea ac ured as a yachtsman ed hm drecty
to n estgatons of the effect of wnd and current n whch
he has been foowed by Lord Rayegh and many on the
meteoroogca sde by Hemhot whe the search for the
ratonae of the frctona resstance to shps and the e perments of sborne Reynods on the demarcaton between smooth
and turbuent fow prompted dffcut n estgatons n scous
fow whch st reman ncompete. The mode n whch the
moton at the front and rear of a mted reguar tran of
wa es spreads tsef out has features whch are mportant aso
for the understandng of the ad ance of a beam of radaton
nto a dspers e medum whe the reguar trans of standng
unduatons estabshed n a current by fow o er a submerged
obstace eucdate a mode of geness of wa y moton whch may
aso fnd appcaton n meteoroogca atmospherc phenomena.
A man feature n ths secton s the graphca representatons
of resuts and than s are due to the Roya Socety of Ednburgh
for pro dng cche s of the numerous dagrams.
Then foows a secton on Genera Dynamcs pp. 457-5 1
n whch are coected arous fragmentary papers begnnng
wth the thorny ueston of the partton of therma moecuar
energy and ramfyng nto appcatons of the Prncpe of Acton
and other dynamca methods to the sub ect of perodc orbts
now fundamenta n dynamca astronomy and to the graphca
souton of dynamca probems. As foowng naturay on ths
sub ect the oume s competed by a bref secton on Eastc
Propagaton pp. 5 2-560 whch s tte more than a chronoogca st of ttes of papers many of optca and eectrca
nterest on propagaton and refe on n ordnary eastc sod
meda and n eectrc cabes whch ha e been repubshed
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PRE ACE

aready n other oumes. The speca sub ect of propagaton

through the ether consdered n ts more modern eectrc
conne ons has been reser ed for the ne t oume.
The fna oume . of the Mathematca and Physca
Papers w contan papers now arranged ready for press on
Thermodynamcs Cosmca and Geoogca Physcs Eectrodynamcs and Eectroyss Moecuar and Crystane Theory
Radoact ty and Eectronc Theory wth perhaps some addresses and other msceaneous scentfc matter.
The Edtor desres to ac nowedge much e pert assstance
whch has greaty ghtened hs tas . Many of the proof sheets
ha e been oo ed through by Mr . . HARRIS N eow of
Care Coege Cambrdge. In the correcton of the atter haf
of the oume the gance of Mr GE RGE GREEN who was
Lord e n s scentfc secretary for the ater years of hs fe
and who thus brought speca nowedge to bear has ensured
the correcton of many sma o ersghts n addton to more
mportant ponts whch are e pcty mentoned n footnotes.
he Prof. . M . RR .R.S. whose assstance was specay
n o ed n conne on wth the dffcut topcs treated on p. 0
has ndy e amned n proof a the subse uent sheets of the
oume and has aso supped most of the st of errata beongng to the earer part. or genera ad ce reatng to
arous matters the Edtor s under obgaton to Lord RAYLEIGH
and Prof. H RACE LAM and to Dr . T. TT MLEY. In the
reprnt ob ous mnor errors and msprnts ha e been corrected
wthout menton but a mportant changes ha e been referred
to n footnotes nserted by the Edtor whch are encosed n
s uare brac ets.
Than s are due as aways to the offcas of the Cambrdge
n ersty Press for the e ceence of ther wor and ther
unfang courtesy.
. L.
ST HN S C LLEGE CAM RIDGE.
March 1910.
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C NTENTS.
HYDR DYNAMICS.
YEAR N . PAGE
1867. n orte Atoms........ 1
1868 2 n orte Moton....... 1
1867 The Transatory eocty of a Crcuar orte Rng. 67
1871 4 n the Moton of ree Sods through a L ud. 69
1871 5 Infuence of nd and Caparty on a es n water
supposed frctoness..... 76
1871 6 Rppes and a es....... 86
1869 7 n the orces e perenced by Sods mmersed n a
mo ng L ud....... 9
1871 8 n Attractons and Repusons due to braton. 98
187 9 n the Moton of Rgd Sods n a L ud crcuatng
rrotatonay through Perforatons n them or n a
ed Sod...... 101
1875 10 orte Statcs....... 115
1877 11 n the Precessona Moton of a L ud L ud
Gyrostats ....... 129
1878 12 oatng Magnets ustratng orte -Systems .. 1 5
1879 1 n Gra tatona scatons of Rotatng ater. 141
1887 14 n the ormaton of Coreess ortces by the Moton
of a Sod through an In scd Incompressbe ud 149
1880 15 bratons of a Coumnar orte .... 152
1887 16 n the Stabty of Steady and of Perodc ud Moton 166
1880 17 n a Dsturbng Infnty n Lord Rayegh s Souton
for a es n a Pane orte Stratum... 186
1881 18 n the a erage Pressure due to mpuse of orte -Rngs
on a Sod....... 188
1882 19 n the gures of E ubrum of a Rotatng Mass of
ud..... 189
1885 20 n the Moton of a L ud wthn an Epsoda Hoow 19
1889 21 n the Stabty and Sma scaton of a Perfect
L ud fu of Neary Straght Coreess ortces. 202
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C NTENTS
YEAR N . PAGE
1894 22 Towards the Effcency of Sas ndms ScrewPropeers n ater and Ar and Aeropanes. 205
1894 2 n the Resstance of a ud to a Pane ept mo ng
unformy n a Drecton ncned to t at a sma
Ange......... 207
1896 24 n the Moton of a Heterogeneous L ud commencng
from Rest wth a g en Moton of ts oundary. 211
1894 25 n the doctrne of Dscontnuty of ud Moton n
connecton wth the Resstance aganst a Sod
mo ng through a ud..... 215
THE RY THE TIDES.
1875 26 n an Aeged Error n Lapace s Theory of the Tdes. 2 1
1875 27 Note on the scatons of the rst Speces n
Lapace s Theory of the Tdes.... 248
1875 28 Genera Integraton of Lapace s Dfferenta E uaton
of the Tdes....... 254
A ES N ATER.
1886 29 n Statonary a es n owng ater... 270
1887 0 n the a es produced by a Snge Impuse n ater
of any depth or n a Dspers e Medum.. 0
1887 1 n the ront and Rear of a ree Processon of a es
n Deep ater....... 07
1887 2 n Shp a es........ 07
1887 n the Propagaton of Lamnar Moton through a
Turbuenty mo ng In scd L ud... 08
1887 4 Rectnea Moton of scous ud between two
Parae Panes....... 21
1904 5 n Deep-water Two-Dmensona a es produced by
any g en Intatng Dsturbance. 8
1904 6 n the ront and Rear of a ree Processon of a es
n Deep ater....... 51
1904 7 Deep ater Shp- a es...... 68
1905 8 Deep Sea Shp- a es....... 94
1906 9 Intaton of Deep-Sea a es of Three Casses: 1 from
a Snge Dspacement 2 from a Group of E ua
and Smar Dspacements by a Perodcay
aryng Surface-Pressure... 419
1876 40 Physca E panaton of the Mac ere S y... 457
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C NTENTS

GENERAL DYNAMICS.
YEAR No. PAGE
186 41 n some nematca and Dynamca Theorems. 458
1868 42 n a New orm of Centrfuga Go ernor... 460
1869 4 n a New Astronomca Coc and a Penduum
Go ernor for nform Moton.... 46
1874 44 n the Perturbatons of the Compass produced by the
Rong of the Shp...... 464
1876 45 n a New orm of Astronomca Coc wth ree
Penduum and Independenty Go erned nform
Moton for Escapement-whee.... 470
1881 46 Eastcty ewed as Possby a Mode of Moton. 472
1884 47 Steps towards a netc Theory of Matter... 474
1884 48 n a Gyrostatc or ng Mode of the Magnetc Compass.......... 475
1889 49 Gyrostatc E perments...... 482
1891 50 n Some Test Cases for the Ma we- ot mann
Doctrne regardng Dstrbuton of Energy.. 484
1892 51 n a Decs e Test-case dspro ng the Ma we- ot mann Doctrne regardng Dstrbuton of netc
Energy......... 495
1891 52 n Perodc Moton of a nte Conser at e System. 497
1891 5 n a Theorem n Pane netc Trgonometry suggested
by Gauss s Theorem of Cur atura Integra.. 51
1892 54 n the Stabty of Perodc Moton.... 515
1892 55 n Graphc Souton of Dynamca Probems.. 516
1892 56 Reducton of e ery Probem of Two reedoms n Conser at e Dynamcs to the Drawng of Geodetc
Lnes on a Surface of g en Specfc Cur ature. 521
1892 57 Genera aton of Mercator s Pro ecton performed by
Ad of Eectrca Instruments.... 52
1892 58 To Draw a Mercator Chart on one Sheet representng
the whoe of any Compe y Contnuous Cosed
Surface......... 527
1896 59 Isopermetrca Probems...... 5 1
1900 60 Nneteenth Century Couds o er the Dynamca Theory
of Heat and Lght... 5 1
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C NTENTS
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N.
YEAR N . PAGE
1855 61 n Perstatc Inducton of Eectrc Currents n Submarne Teegraph res..... 5 2
187 62 n Sgnang through Submarne Cabes ustrated by
Sgnas Transmtted through a Mode Submarne
Cabe e hbted by Mrror Ga anometer and by
Sphon Recorder...... 5 2
1856 6 Dynamca Iustratons of the Magnetc and the Hecoda Rotatory Effects of Transparent odes on
Poar ed Lght....... 5 2
1875 64 bratons and a es n a Stretched nform Chan
of Symmetrca Gyrostats..... 5
1884 65 The a e Theory of Lght...... 5 8
1887 66 n Cauchy s and Green s Doctrne of E traneous orce
to E pan Dynamcay resne s nematcs of
Doube Refracton....... 5 8
1888 67 A Smpe Hypothess for Eectro-magnetc Inducton of
Incompete Crcuts wth conse uent E uatons of
Eectrc Moton n ed Homogeneous Sod Matter 5 9
1888 68 n the Transference of Eectrcty wthn a Homogeneous Sod Conductor..... 545
1888 69 e Appcatons of ourer s Law of Dffuson ustrated by a Dagram of Cur es wth Absoute
Numerca aues....... 546
1888 70 Dscusson on Lghtnng Conductors at the rtsh
Assocaton........ 546
1888 71 n the Refe on and Refracton of Lght... 547
1890 72 Ether Eectrcty and Ponderabe Matter... 547
1890 7 n a Mechansm for the Consttuton of Ether.. 547
1890 74 Moton of a scous L ud E ubrum or Moton of
an Eastc Sod E ubrum or Moton of an
Idea Substance caed for re ty Ether Mechanca Representaton of Magnetc orce.. 547
1894 75 Premnary E perments for Comparng the Dscharge
of a Leyden ar through Dfferent ranches of a
D ded Channe. y Lord e n and Ae ander
Gat......... 548
1898 76 The Dynamca Theory of Refracton Dsperson and
Anomaous Dsperson...... 551
1898 77 Contnuty n nduatory Theory of Condensatonararefactona a es n Gases L uds and Sods
of Dstortona a es n Sods of Eectrc a es
n a Substances capabe of Transmttng them
and of Radant Heat sbe Lght tra- oet
Lght......... 551
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C NTENTS
YEAR N . PAGE
1898 78 n the Refecton and Refracton of Sotary Pane
a es at a Pane Interface between Two Isotropc
Eastc Medums- ud Sod or Ether.. 551
1899 79 Appcaton of Semeer s Dynamca Theory to the
Dar Lnes D1 D2 produced by Sodum- apour. 551
1899 80 n the Appcaton of orce wthn a Lmted Space
re ured to produce Spherca Sotary a es or
Trans of Perodc a es of both Speces E u oumna and Irrotatona n an Eastc Sod. 552
1900 81 n the Moton produced n an Infnte Eastc Sod by
the Moton through the Space occuped by t of a
ody actng on t ony by Attracton or Repuson. 552
1900 82 n the Dutes of Ether for Eectrcty and Magnetsm. 55
1902 8 A New Specfyng Method for Stress and Stran n an
Eastc Sod..... 556
190 84 n the Eectro-etherea Theory of the eocty of Lght
n Gases L uds and Sods.. 560
INDE ....... 561
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C RRIGENDA
Page 10 ne 15 from foot for moment read momentum 7 Cf. Lamb s Hydrodynamcs 129 1 0 102 frst e . for r read T 1 6 ne 8 from foot for dmnshng read ncreasng 1 6 2 for - read 141 for pp. 97-109 read pp. 109-116
d2h 1 d2h 14 e . 8 for - -d2 read2 d-2 14 ne 10 from foot omt n after sng 144 5 for 0 read a 16 8 for read 0 160 12 for 4 read 2 165 footnote read supra p. 1 175 ne 7 omt e ery. Cf. Lamb s Hydrodynamcs 164 186 see footnotes p. 4 255 e . and 4 deete r 255 6 for r ead r2 256 8 9 11 12 for r read r2 05 14 for 22 n ast e presson read 2 17 se . Reference may be made to . M. Hc s rt. Assoc. Report 1885
Address to Secton A p. 517 aso p. 9 0: aso to same author Ph.
Trans. o. 192 1898 p. on Spra or Gyrostatc orte
Aggregates.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
1. N RTE AT MS.
Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh o. I pp. 94-105
reprnted n Ph. fag. o. 1867 pp. 15-24.
A TER notcng Hemhot s admrabe dsco ery of the aw of
orte moton n a perfect ud-that s n a fud perfecty
desttute of scosty or fud frcton -the author sad that ths
dsco ery ne taby suggests the dea that Hemhot s rngs are
the ony true atoms. or the ony prete t seemng to ustfy
the monstrous assumpton of nfntey strong and nfntey rgd
peces of matter the e stence of whch s asserted as a probabe
hypothess by some of the greatest modern chemsts n ther
rashy-worded ntroductory statements s that urged by Lucretus
and adopted by Newton-that t seems necessary to account for
the unaterabe dstngushng uates of dfferent nds of
matter. ut Hemhot has pro ed an absoutey unaterabe
uaty n the moton of any porton of a perfect ud n whch
the pecuar moton whch he cas rbebewegung has been
once created. Thus any porton of a perfect ud whch has
rbebewegung has one recommendaton of Lucretus s atoms
-nfntey perenna specfc uaty. To generate or to destroy
rbebewegung n a perfect fud can ony be an act of creat e
power. Lucretus s atom does not e pan any of the propertes
. I . 1
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2
HYDR DYNAMICS
1
of matter wthout attrbutng them to the atom tsef. Thus the
cash of atoms as t has been we caed has been n o ed by
hs modern foowers to account for the eastcty of gases. E ery
other property of matter has smary re ured an assumpton
of specfc forces pertanng to the atom. It s as easy and as
mprobabe not more so to assume whate er specfc forces
may be re ured n any porton of matter whch possesses the
rbebewegung as n a sod nd sbe pece of matter and
hence the Lucretus atom has no prma face ad antage o er the
Hemhot atom. A magnfcent dspay of smo e-rngs whch
he recenty had the peasure of wtnessng n Professor Tat s
ecture-room dmnshed by one the number of assumptons re ured to e pan the propertes of matter on the hypothess that
a bodes are composed of orte atoms n a perfect homogeneous
ud. Two smo e-rngs were fre uenty seen to bound ob uey
from one another sha ng oenty from the effects of the shoc .
The resut was ery smar to that obser abe n two arge ndarubber rngs str ng one another n the ar. The eastcty of
each smo e-rng seemed no further from perfecton than mght be
e pected n a sod nda-rubber rng of the same shape from
what we now of the scosty of nda-rubber. f course ths
netc eastcty of form s perfect eastcty for orte rngs n a
perfect ud. It s at east as good a begnnng as the cash of
atoms to account for the eastcty of gases. Probaby the
beautfu n estgatons of D. ernou Herapath oue rong
Causus and Ma we on the arous thermodynamc propertes
of gases may ha e a the post e assumptons they ha e been
obged to ma e as to mutua forces between two atoms and
netc energy ac ured by nd dua atoms or moecues satsfed
by orte rngs wthout re urng any other property n the
matter whose moton composes them than nerta and ncompressbe occupaton of space. A fu mathematca n estgaton
of the mutua acton between two orte rngs of any g en
magntudes and eoctes passng one another n any two nes
so drected that they ne er come nearer one another than a
arge mutpe of the dameter of ether s a perfecty so abe
mathematca probem and the no ety of the crcumstances
contempated presents dffcutes of an e ctng character. Its
souton w become the foundaton of the proposed new netc
theory of gases. The possbty of foundng a theory of eastc
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1867
N RTE AT MS

sods and uds on the dynamcs of more cosey-pac ed orte

atoms may be reasonaby antcpated. It may be remar ed n
conne on wth ths antcpaton that the mere tte of Ran ne s
paper on Moecuar ortces communcated to the Roya
Socety of Ednburgh n 1849 and 1850 was a most suggest e
step n physca theory.
Dagrams and wre modes were shown to the Socety to
ustrate notted or ntted orte atoms the endess arety of
whch s nfntey more than suffcent to e pan the aretes
and aotropes of nown smpe bodes and ther mutua affntes.
It s to be remar ed that two rng atoms n ed together or one
notted n any manner wth ts ends meetng consttute a system
whch howe er t may be atered n shape can ne er de ate from
ts own pecuarty of mutpe contnuty t beng mpossbe for
the matter n any ne of orte moton to go through the ne of
any other matter n such moton or any other part of ts own ne.
In fact a cosed ne of orte core s teray nd sbe by any
acton resutng from orte moton.
The author caed attenton to a ery mportant property of
the orte atom wth reference to the now ceebrated spectrumanayss practcay estabshed by the dsco eres and abours of
rchhoff and unsen. The dynamca theory of ths sub ect
whch Professor Sto es had taught to the author of the present
paper before September 1852 and whch he has taught n hs
ectures n the n ersty of Gasgow from that tme forward
re ured that the utmate consttuton of smpe bodes shoud
ha e one or more fundamenta perods of braton as has a
strnged nstrument of one or more strngs or an eastc sod
consstng of one or more tunng-for s rgdy connected. To
assume such a property n the Lucretus atom s at once to g e
t that ery fe bty and eastcty for the e panaton of whch
as e hbted n aggregate bodes the atomc consttuton was
orgnay assumed. If then the hypothess of atoms and acuum
magned by Lucretus and hs foowers to be necessary to account
for the fe bty and compressbty of tangbe sods and fuds
were reay necessary t woud be necessary that the moecue of
sodum for nstance shoud be not an atom but a group of atoms
wth od space between them. Such a moecue coud not be
strong and durabe and thus t oses the one recommendaton
whch has g en t the degree of acceptance t has had among
1-2
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HYDR DYNAMICS
1
phosophers but as the e perments shown to the Socety
ustrate the orte atom has perfecty defnte fundamenta
modes of braton dependng soey on that moton the e stence
of whch consttutes t. The dsco ery of these fundamenta modes
forms an ntensey nterestng probem of pure mathematcs.
E en for a smpe Hemhot rng the anaytca dffcutes whch
t presents are of a ery formdabe character but certany far
from nsuperabe n the present state of mathematca scence.
The author of the present communcaton had not attempted
htherto to wor t out e cept for an nfntey ong straght
cyndrca orte . or ths case he was wor ng out soutons
correspondng to e ery possbe descrpton of nfntesma braton and ntended to ncude them n a mathematca paper whch
he hoped soon to be abe to communcate to the Roya Socety.
ne ery smpe resut whch he coud now state s the foowng.
Let such a orte be g en wth ts secton dfferng from e act
crcuar fgure by an nfntesma harmonc de aton of order .
Ths form w tra e as wa es round the a s of the cynder n
the same drecton as the orte rotaton wth an anguar eocty
e ua to - 1 / of the anguar eocty of ths rotaton. Hence as
the number of crests n a whoe crcumference s e ua to for an
harmonc de aton of order there are - 1 perods of braton
n the perod of re outon of the orte . or the case 1
there s no braton and the souton e presses merey an nfntesmay dspaced orte wth ts crcuar form unchanged.
The case 2 corresponds to eptc deformaton of the crcuar
secton and for t the perod of braton s therefore smpy
the perod of re outon. These resuts are of course appcabe
to the Hemhot rng when the dameter of the appro matey
crcuar secton s sma n comparson wth the dameter of the
rng as t s n the smo e-rngs e hbted to the Socety. The
owest fundamenta modes of the two nds of trans erse bratons of a rng such as the bratons that were seen n the
e perments must be much gra er than the eptc braton of
secton. It s probabe that the bratons whch consttute the
ncandescence of sodum- apour are anaogous to those whch the
smo e-rngs had e hbted and t s therefore probabe that the
perod of each orte rotaton of the atoms of sodum- apour s
much ess than -5 of the month of the month of a second
ths beng appro matey the perod of braton of the yeow
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N RTE AT MS
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sodum ght. urther nasmuch as ths ght conssts of two
sets of bratons coe stent n sghty dfferent perods e ua
appro matey to the tme ust stated and of as neary as can
be perce ed e ua ntenstes the sodum atom must ha e two
fundamenta modes of braton ha ng those for ther respect e
perods and beng about e uay e ctabe by such forces as the
atom e perences n the ncandescent apour. Ths ast condton
renders t probabe that the two fundamenta modes concerned
are appro matey smar and not merey dfferent orders of
dfferent seres chancng to concur ery neary n ther perods of
braton . In an appro matey crcuar and unform ds of
eastc sod the fundamenta modes of trans erse braton wth
noda d son nto uadrants fuf both the condtons. In an
appro matey crcuar and unform rng of eastc sod these condtons are fufed for the fe ura bratons n ts pane and aso
n ts trans erse bratons perpendcuar to ts own pane. ut
the crcuar orte rng f created wth one part somewhat thc er
than another woud not reman so but woud e perence ongtudna bratons round ts own crcumference and coud not
possby ha e two fundamenta modes of braton smar n
character and appro matey e ua n perod. The same asserton
may t s probabe be practcay e tended to any atom consstng of a snge orte rng howe er n o ed as ustrated
by those of the modes shown to the Socety whch conssted of
ony a snge wre notted n arous ways. It seems therefore
probabe that the sodum atom may not consst of a snge orte
ne but t may ery probaby consst of two appro matey e ua
orte rngs passng through one another e two n s of a chan.
It s howe er ute certan that a apour consstng of such
atoms wth proper oumes and anguar eoctes n the two
rngs of each atom woud act precsey as ncandescent sodum apour acts-that s to say woud fuf the spectrum test for
sodum.
The possbe effect of change of temperature on the fundamenta modes cannot be pronounced upon wthout mathematca
n estgaton not htherto e ecuted and therefore we cannot say
Note Apr 26 1867.-The author has seen reason for bee ng that the
sodum characterstc mght be rea ed by a certan confguraton of a snge ne
of orte core to be descrbed n the mathematca paper whch he ntends to
communcate to the Socety.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
1
that the dynamca e panaton now suggested s mathematcay
demonstrated so far as to ncude the ery appro mate dentty of
the perods of the bratng partces of the ncandescent apour
wth those of ther correspondng fundamenta modes at the ower
temperature at whch the apour e hbts ts remar abe absorbngpower for the sodum ght.
A ery remar abe dsco ery made by Hemhot regardng
the smpe orte rng s that t aways mo es reat ey to the
dstant parts of the fud n a drecton perpendcuar to ts pane
towards the sde towards whch the rotatory moton carres the
nner parts of the rng. The determnaton of the eocty of ths
moton e en appro matey for rngs of whch the sectona radus
s sma n comparson wth the radus of the crcuar a s has
presented mathematca dffcutes whch ha e not yet been o ercome . In the smo e-rngs whch ha e been actuay obser ed t
seems to be aways somethng smaer than the eocty of the
See howe er note added to Professor Tat s transaton of Hemhot s paper
Ph. Mag. 1867 o. . Supp. where the resut see nfra p. 67 of a mathematca n estgaton whch the author of the present communcaton has recenty
succeeded n e ecutng s g en.
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N RTE AT MS
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fud aong the straght a s through the centre of the rng for
the obser er standng besde the ne of moton of-the rng sees as
ts pane passes through the poston of hs eye a con e 4 outne
of an atmosphere of smo e n front of the rng. Ths con e
outne ndcates the boundng surface between the uantty of
smo e whch s carred forward wth the rng n ts moton and
the surroundng ar whch yeds to et t pass. It s not so easy
to dstngush the correspondng con e outne behnd the rng
because a confused tra of smo e s generay eft n the rear. In
a perfect fud the boundng surface of the porton carred forward
woud necessary be ute symmetrca on the anteror and
posteror sdes of the mdde pane of the rng. The moton of
the surroundng fud must be precsey the same as t woud be f
the space wthn ths surface were occuped by a smooth sod
but n reaty the ar wthn t s n a state of rapd moton
crcuatng round the crcuar a s of the rng wth ncreasng
eocty on the crcuts nearer and nearer to the rng tsef. The
crcumstances of the actua moton may be magned thus:-Let a
sod coumn of nda-rubber of crcuar secton wth a dameter
sma n proporton to ts ength be bent nto a crce and ts two
ends propery spced together so that t may eep the crcuar
shape when eft to tsef et the aperture of the rng be cosed by
an nfntey thn fm et an mpus e pressure be apped a
o er ths fm of ntensty so dstrbuted as to produce the defnte
moton of the fud specfed as foows and nstanty thereafter
et the fm be a ufed. Ths moton s n accordance wth
one of Hemhot s aws to be aong those cur es whch woud be
the nes of force f n pace of the nda-rubber crce were substtuted a rng eectromagnetS and the eoctes at dfferent ponts
The dagram represents precsey the con e outne referred to and the nes
of moton of the nteror fud carred aong by the orte for the case of a doube
orte consstng of two nfntey ong parae straght ortces of e ua rotatons
n opposte drectons. The cur es ha e been drawn by Mr D. M arane from
cacuatons whch he has performed by means of the e uaton of the system of
cur es whch s
y2 2 N a2 b
a2- a N - I 1 whereog N a
a a N-1 a2/ a
The proof w be g en n the mathematca paper whch the author ntends to
communcate n a short tme to the Roya Socety of Ednburgh.
t That s to say a crcuar conductor wth a current of eectrcty mantaned
crcuatng through t.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
1
are to be n proporton to the ntenstes of the magnetc forces n
the correspondng ponts of the magnetc fed. The moton as
has ong been nown w fuf ths defnton and w contnue
fufng t f the ntatng eoctes at e ery pont of the fm
perpendcuar to ts own pane be n proporton to the ntenstes
of the magnetc force n the correspondng ponts of the magnetc
fed. Let now the rng be mo ed perpendcuar to ts own pane
n the drecton wth the moton of the fud through the mdde
of the rng wth a eocty ery sma n comparson wth that
of the fud at the centre of the rng. A arge appro matey
gobuar porton of the fud w be carred forward wth the rng.
Let the eocty of the rng be ncreased the oume of fud
carred forward w be dmnshed n e ery dameter but most n
the a a or fore-and-aft dameter and ts shape w thus become
sensby obate. y ncreasng the eocty of the rng forward
more and more ths obateness w ncrease unt nstead of beng
whoy con e t w be conca e before and behnd round the
two ends of the a s. If the forward eocty of the rng be
ncreased unt t s ust e ua to the eocty of the fud through
the centre of the rng the a a secton of the outne of the
porton of fud carred forward w become a emnscate. If the
rng be carred st faster forward the porton of t carred wth
the nda-rubber rng w be tsef annuar and reat ey to the
rng the moton of the fud w be bac wards through the centre.
In a cases the fgure of the porton of fud carred forward and
the nes of moton w be symmetrca both reat ey to the
a s and reat ey to the two sdes of the e uatora pane. Any
one of the states of moton thus descrbed mght of course be
produced ether n the order descrbed or by frst g ng a eocty
to the rng and then settng the fud n moton by ad of an
nstantaneous fm or by appyng the two ntat e actons
smutaneousy. The whoe amount of the mpuse re ured or
as we may ca t the effect e momentum of the moton or
smpy the momentum of the moton s the sum of the ntegra
aues of the mpuses on the rng and on the fm re ured to
produce one or other of the two components of the whoe moton.
Now t s ob ous that as the dameter of the rng s ery sma
n comparson wth the dameter of the crcuar a s the mpuse
on the rng must be ery sma n comparson wth the mpuse
on the fm uness the eocty g en to the rng s much greater
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N RTE AT MS
9
than that g en to the centra parts of the fm. Hence uness
the eocty g en to the rng s so ery great as to reduce the
oume of the fud carred forward wth t to somethng not ncomparaby greater than the oume of the sod rng tsef the
momenta of the se era confguratons of motons we ha e been
consderng w e ceed by but nsensbe uanttes the momentum
when the rng s f ed. The aue of ths momentum s easy
found by a proper appcaton of Green s formua. Thus the
actua momentum of the porton of fud carred forward beng
the same as that of a sod of the same densty mo ng wth the
same eocty together wth an e u aent for the nerta of the
fud yedng to et t pass s appro matey the same n a these
cases and s e ua to a Green s ntegra e pressng the whoe
nta mpuse on the fm. The e uaty of the effect e momentum for dfferent eoctes of the rng s easy erfed wthout
anayss for eoctes not so great as to cause sensbe de atons
from spherca fgure n the porton of fud carred forward. Thus
n e ery case the ength of the a s of the porton of the fud
carred forward s determned by fndng the pont n the a s of
the rng at whch the eocty s e ua to the eocty of the rng.
At great dstances from the pane of the rng that eocty ares
as does the magnetc force of an nfntesma magnet on a pont
n ts a s n ersey as the cube of the dstance from the centre.
Hence the cube of the radus of the appro matey gobuar
porton carred forward s n smpe n erse proporton to the
eocty of the rng and therefore ts momentum s constant for
dfferent eoctes of the rng. To ths must be added as was
pro ed by Posson a uantty e ua to haf ts own amount as an
e u aent for the nerta of the e terna fud and the sum s
the whoe effect e momentum of the moton. Hence we see not
ony that the whoe effect e momentum s ndependent of the
eocty of the rng but that ts amount s the same as the
magnetc moment n the correspondng rng eectromagnet. The
same resut s of course obtaned by the Green s ntegra referred
to abo e.
The synthetca method ust e paned s not confned to the
case of a snge crcuar rng specay referred to but s e uay
appcabe to a number of rngs of any form detached from one
another or n ed through one another n any way or to a snge
ne notted to any degree and uaty of mutpe contnuty
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HYDR DYNAMICS
1
and oned contnuousy so as to ha e no end. In e ery possbe
such case the moton of the fud at e ery pont whether of the
orte core or of the fud fng a space round t s perfecty
determned by Hemhot s formuhe when the shape of the core
s g en. And the synthetc n estgaton now e paned pro es
that the effect e momentum of the whoe fud moton agrees n
magntude and drecton wth the magnetc moment of the correspondng eectromagnet. Hence st consderng for smpcty
ony an nfntey thn ne of core et ths ne be pro ected on
each of three panes at rght anges to one another. The areas
of the pane crcut thus obtaned to be rec oned accordng to
De Morgan s rue when autotomc as they w generay be are
the components of momentum perpendcuar to these three panes.
The erfcaton of ths resut w be a good e ercse on mutpe
contnuty. The author s not yet suffcenty ac uanted wth
Remann s remar abe researches on ths branch of anaytca
geometry to now whether or not a the nds of mutpe
contnuty now suggested are ncuded n hs cassfcaton and
nomencature.
That part of the synthetca n estgaton n whch a thn sod
wre rng s supposed to be mo ng n any drecton through a
fud wth the free orte moton pre ousy e cted n t re ures
the dameter of the wre at e ery pont to be nfntey sma n
comparson wth the radus of cur ature of ts a s and wth the
dstance of the nearest of any other part of the crcut from that
pont of the wre. ut when the effect e momeno fthe whoe
fud moton has been found for a orte wth nfntey thn core
we may suppose any number of such ortces howe er near one
another to be e cted smutaneousy and the whoe effect e
momentum n magntude and drecton w be the resutant of
the momenta of the dfferent component ortces each estmated
separatey. Hence we ha e the remar abe proposton that the
effect e momentum of any possbe moton n an nfnte ncompressbe fud agrees n drecton and magntude wth the magnetc
moment of the correspondng eectromagnet n Hemhot s theory.
The author hopes to g e the mathematca formuae e pressng
and pro ng ths statement n the more detaed paper whch he
e pects soon to be abe to ay before the Roya Socety.
The ueston eary occurs to any one ether obser ng the
phenomena of smo e-rngs or n estgatng the theory - hat
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N RTE AT MS
11
condtons determne the s e of the rng n any case Hemhot s n estgaton pro es that the anguar orte eocty of the
core ares drecty as ts ength or n ersey as ts sectona area.
Hence the strength of the eectrc current n the eectromagnet
correspondng to an nfntey thn orte core remans constant
howe er much ts ength may be atered n the course of the
transformatons whch t e perences by the moton of the fud.
Hence t s ob ous that the arger the dameter of the rng for
the same oume and strength of orte motons n an ordnary
Hemhot rng the greater s the whoe netc energy of the
fud and the greater s the momentum and we therefore see
that the dmensons of a Hemhot rng are determnate when
the oume and strength of the orte moton are g en and
besdes ether the netc energy or the momentum of the whoe
fud moton due to t. Hence f after any number of cosons
or nfuences a Hemhot rng escapes to a great dstance from
others and s then free or neary free from bratons ts dameter
w ha e been ncreased or dmnshed accordng as t has ta en
energy from or g en energy to the others. A fu theory of the
sweng of orte atoms by ee aton of temperature s to be
wor ed out from ths prncpe.
Professor Tat s pan of e hbtng smo e-rngs s as foows:A arge rectanguar bo open at one sde has a crcuar hoe of 6
or 8 nches dameter cut n the opposte sde. A common rough
pac ng-bo of 2 feet cube or thereabout w answer the purpose
ery we. The open sde of the bo s cosed by a stout towe or
pece of coth or by a sheet of nda-rubber stretched across t.
A bow on ths fe be sde causes a crcuar orte rng to shoot
out from the hoe on the other sde. The orte rngs thus
generated are sbe f the bo s fed wth smo e. ne of the
most con enent ways of dong ths s to use two retorts wth
ther nec s thrust nto hoes made for the purpose n one of the
sdes of the bo . A sma uantty of muratc acd s put nto
one of these retorts and of strong ud ammona nto the other.
y a sprt-amp apped from tme to tme to one or other of
these retorts a thc coud of sa-ammonac s ready mantaned
n the nsde of the bo . A curous and nterestng e perment
may be made wth two bo es thus arranged and paced ether
sde by sde cose to one another or facng one another so as to
pro ect smo e-rngs meetng from opposte drectons-or n
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12 HYDR DYNAMICS 1
arous reat e postons so as to g e smo e-rngs proceedng n
paths ncned to one another at any ange and passng one
another at arous dstances. An nterestng araton of the
e perment may be made by usng cear ar wthout smo e n one
of the bo es. The n sbe orte rngs pro ected from t render
ther e stence startngy sensbe when they come near any of
the smo e-rngs proceedng from the other bo .
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1
2. N RTE M TI N.
Transactons of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh o. . 1869
pp. 217-260. Read 29th Apr 1867.
1-59 recast and augmented 28th August to 12th No ember 1868.
1. THE mathematca wor of the present paper has been
performed to ustrate the hypothess that space s contnuousy
occuped by an ncompressbe frctoness ud acted on by no
force and that matera phenomena of e ery nd depend soey on
motons created n ths ud. ut I ta e n the frst pace as
sub ect of n estgaton a fnte mass of ncompressbe frctoness fud competey encosed n a rgd f ed boundary.
2. The contanng esse may be ether smpy or mutpy
contnuoust. And I sha fre uenty consder sods surrounded
by the ud whch aso may be ether smpy or mutpy contnuous. It w not be necessary to e cude the supposton that
any such sod may touch the outer boundary o er some fnte
area n whch case t s not surrounded by the ud but each
such sod whether surrounded by the ud or not and whether
mo eabe or f ed must be consdered as a part of the whoe
boundary of the ud.
. Let the whoe fud be g en at rest and et no force
e cept pressure from the contanng esse or from the surfaces of
sods mmersed n t e er act on any part of t. Let there be
any number of sods perfecty ncompressbe and of the same
densty as the fud but ether perfecty rgd or more or ess
A frctoness fud s defned as a mass contnuousy occupyng space whose
contguous portons press on one another e erywhere e acty n the drecton
perpendcuar to the surface separatng them.
t Hemhot - eber Integrae der hydrodynamschen Gechungen Iweche den
rbebewegungen entsprechen Cree 1858 transated by Tat n Ph. Mag.
1867 . Remann-Lehrsdt e aus der Anayss stus amp c. Cree 1857 . See aso
58 beow.
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14
HYDR DYNAMICS
2
fe be wth perfect or mperfect eastcty. Some of these may
at tmes be supposed to ose rgdty and become perfecty ud
and portons of the ud may be supposed to ac ure rgdty
and thus to consttute sods. Let the sods act on one another
wth any forces pressures frctons or mutua dstant actons
sub ect ony to the aw of acton and reacton. Let motons
orgnate among them and n the ud ether by the natura
mutua actons of the sods or by the arbtrary appcaton of
forces to them durng some mted tme. It s of no conse uence
to us whether these forces ha e reactons on matter outsde the
contanng esse so that they mght be caed natura forces n
the present state of scence whch admts acton and reacton at a
dstance or are apped arbtrary by supernatura acton wthout
reacton. To a od crcumocuton and at the same tme to conform to a common usage we sha ca them mpressed forces.
4. rom the homogeneousness as to densty of the contents of
the f ed boundng esse t foows that the centre of nerta of
the whoe system of ud and sods mmersed n t remans at
rest n other words the ntegra momentum of the moton s
ero. Hence Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy 297 the
tme ntegra of the sum of the components of pressure on the
contanng esse parae to any f ed ne s e ua to the tmentegra of the sum of the components of mpressed forces parae
to the same ne. Ths e uaty e sts of course at each nstant
durng the acton of the mpressed forces and contnues to e st
for the constant aues of ther tme ntegras after they ha e
ceased. Thus n the subse uent moton of the sods and of the
fuds compeed to yed to them whate er pressure may come to
act on the contanng esse whether from the fud or from some
of the sods comng n contact wth t the components of ths
pressure parae to any f ed ne summed for e ery eement of
the nner surface of the esse must ansh for e ery nter a of
tme durng whch no mpressed forces act. If for e ampe one
of the sods str es the contanng esse there w be an mpus e pressure of the fud o er a the rest of the f ed contanng
surface ha ng the sum of ts components parae to any ne
e ua and contrary to the correspondng component of the
I sha use the word contrary to desgnate merey drectona opposton and
reser e the un uafed word opposte to sgnfy contrary and n one ne.
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N RTE M TI N
15
mpus e pressure of the sod on the part of ths surface whch
t str es see 8 and consder ob ue mpuse of an nner mo ng
sod on the f ed sod spherca boundary . ut after the mpressed forces cease to act and as ong as the contanng esse s
not touched by any of the sods the ntegra amount of the component of fud pressure on t parae to any ne anshes.
5. If now forces be apped to stop the whoe moton of fud
and sods as 62 s done f the sods are brought to rest by
forces apped to themse es ony the tme ntegras of the sums
of the components of these forces parae to any stated nes may
or may not n genera be e ua and contrary to the tme ntegras
of the correspondng sums of components of the ntatng mpressed forces . ut we sha see 19 21 that f the
contanng esse be nfntey arge and a of the mo ng sods be
nfntey dstant from t durng the whoe moton there must be
not merey the e uaty n ueston between the tme ntegras
of the components n contrary drectons of the ntatng and
stoppng mpressed forces but there must be 21 competey
e ubratng opposton between the two systems.
6. To a od crcumocuton henceforth I sha use the un uafed term mpuse to sgnfy a system of mpus e forces to
be deat wth as f actng on a rgd body. Thus the most genera
mpuse may be reduced to an mpus e force and coupe n pane
perpendcuar to t accordng to Ponsot or to two mpus e
forces n nes not meetng accordng to hs predecessors. urther
I sha desgnate by the mpuse of the moton at any nstant n
our present sub ect the system of mpus e forces on the mo eabe
sods whch woud generate t from rest or any other system
whch woud be e u aent to that one f the sods were a rgd
and rgdy connected wth one another as for nstance the
Ponsot resutant mpus e force and mnmum coupe. The ne
of ths resutant mpus e force w be caed the resutant a s
of the moton and the moment of the mnmum coupe whose
pane s perpendcuar to ths ne w be caed the rotatona
moment of the moton.
7. ut ha ng thus defned the terms I ntend to use I
must to warn aganst errors that mght be faen nto remar
that the momentum of the whoe motons of sods and ud s
not e ua to what I ha e defned as the mpuse but 4 s e ua
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HYDR DYNAMICS
2
to ero beng the force-resutant of the mpuse and the
mpus e pressure e erted on the ud by the contanng esse
durng the generaton of the moton: and that the moment of
momentum of the whoe moton round the centre of nerta of the
contents of the esse s not e ua to the rotatona moment as I
ha e defned t but s e ua to the moment of the coupe consttuted by the mpuse and the mpus e pressure of the
contanng esse on the ud. It must be borne n mnd that
howe er arge and howe er dstant a round from the mo eabe
sods the contanng esse may be t e ercses a fnte nfuence
on the momentum and moment of momentum of the whoe moton
wthn t. ut f t s nfntey arge and nfntey dstant a
round from the sods t does so by nfntey sow moton through
an nfntey arge mass of fud and e ercses no fnte nfuence
on the fnte moton of the sods or of the neghbourng fud.
Ths w be ready understood f for an nstant we suppose the
rgd contanng esse to be not f ed but ute free to mo e as
a rgd body wthout mass. The momentum of the whoe moton
w then be not ero but e acty e ua to the force-resutant of
the mpuse on the sods and the moment of momentum of the
whoe moton round the centre of nerta w be precsey e ua
to the resutant mpus e coupe found by transposng the consttuent mpus e forces to ths pont after the manner of Ponsot.
ut the fnte moton of the mmersed sods and of the fud n
ther neghbourhood whch we sha ca the fed of moton w
not be atered by any fnte dfference whether the contanng
esse be hed f ed or eft free pro ded t be nfntey dstant
from them a round. It s therefore essentay ndfferent
whether we eep t f ed or et t be free. The former supposton s more con enent n some respects the atter n others but
t woud be ncon enent to ea e any ambguty and I sha
adhere 1 to the former n a that foows.
8. To further ustrate the mpuse of the moton and ts
resutant mpus e force and coupe accordng to the pre ous
defntons as dstngushed from the momentum and the moment
of momentum of the whoe contents of the esse et the esse
be spherca. Its mpus e pressure on the ud w aways be
reducbe to a snge resutant n a ne through ts centre whch
4 w be e ua and contrary to the force-resutant of the
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N RTE M TI N
17
mpuse and therefore wth t w consttute n genera a
coupe. The resutant of ths coupe and the coupe-resutant of
the mpuse w be e ua to the moment of momentum of the
whoe moton round the centre of the sphere whch s the centre
of nerta . ut f the esse be nfntey arge and nfntey
dstant a round from the mo eabe sods the moment of
momentum of the whoe moton s rree ant and what s
essentay mportant s the mpuse and ts force and couperesutants as defned abo e.
9. The foowng way of statng 10 12 and pro ng
11 15 a fundamenta proposton n fud moton w be
usefu to us for the theory of the mpuse whether of the mo eabe
sods we ha e htherto consdered or of ortces.
10. The moment of momentum of e ery spherca porton of
a ud mass n moton reat ey to the centre of the sphere s
aways ero f t s so at any one nstant for e ery spherca porton
of the same mass.
11. To pro e ths t s frst to be remar ed that the moment
of momentum of that part of the ud whch at any nstant
occupes a certan f ed spherca space can e perence no change
at that nstant or ts rate of change anshes at that nstant
because the fud pressure on t 1 beng perpendcuar to ts
surface s e erywhere precsey towards ts centre. Hence f the
moment of momentum of the matter n the f ed spherca space
ares t must be by the moment of momentum of the matter
whch enters t not baancng e acty that of the matter whch
ea es t. e sha see ater 20 17 18 that ths baancng s
tated by the entry of ether a mo ng sod or of some of the
ud f any there s of whch spherca portons possess moment
of momentum nto the f ed spherca space but t s perfect
under the condton of 10 as w be pro ed n 15.
12. rst I sha pro e the foowng purey mathematca
emmas usng the ordnary notaton u w for the components of
fud eocty at any pont y .
Lemma 1 . The condton ast cause of 10 re ures that
ud dy wd be a compete dfferenta at whate er nstant
and through whate er part of the fud the condton hods.
Ths proposton was I bee e frst pro ed by Sto es n hs paper n the
rcton of uds n Moton and the E ubrum and Moton of Eastc Sods
Cambrdge Phosophca Transactons 14th Apr 1845.
. I .
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HYDR DYNAMICS
2
Lemma 2 . If ud dy wd be a compete dfferenta
of a snge aued functon of y through any fnte space of
the fud at any nstant the condton of 10 hods through that
space at that nstant.
1 . The foowng s Sto es proof of Lemma 1 :- rst for
any moton whate er whether sub ect to the condton of 10 or
not et L be the component moment of momentum round of
an nfntesma sphere wth ts centre at 0. Denotng by fff
ntegraton through ths space we ha e
L fff wy - d dyd ................. 1 .
Now et dw/d o dw/dy o amp c. denote the aues at 0 of the
dfferenta coeffcents. e ha e by Macaurn s theorem
/dw /dwo /dw
d L0 dy d
and so for . Hence rememberng that dw/d o amp c. are constants for the space through whch the ntegraton s performed
we ha e
ff d dyd wy
/dw . 7 dw ff. y dw
- f yd dyd -dy y2d dyd - ff yd dyd
0 / dy 0 d 0
The frst and thrd of the trpe ntegras ansh because e ery
dameter of a homogeneous sphere s a prncpa a s and f A
denote moment of momentum of the spherca oume round ts
centre we ha e for the second
fff y2 d dyd 1A.
Deang smary wth n the e presson for L we fnd
L A dw d .................. 2 .
2 dy d
ut L must be ero accordng to the condton of 10 and
therefore as the centre of the nfntesma sphere now consdered
may be ta en at any pont of space through whch ths condton
hods at any nstant we must ha e throughout that space
dw d
dy d
du dw
and smary d- d ....
d du _
d dy
whch pro es Lemma 1 .
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N RTE M TI N
19
14. To pro e Lemma 2 et
do do do
d dy w d 4
and et L denote the component moment of momentum round
through any spherca space wth 0 n centre. e ha e 1
of 1
L ffd dyd wy - ................. 5
fff denotng ntegraton through ths space not now nfntesma .
ut by 4
d d d
y- y dy - d.p. 6
yw - d Y d- d ............... 6
f d/de denote dfferentaton wth reference to - n the system
of co-ordnates p Ir such that
y pcos psn................... 7 .
Hence transformng 5 to ths system of co-ordnates we ha e
L fffd dppd d..................... 8 .
Now as the whoe space s spherca wth the orgn of coordnates n ts centre we may d de t nto nfntesma crcuar
rngs wth for a s ha ng each for norma secton an
nfntesma rectange wth d and dp for sdes. Integratng
frst through one of these rngs we ha e
d dpp da d
whch anshes because s a snge- aued functon of the coordnates. Hence L 0 whch pro es Lemma 2 .
15. Returnng now to the dynamca proposton stated at
the concuson of 11 for the promsed proof et R denote the
rada component eocty of the fud across any eement do of
the spherca surface stuated at y and et u w be the
three components of the resutant eocty at ths pont so that
R u- - w -..................... 9 .
r r r
The oume of fud ea ng the hoow spherca space across
dao n an nfntesma tme dt s Rd. dt and the moment of
2-2
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momentum of ths mo ng mass round the centre has for component
round
wy - Rdodt.
Hence f L denote the component of the moment of momentum
of the whoe mass wthn the spherca surface at any nstant t
we ha e 11
dL wy - R do.................. 0 .
Now usng Lemma 1 of 12 and the notaton of 14 we ha e
wy - do
and by 9
dr
where d/dr denotes rate of araton per unt ength perpendcuar
to the spherca surface that s dfferentaton wth reference to r
the other two co-ordnates beng drectona reat ey to the
centre. Hence usng ordnary poar co-ordnates r 0 we ha e
dL 2 fdc do.
dt r2d df sn d d............... 11 .
ut the e uaton of contnuty for an ncompressbe ud
beng
du d dw
d o0
d dy d
g es 2 0 for e ery pont wthn the spherca space and
therefore Thomson and Tat App.
-Sr S2r2 amp c................... 12
a con ergng seres where So denotes a constant and S1 S2 amp c.
surface harmoncs of the orders ndcated.
Hence R d S 2rS - r2 amp c............. 1 .
And t s cear from the synthess of the most genera surface
harmonc by ona sect a and tessera harmoncs Thomson
and Tat 781 that dS/dr s a surface harmonc of the same
y 2 we sha aways understand d2/d 2 d2/dy2 d2/d 2.
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N RTE M TI N
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order as S : from whch Thomson and Tat App. 16 t
foows that
ffS d sn d df 0
e cept when . ut ths s true aso when because
dS - d S2
Sd 2 d
and therefore as n 14 the ntegraton for r from 0 to
27 g es ero. Hence 11 g es
dL
dL 0.
dt
Ths and 11 estabsh 10.
16. Lemma 1 of 11 and 10 now pro ed show that n
any moton whate er of an ncompressbe ud whether wth
sods mmersed n t or not ud dy wd s aways a compete
dfferenta through any porton of the fud for whch t s a
compete dfferenta at any nstant to whate er shape and poston of space ths porton may be brought n the course of the
moton. Ths s the ordnary statement of the fundamenta
proposton of fud moton referred to n 9 whch was frst
dsco ered by Lagrange. or another proof see 60. I ha e
g en the precedng demonstraton not so much because t s
usefu to oo at mathematca structures from many dfferent
ponts of ew but 19 because the dynamca consderatons
and the formuae I ha e used are mmedatey a aabe for
estabshng the theory of the mpuse -8 of whch a
Ths foows of course from the nown anaytca theorem that the operatons
2 and y d/d - d/dy are commutat e whch s pro ed thus: y dfferentaton we ha e
2 d Y d2 d 92 d do
dy2 dy2 dy d
and therefore snce ddy dfd d/d d /dy
2 y d y 2 _ d d y - d 2o
d dy d dy d dy
or 2 y - - 2rp
d dy Y d dy
c beng any functon whate er. Hence f 20 we ha e
2 y d 0.
d dy
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fundamenta proposton was stated abo e 5 . To pro e ths
proposton n 19 I now proceed.
17. Imagne any spherca surfaces to be descrbed round a
mo eabe sod or sods mmersed n a ud. The surroundng
fud can ony press 1 perpendcuary and therefore when any
moton s generated by mpus e forces apped to the sods
the moment round any dameter of the momentum of the matter
wthn the spherca surface at the frst nstant must be e acty
e ua to the moment of those mpus e forces round ths ne.
And the moment round ths ne of the momentum of the matter
n the space between any two concentrc spherca surfaces s ero
pro ded nether cuts any sod and pro ded that f there are
any sods n ths space no mpuse acts on them.
18. Hence consderng what we ha e defned as the mpuse
of the moton 6 we see that ts moment round any ne s
e ua to the moment of momentum round the same ne of a the
moton wthn any spherca surface ha ng ts centre n ths ne
and encosng a the matter to whch any consttuent of the
mpuse s apped. Ths w st hod though there are other
sods not n the neghbourhood and mpuses are apped to
them: pro ded the moments of momentum of those ony whch
are wthn S are ta en nto account and pro ded none of them s
cut by S.
19. The statements of 11 regardng fud occupyng at any
nstant a f ed spherca surface are appcabe wthout change to
the fuds and sods occupyng the space bounded by S because of
our present condton that no sod s cut by S. Hence e ery
statement and formua of 15 as far as e uaton 11 may be now
apped to the matter wthn S but nstead of 12 we now ha e
Thomson and Tat 7 6 f we denote by T1 T2 amp c. another
set of surface spherca harmoncs
So Sr Sr2 amp c.
Tr-2 T2r- amp c. .......
for a space between the greatest and smaest spherca surface
concentrc wth S and ha ng no sods n t because through a
There s no term To/r because ths woud g e n the ntegra of fow across
the whoe spherca surface a fnte amount of fow out of or nto the space
wthn mpyng a generaton or destructon of matter.
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N RTE M TI N
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ths space 16 and the e uaton of contnuty pro e that
20 0. Hence nstead of 1 we now ha e
dr 4 15 .
- - - T amp c.
Hence fnay
dL dT 1 T d sn... 16 .
dt o L d d r
Now f as assumed n 5 nether any mo eabe sods nor any
part of the boundary e st wthn any fnte dstance of S a
round S1 S2 amp c. must each be nfntey sma: and therefore
16 g es dL/dt 0. Ths pro es the proposton asserted n 5:
because a system of forces cannot ha e ero moment round e ery
ne drawn through any fnte porton of space wthout ha ng
force-resutant and coupe-resutant each e ua to ero.
20. As the rgdty of the sods has not been ta en nto
account a or any of them may be uefed wthout oatng
the demonstraton of 19. To sa e crcumocutons I now defne
a orte as a porton of fud ha ng any moton that t coud not
ac ure by fud pressure transmtted through tsef from ts
boundary. ften merey for bre ty I sha use the e presson
a body to denote ether a sod or a orte or a group of sods or
ortces.
21. The proposton thus pro ed may be now stated n terms
of the defntons of 6 whch were not used n 5 and so becomes smpy ths:-The mpuse of the moton of a sod or group
of sods or ortces and the surroundng ud remans constant as
ong as no dsturbance s suffered from the nfuence of other sods
or ortces or of the contanng esse.
Ths mpes of course 6 that the magntudes of the
force-resutant and the rotatona moment of the mpuse reman
constant and the poston of ts a s n arabe.
22. In Ponsot s system of the statcs of a rgd body we may
pass from the resutant force and coupe aong and round the
centra a s to an e ua resutant force aong the parae ne
through any pont and a greater coupe the resutant of the
former or mnmum coupe and a coupe n the pane of the two
paraes ha ng ts moment e ua to the product of ther dstance
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HYDR DYNAMICS
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nto the resutant force. So we may pass from the force-resutant
and rotatona moment of the mpuse aong and round ts a s
to an e ua force-resutant and greater moment of mpuse by
transferrng the former to any pont not n the a s 6 of the
moton. Ths greater moment s 18 e ua to the moment of
momentum round the pont of the moton wthn any spherca
surface descrbed from as centre whch encoses a the ortces
or mo ng sods.
2 . Hence a group of sods or ortces whch aways eep
wthn a spherca surface of fnte radus or a snge body mo ng
n an nfnte ud can ha e no permanent a erage moton of
transaton n any drecton ob ue to the drecton of the forceresutant of the mpuse f there s a fnte force-resutant. or
the matter wthn a fnte spherca surface encosng the mo ng
bodes or body cannot ha e moment of momentum round the
centre ncreasng to nfnty.
24. ut there may be moton of transaton when the forceresutant of the mpuse anshes and there w be for e ampe
n the case of a sod shaped e the screw-propeer of a steamer
mmersed n an nfnte homogeneous ud and set n moton by
a coupe n a pane perpendcuar to the a s of the screw.
25. And when the force-resutant of the mpuse does not
ansh there may be no moton of transaton or there may e en
be transaton n the drecton opposte to t. Thus for e ampe
a rgd rng wth cycc moton estabshed 6 through t w
f eft at rest reman at rest. And f at any tme urged by an
mpuse n ether drecton n the ne of the force-resutant of the
mpuse of the cycc moton t w commence and contnue
mo ng wth an a erage moton of transaton n that drecton a
moton whch w be unform and the same as f there were no
cycc moton when the rng s symmetrca. If the transatory
mpuse s contrary to the cycc mpuse but ess n magntude
the transaton w be contrary to the whoe force-resutant
mpuse.
If the transatory mpuse s e ua and opposte to the cycc
mpuse there w be transaton wth ero force-resutant mpuse-another e ampe of what s asserted n 24. In ths case
f the rng s pane and symmetrca or of any other shape such
that the cycc moton whch to f deas we ha e supposed g en
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N RTE M TI N
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frst wth the rng at rest must ha e had ony a force-resutant
and no rotatona moment we ha e a sod mo ng wth a unform
moton of transaton through a fud and both force and coupe
resutant of the whoe mpuse ero.
26. rom 21 and 4 we see that howe er ong the tme of
appcaton of the mpressed forces may be-pro ded ony that
durng the whoe of t the sod or group of sods has been at an
nfnte dstance from a other sods and from the contanng
esse-the tme ntegras of the mpressed forces parae to three
f ed a es and of ther moments round these nes are e ua to
the s correspondng components of the mpuse 6 .
27. If two groups at frst so far asunder as to e ercse no
sensbe nfuence on one another come together the mpuse
of the whoe system remans unchanged by any dsturbance each
may e perence from the other whether by mpacts of the sods
or through moton and pressure of the surroundng fud and
6 t s aways reducbe to the force-resutant aong the centra
a s and the mnmum coupe-resutant of the two mpuses
rec oned as f apped to one rgd body. The same hods of
course f one group separates nto two so dstant as to no onger
e ert any sensbe nfuence on one another.
28. Hence whate er s ost of mpuse perpendcuar to a
f ed pane or of component rotatona mo ement round a f ed
ne by one group through coson wth another s ganed by the
other.
29. Two of the mo eabe sods or two groups w be sad to
be n coson when ha ng been so far asunder as not to dsturb
one another s motons sensby they are so near as to do so. Ths
dsturbance w generay be supposed to be through fud pressure
ony but mpacts of sods on sods may ta e pace durng a
coson.
0. e are now prepared to n estgate 0 1 2 the
nfuence of a f ed sod on the mpuse of a mo eabe sod or of
a orte or of a group of sods or ortces passng near t thusIf durng such cosons or separatons as are consdered n 27
28 forces are mpressed on any one or more of the sods ther
ateraton of the whoe mpuse s 26 to be rec oned by addng
to each of ts rectanguar components the tme ntegra of the
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correspondng component of these mpressed forces. Now et us
suppose such forces to be mpressed on any one of the mo eabe
sods as sha eep t at rest. These forces are ero as ong as no
mo ng sod s wthn a fnte dstance. ut f a mo ng sod
or orte or group of sods or ortces passes near the f ed sod
the change of pressure due to the moton of the fud w tend
to mo e t and the mpresson of force on t becomes necessary
to eep t f ed. Let do- be an eement of ts surface y
the co-ordnates of the centre of ths eement a / y the ncnatons of the norma at y to the three rectanguar a es and
p the fud pressure at tme t and pont y . The s
components of force and coupe re ured to hod the body f ed at
tme t are
ffdo. cos a.p ffd-. cos /.p ffdo. cos y.p
ffdo- ycosy- cos 8 p ffda cosa- cosy p ffda cos/ -ycos p......... 1 .
If n these e pressons we substtute
fpdt.............................. 2
n pace of p dt denotng a tme ntegra from any era of rec onng
before the dsturbance became sensbe up to tme t whch may
be any nstant durng the coson or after t s fnshed we ha e
the changes n the correspondng components of the mpuse up
to tme t pro ded there has been no mpact of mo eabe sod on
the f ed sod.
1. Let now the eocty potenta as we sha ca t n
conformty wth a German usage whch has been adopted by
Hemhot be denoted by that s 16 et o be such a
functon of y t that
dob dof do
ud d d.............
and et or dp/dt denote ts rate of araton per unt of tme
at any nstant t for the pont y regarded as f ed.
Aso et denote the resutant fud eocty so that
2 2 2 w2 d2 d.2. 4
d 2 dy2 d 2.......
The ordnary hydrodynamca formua g es
p _ 2...................... 5
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N RTE M TI N
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where II denotes the constant pressure n a sensby uescent
parts of the fud.
2. The constant term II dsappears from p n each of the
ntegras 1 of 0 because a sod s e ubrated by e ua
pressure around. And n the tme ntegra 2 we ha e
fS dt s.......................... 6
and therefore f Y LMN denote the changes n the forceand coupe-components of the mpuse produced by the coson
up to tme t we ha e
-ffd- cos a I f 2dt Y amp c. amp c.
L -ffd y cos - os / f 2dt M amp c. N amp c ......... 7 .
ut because the fud s uescent n the neghbourhood of the
f ed body when the mo ng body or group of bodes s nfntey
dstant from t t foows that before the commencement and
after the end of the coson we ha e f 0 at e ery pont of the
surface of the f ed body. Hence for e ery aue of t representng
a tme after the competon of the coson the precedng e pressons become
- ffdo-cos a 2dt Y amp c. amp c.
L - - ffda ycos -cos f dt M amp c. N amp c.
whch e press that the ntegra change of mpuse e perenced by a
body or group of bodes n passng besde a f ed body wthout
str ng t may be regarded as a system of mpus e attractons
towards the atter e erywhere n the drecton of the norma and
amountng to If 2dt per unt of area. ut t must not be forgotten that the term b n the e presson 1 5 for p produces
as shown n 0 1 an nfuence durng the coson the ntegra
effect of whch ony dsappears from the e presson 2 7 for
the mpuse after the coson s competed that s 29 after the
mo ng system has passed away so far as to ea e no sensbe fud
moton n the neghbourhood of the f ed body.
. Hence and from 2 we see that when there s no
mpact of mo ng sod aganst the f ed body and when the
mo ng sod or group of sods passes atogether on one sde of
the f ed body the drecton of the transaton w be defected as
f there were on the whoe an attracton towards the f ed body
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HYDR DYNAMICS
2
or a repuson from t accordng as 25 the transaton s n
the drecton of the mpuse or opposte to t. or n each
case the mpuse s atered by the ntroducton of an mpuse
towards the f ed body upon the mo ng body or bodes as they
pass t and 2 the transaton before and after the coson s
aways aong the ne of the mpuse and s atered n drecton
accordngy. Ths w be easy understood from the dagrams
where n each case represents the f ed body the dotted ne
ITT I and arrow-heads II the drectons of the force-resutant
of the mpuse at success e tmes and the fu arrow-heads TT
the drectons of the transaton.
I I
AT fr A IS
T YT
- I...
g. 1. g. 2.
A ordnary cases beong to the cass ustrated by fg. 1.
The case of a rgd rng wth cycc moton 25 estabshed
round t as core beongs to the cass ustrated by fg. 2 f the
rng be pro ected through the fud n the drecton perpendcuar
to ts own pane and contrary to the cycc moton through ts
centre.
4. hen 66 we substtute ortces for the mo ng sods
we sha see 67 that the transaton s probaby aways n the
drecton wth the mpuse. Hence as ustrated by fg. 1 there s
aways the defecton as f by attracton when a group of ortces
pass a on one sde of a f ed body. Ths s easy obser ed for a
smpe Hemhot rng by sendng smo e-rngs on a arge scae
accordng to Professor Tat s pan n such drectons as to pass
ery near a con e f ed surface. An ordnary 12-nch gobe
ta en off ts bearngs and hung by a thn cord answers ery we
for the f ed body.
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N RTE M TI N
29
5. The n estgaton of 0 1 2 s ceary appcabe to
a orte or a mo ng body or to a group of ortces or mo ng
bodes whch eep aways near one another 2 passng near a
pro ectng part of the f ed boundary and beng before and after
ths coson 29 at a ery great dstance from e ery part of the
f ed boundary. Thus a Hemhot rng pro ected so as to pass
near a pro ectng ange of two was shows a defecton of ts
course as f caused by attracton towards the corner.
6. In e ery case the force-resutant of the mpuse s as we
sha presenty see 7 determnate when the fow of the ud
across e ery eement of any surface competey encosng the sods
or ortces s g en but not so from such data ether the a s
6 or the rotatona moment as we see at once by consderng
the case of a sod sphere whch may afterwards be supposed
uefed set n moton by a force n any ne not through the
centre and a coupe n a pane perpendcuar to t. or ths ne
w be the a s and the mpus e coupe w be the rotatona
moment of the whoe moton of the sod and ud. ut the
ud on a sdes w mo e e acty as t woud f the mpuse
were merey an mpus e force of e ua amount n a parae ne
through the centre of the sphere wth therefore ths second ne
for a s and ero for rotatona moment. or ustraton of
rotatona moment remanng atent n a ud wth or wthout
sods unt made manfest by actons tendng to ater ts a s or
showng effects of centrfuga force due to t see 66 and others
ater.
7. The component mpuse n any drecton s e ua to the
correspondng component momentum of the mass encosed wthn
the surface S contanng a the paces of appcaton of the
mpuse together wth that of the mpus e pressure outwards on
ths surface. ut as the matter encosed by S whether a ud
or party ud and party sod s of unform densty ts
momentum w be e ua to ts mass mutped nto the eocty
of the centre of gra ty of the space wthn the surface S supposed
to ary so as to encose aways the same matter and w therefore
depend soey on the norma moton of S that s to say on the
component of the fud eocty n the drecton of the norma at
e ery pont of S. And the mpus e fud pressure correspondng
to the generaton of the actua moton from rest beng the tme
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HYDR DYNAMICS
2
ntegra of the pressure durng the nstantaneous generaton of the
moton s 1 2 e ua to - b the eocty potenta whch
61 s determnate for e ery pont of S and of the e teror space
when the norma component of the fud moton s g en for e ery
pont of S. Hence the proposton asserted n 6. Denotng by
do any eement of S N the norma component of the fud
eocty a the ncnaton to of the norma drawn outwards
through do and the -component of the mpuse we ha e for
the two parts of ths uantty consdered abo e and ts whoe
aue the foowng e pressons of whch the frst s ta en n
antcpaton from 42 - -momentum of matter wthn S ffN do- 8 of 42
-component of mpus e pressure.. 1
on S outwards - ff cos a do
ff N A- cos a d............................................. 2 .
It s worthy of remar that ths e presson hods for the mpuse
of a the sods or ortces wthn S e en f there be others n the
mmedate neghbourhood outsde: and that therefore ts aue
must be ero f there be no sods or ortces wthn S and N and
are due soey to those outsde.
8. If b be the potenta of a magnet or group of magnets
some wthn S and others outsde t and N the norma component
magnetc force at any pont of S the precedng e presson 2 s
e ua to the -component of the magnetc moment of a the
magnets wthn S mutped by 47r. or et p be the densty of
any contnuous dstrbuton of post e and negat e matter ha ng
for potenta and norma component force 0 and N respect ey
at e ery pont of S. e ha e Thomson and Tat 491 c
p 1/47r 2 and therefore
-d d y
fff dd - dd 1 _ _
yd d d d d ... .
Now ntegratng by parts as usua wth such e pressons we
ha e
The process here descrbed eads merey to the e uaton obtaned by ta ng
the ast two e ua members of App. A 1 Thomson and Tat for the case a 1
.
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A A A I
8 N RTE M TI N I
d cydf- __ _ fff dff
d2 d dyd - d d yd
do - dy d .
Hence ntegratng each of the other two terms of once smpy
and reducng as usua Thomson and Tat App. A a to a surface
ntegra we ha e
p d dyd -4 N - cosa do......... 4
whch pro es the proposton and aso of course that f there be
no matter wthn S the aue of the second member s ero.
9. Hence consderng the magnetc and hydro netc
anaogous systems wth the soe condton that at e ery pont of
some partcuar cosed surface the magnetc potenta s e ua to
the eocty potenta we concude that 47r tmes the magnetc
moment of a the magnetsm wthn any surface n the magnetc
system s e ua to the force-resutant of the mpuse of the sods
or ortces wthn the correspondng surface n the hydro netc
system and that the drectons of the magnetc a s and of the
force-resutant of the mpuse are the same. or the theory of
magnetsm t s nterestng to remar that ndetermnate dstrbutons of magnetsm wthn the sods or portons of fud to whch
ntatng forces were apped or determnate dstrbutons
n nfntey thn ayers at ther surfaces may be found whch
through a the space e terna to them sha produce the same
potenta as the eocty-potenta and therefore the same dstrbuton of force as the dstrbuton of eocty through the whoe
fud. ut nasmuch as when the magnetc force n the nteror
of a magnet s defned n the manner e paned n 48 2 of my
Mathematca Theory of Magnetsm t s e pressbe through a
space by the dfferenta coeffcents of a potenta and on the
contrary for the netc system ud dy wd s not a compete
dfferenta generay through the spaces occuped by the sods
the agreement between resutant force and resutant fow hods
ony through the space e teror to the magnets and sods n the
magnetc and netc systems respect ey. ut f the other
defnton of resutant force wthn a magnet Math. Theory of
Trans. R. S. Lond. 1851 or Thomson s Eectrca Papers Macman 1869.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
2
Magnetsm 77 foot-note and 78 pubshed n preparaton
for a s th chapter n Eectro-magnets. st n my hands n
manuscrpt not ute competed and whch aone can be adopted
for spaces occuped by non-magnetc matter tra ersed by eectrc
currents the magnetc force has not a potenta wthn such
spaces and we sha see 68 that determnate dstrbutons of
cosed eectrc currents through spaces correspondng to the sods
of the hydro netc system can be found whch sha g e for e ery
pont of space whether tra ersed by eectrc currents or not a
resutant magnetc force agreeng n magntude and drecton
wth the eocty whether of sod or fud at the correspondng
pont of the hydro netc system. Ths thorough agreement for
a space renders the eectro-magnetc anaogue preferabe to the
magnetc and ha ng begun wth the magnetc anaogous system
ony because of ts con enence for the demonstraton of 8 we
sha henceforth chefy use the purey eoctro-magnetc anaogue.
40. To pro e the formua used n antcpaton n 7 1 we
must now 41 42 4 fnd the momentum of the whoe matter
-fud fud and sod or e en sod aone-at any nstant wthn
a cosed surface S n terms of the norma component eocty of
the matter at any pont of ths surface or whch s the same the
norma eocty of ths surface tsef f we suppose t to ary so as
to encose aways the same matter.
41. Let be the oume of the space bounded by any
aryng cosed surface S. As yet we need not suppose constant.
Let I y be the co-ordnates of the centre of gra ty. e ha e
ff dyd ........................ 5
where ndcates that the e presson wthn t s to be ta en
between proper mts for S. Now as S ares wth the tme the
area through whch ffdyd s ta en w n genera ary but the
ncrements or decrements whch t e perences at dfferent parts
of the boundary of ths area n the nfntey sma tme dt contrbute no ncrements or decrements to ff 2dyd as we see most
easy by frst supposng S to be a surface e erywhere con e
outwards. Hence
dt 2dyd I 2 dt d ...... 6
dt L dt y dt6
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1868 N RTE M TI N
ut f N denote the eocty wth whch the surface mo es n the
drecton of ts outward norma at y we ha e n the precedng e presson
d
d sec a
dt
f a be the ncnaton of the outward norma to . Hence
d Ef
dt - N sec ady d .
ut the condtons as to mts ndcated by are ceary
satsfed f do denotng an eement of the surface such that
dyd cos ada
we smpy ta e ffda- o er the whoe surface. Thus we ha e
d Nd.................... 7 .
42. In any case n whch s constant ths becomes
t ffT do . 8 .
dt a d...................... 8 .
If now the aryng surface S s the boundary of a porton of the
matter-fud or sod-of unform densty unty wth whose
motons we are occuped the -component momentum of ths
porton s d /dt and therefore e uaton 8 s the re ured
40 e presson.
4 . The same formuae 7 and 8 are pro ed more shorty of
course by the reguar anaytca process g en by Posson and
Greent n deang wth such sub ects thus n short. Let u w
be the components of eocty of any matter compressbe or
ncompressbe at any pont y wthn S and et c denote
the aue at ths pont of du/d d /dy dw/d so that
du Ad dw
- c - 7.................... 9 .
d dy d
e ha e for the component momentum of the whoe matter
wthn S f of unt densty at the nstant consdered
f fud dyd ff dyd - - d d dyd ...... 10 .
Theore de a Chaeur 60.
t Essay on Eectrcty and Magnetsm.
. I .

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HYDR DYNAMICS
2
ut by 9
fff duf fff d
-7. d dyd cd dy d - - dd d dyd
d dy d
and by smpe ntegratons
f d d dyd dd wd dy .
sng these n 10 and aterng the e presson to a surface
ntegra as n Thomson and Tat App. A a we ha e
fffud dyd ff u dyd d d wd dy - fffc d dyd
ff Nda- fffc d dyd ........................ 11
whch ceary agrees wth 7 .
hen ths mass s ncompressbe we ha e c 0 by the formua
so named the e uaton of contnuty Thomson and Tat
191 and we fa upon 8 .
The proper anaytca nterpretaton of the dfferenta coeffcents du/d amp c. and of the e uaton of contnuty when as at
the surfaces of separaton of fud and sods u w are dscontnuous functons ha ng abrupty aryng aues presents no
dffcuty.
44. In the theory of the mpuse apped to the coson
29 of sods or ortces mo ng through a ud the forceresutant of the mpuse corresponds as we ha e seen precsey
to the resutant momentum of a sod n the ordnary theory of
mpact. Some dffcuty may be fet n understandng how the
ero-momentum 4 of the whoe mass s composed there beng
ceary post e momentum of sods and fuds n the drecton of
the mpuse n some ocates near the pace of ts appcaton
and negat e n others. Consder for e ampe the smpe case
of a sod of re outon struc by a snge mpuse n the ne of ts
a s. The fud mo es n the drecton of the mpuse before and
behnd the body but n the contrary drecton n the space round
ts mdde. Three modes of d dng the whoe mo ng mass
present themse es as ustrat e of the dstrbuton of momentum
through t and the foowng propostons 45 wth reference to
them are ready pro ed 46 47 48 .
45. I. Imagne any cynder of fnte perphery not necessary crcuar competey surroundng the ortces or mo ng
sods and any other surroundng none and consder the n
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1868
N RTE M TI N
5
fntey ong prsms of arousy mo ng matter at any nstant
surrounded by these two cynders. The component momentum
parae to the ength of the frst s e ua to the component of the
mpuse parae to the same drecton and that of the second s
ero.
II. Imagne any two fnte spherca surfaces one encosng
a the ortces or mo ng sods and the other none. The
resutant-momentum of the whoe matter encosed by the frst s
n the drecton of the mpuse and s e ua to 2 of ts aue.
The resutant-momentum of the whoe fud encosed by the
second s the same as f t a mo ed wth the same eocty and
n the same drecton as at ts centre.
III. Imagne any two nfnte panes at a fnte dstance from
one another and from the fed of moton but nether cuttng any
sod or orte . The component perpendcuar to them of the
momentum of the matter occupyng at any nstant the space
between them whether ths ncudes none some or a of the
ortces or mo ng sods s ero.
46. To pro e these propostons:Consder n ether case a fnte ength of the prsm e tendng to a ery great dstance n each drecton from the fed of
moton and termnated by pane or cur ed ends. Then the
moton beng as we may suppose 61 started from rest by
mpus e pressures on the sods or 66 on the portons of fud
consttutng the ortces the mpus e fud pressure on the
cyndrca surface can generate no momentum parae to the
ength and to generate momentum n ths drecton there w
be n case 1 the mpressed mpus e forces on the sods and the
mpus e fud pressures on the ends but n case 2 there w be
ony the mpus e fud pressure on the ends. Now the mpus e
fud pressures on the ends dmnsh 50 15 accordng to the
n erse s uare of the dstance from the fed of moton when the
prsm s proonged n each drecton and are therefore nfntey
sma when the prsms are nfntey ong each way. hence the
proposton I.
47. y usng the harmonc e pansons 19 14 15 n the
se era e pressons 7 1 2 and the fundamenta theorem
ffc d --- 0
-2
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HYDR DYNAMICS
2
of the harmonc anayss Thomson and Tat App. 16 and
puttng S 0 for one case and T 0 for the other we pro e the
two parts of Prop. II. 45 mmedatey.
48. To pro e Prop. III. 45 the we- nown theory of eectrc
mages n a pane conductor may be con enenty referred to.
It shows that f NY denotes the norma component force at any
pont of an nfnte pane due to any dstrbuton pa of matter n
the space yng on one sde of the pane a dstrbuton of matter
o er the pane ha ng N1/27r for surface densty at each pont
e erts the same force as p through a the space on the other sde
of the pane and therefore that the whoe uantty of matter n
that surface dstrbuton s e ua to the whoe uantty of matter
n 4t. Hence S do denotng ntegraton o er the nfnte pane
ffN d 0..................... 12
f the whoe uantty of matter n p be ero. Hence f N be the
norma force due to matter through space on both sdes of the
pane pro ded the whoe uantty of matter on each sde
separatey s ero
N d 0.......................... 1
snce N s the sum of two parts for each of whch separatey
12 hods. Ths transated nto hydro netcs shows that the
whoe fow of matter across any nfnte pane s ero at e ery
nstant when t cuts no sods or ortces. Hence and from the
unformty of densty whch we assume the centre of gra ty
of the matter between any two nfnte f ed parae panes has
no moton n the drecton perpendcuar to them at any tme
when no orte or mo ng sod s cut by ether: whch s Prop. III.
of 45 n other words.
Thomson Camb. and Dub. Math. ourna 1849 Lou e s ourna 1845
and 1847 or Reprnts of Eectrca Papers Macman 1869 .
t Ths s erfed synthetcay wth ease by drect ntegratons showng whether
by Cartesan or poar pane co-ordnates that
00/ _ adyd 2
- 0 a2 - y2 2
And ta ng d/da of ths we ha e
fE f: y2 -2a2 dyd _
- - a2 y2 2
the synthess of 12 .
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N RTE M TI N
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49. The ntegra fow of matter across any surface whate er
magned to d de the whoe oume of the fnte f ed contanng
esse of 1 nto two parts s necessary ero because of the
unformty of densty and therefore the momentum of a the
matter bounded by two parae panes e tendng to the nner
surface of the contanng esse and the porton of ths surface
ntercepted between them has aways ero for ts component
perpendcuar to these panes whether or not mo ng sods or
ortces are cut by ether or both these panes. ut t s remar abe that when any mo ng sod or orte s cut by a pane the
ntegra fow of matter across ths pane f the contanng esse
s nfntey dstant on a sdes from the fed of moton con erges to a generay fnte aue as the pane s e tended to ery
great dstances a round from the fed of moton whch are st
nfntey sma n comparson wth the dstances to the contanng
esse and dmnshes from that fnte aue to ero by another
con ergence when the dstances to whch the pane s e tended
a round begn to be comparabe wth and utmatey become
e ua to the dstances of the cur e n whch t cuts the contanng
esse. Hence we see how t s that the condton of nether
pane cuttng any mo ng sod or orte s necessary to aow 45
III. to be stated wthout reference to the contanng esse and
are remnded that the e uaty to ero asserted n ths proposton
s pro ed n 48 to be appro mated to when the panes are
e tended to dstances a round whch though nfntey short of
the dstances to the contanng esse are ery great n comparson
wth ther perpendcuar dstances from the most dstant parts of
the fed of moton.
50. The con ergences concerned n 45 I. III. may be
anaysed thus. Perpendcuar to the resutant mpuse draw any
two panes on the two sdes of the fed of moton wth a the
mo ng sods and ortces between them and d de a porton of
the space between them nto fnte prsmatc portons by cyndrca
or pane surfaces perpendcuar to them. Suppose now one of
these prsmatc portons to ncude a the mo ng sods and
ortces and wthout aterng the prsmatc boundary et the
parae panes be remo ed n opposte drectons to dstances each
nfnte or ery great n comparson wth the dstance of the most
dstant of the mo ng sods or ortces. y 45 I. the momen
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HYDR DYNAMICS
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tum of the moton wthn ths prsmatc space s appro matey
e ua to the force-resutant I of the mpuse and that of the
moton wthn any one of the others s appro matey ero.
ut the sum of these appro matey ero aues must on
account of 45 III. be e ua to -I f the portons of the panes
contanng the ends of the prsmatc spaces be e tended to
dstances ery great n comparson wth the dstance between the
panes. To understand ths we ha e ony to remar that f b
denotes the eocty potenta at a pont dstant D from the
mdde of the fed and from a pane through the mdde perpendcuar to the mpuse we ha e 5 appro matey
I
4wD
/ 47rD
pro ded D be great n comparson wth the radus of the smaest
sphere encosng a the mo ng sods or ortces. Hence puttng
a for the two panes under consderaton denotng by A the
area of ether end of one of the prsmatc portons and cang D
the proper mean dstance for ths area we ha e 45 for the
momentum of the fud moton wthn ths prsmatc space
pro ded t contans no mo ng sods or ortces
Ia
47r D
Ths anshes when A/D2 s an nfntey sma fracton as a/D s
at most unty but t s fnte f A/D2 s fnte pro ded a/D be
not nfntey sma. And ts ntegra aue compare 48 footnote con erges to - when the porton of area ncuded n the
ntegraton s e tended t a/D s nfntey sma for a ponts of
ts boundary.
51. oth as regards the mathematca theory of the con ergence of defnte ntegras and as ustratng the dstrbuton of
momentum n a fud t s nterestng to remar that u denotng
component eocty parae to at any pont y the ntegra
f uad dy d e pressng momentum may as s ready pro ed ha e
any aue from - oo to oo accordng to the portons of space
through whch t s ta en.
52. As a ast ustraton of the dstrbuton of momentum
et the contanng esse be spherca of fnte radus a.
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1868 N RTE M TI N 9
e ha e as n 19
o Sr S2r2 amp c. 14
Tr-2 T2r- amp c..
each seres con ergng pro ded r s ess than a and greater than
the radus of the smaest concentrc spherca surface encosng a
the sods or ortces. Now by the condton that there be no
fow across the f ed contanng surface we must ha e
d 0 when r a..................... 15
1 T
whch g es S 1 T . 16
whch g es a2 1........................ 16
and 14 becomes
-2 1 r 2 I 2 amp c.......... 17
ut 7 1 f the whoe amount of the -component of mpus e
pressure e erted by the fud wthn the spherca surface of radus
r upon the fud round t be denoted by we ha e
- cos do-..................... 18
0 beng the ncnaton to of the radus through do. Now
cos 0 s a surface harmonc of the frst order and therefore a the
terms of the harmonc e panson e cept the frst dsappear n the
ntegra whch conse uenty becomes
- 1 2 ITcos 0 r............ 19 .
A y -C
Now et T -. .................. 20
ths beng Thomson and Tat App. the most genera
e presson for a surface harmonc of the frst order. e ha e
cos 0 r and therefore by spherca harmoncs or by the
eementary anayss of moments of nerta of a unform spherca
surface
L p dod A r 47rA
- T1cos 0 r2 4 o- ......... 21
and 19 becomes 4A....... 22 .
and 19 becomes 2- ................. 22 .
a ..
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HYDR DYNAMICS
2
hence f denote the -momentum of the fud at any nstant
n the space between the concentrc spherca surfaces of radus
r and r
2 r - rs
- a 4 A.................... 2 .
If r and r be each nfntey sma n comparson wth a ths
e presson anshes as t ought to do n accordance wth 45 II.
ut f
- 0 and r a
a..................... 24
t becomes - 4. 47rA
fufng 4 by showng n the fud outsde the spherca surface
of radus r a momentum e ua and opposte to that 45 II. of
the whoe matter whether fud or sod wthn that surface.
5 . Comparng 47 and 52 we see that f Y be
rectanguar components of the force-resutant of the mpuse the
term Tr-2 of the harmonc e panson 14 s as foows:T- -2 Yy ............ 25
47rr
pro ded a the sods and ortces ta en nto account are wthn
a spherca surface whose radus s ery sma n comparson wth
the dstances of a other ortces or mo ng sods and wth the
shortest dstance to the f ed boundng surface.
54. Hemhot n hs spendd paper on orte Moton has
made the ery mportant remar that a certan fundamenta
theorem of Green s whch has been used to demonstrate the
determnateness of soutons n hydro netcs s sub ect to e cepton when the functons n o ed ha e mutpe aues. Ths cas
for a serous correcton and e tenson of eementary hydro netc
theory to whch I now proceed.
55. In the genera theorem 1 of Thomson and Tat App. A
et a 1. It becomes
fff/d dd d d d d d __
d r d dy dr do do d dyd
d d dy dy d d C u
ffdocb - f fd dyd 20t fd f - bff- d dyd 2......... 1
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N RTE M TI N
41
whch s true wthout e cepton f 4 and b denote any two snge aued functons of y f fd dyd ntegraton through the
space encosed by any fnte cosed surface S f do ntegraton
o er the area of ths surface and b rate of araton per unt of
ength n the norma drecton at any pont of t. Ths s Green s
orgna theorem wth Hemhot s mtaton added n tacs .
The reader may erfy t for hmsef.
56. ut f ether b or s a many- aued functon and the
dfferenta coeffcents dc/d ... dd /d ... each snge- aued
the doube e uaton 1 cannot be generay true. Its frst
member s essentay unambguous but the process of ntegraton
by whch the second member or the thrd member s found woud
ntroduce ambguty f 4 or s many- aued. In one case the
frst member though not e ua to the ambguous second woud
be e ua to the thrd pro ded b s not aso many- aued and n
the other the frst member though not e ua to the thrd woud
be e ua to the second pro ded f s not many- aued.
or e ampe et tan- Y........................... 2

and et S consst of the portons of two panes perpendcuar to

ntercepted between two crcuar cynders ha ng for
a s and the portons of these cynders ntercepted between the
two panes. The nner cyndrca boundary e cudes from the
space bounded by S the ne where has an nfnte number
of aues and d /d and do /d ha e nfnte aues. e ha e
do -y d
d- 2 y2 du Y....................
d 2 y2 y d 2y2.
and at e ery pont of S b/ 0. Then f 4 be snge- aued
there s no faure n the process pro ng the e uaty between
the frst and second members of 1 whch becomes
do do
f d-y d y d dyd o............... 4 .
2 y2
Compare 14 6 to end.
The thrd member of 1 becomes
ffd- tan-1 Y b -f tan-1 Y 2 d dyd ......... 5

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HYDR DYNAMICS
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whch s no resut of unambguous ntegraton of the frst member
through the space encosed by S as we see by e amnng n ths
case the partcuar meanng of each step of the ordnary process
n rectanguar co-ordnates for pro ng Green s theorem. It s
thus seen that we must add to 5 a term
27r fd d d
f n ts other terms the aue of tan- y/ s rec oned contnuousy
round from one sde of the pane to the other: or
-2 ffdd d
f the contnuty be from one sde of Y to the other to render
t reay e ua to the frst member of 1 . Thus ta ng for
e ampe the frst form of the added term we now ha e for the
corrected doube e uaton 1 for the case of b tan- y/ b any
snge- aued functon and S the surface composed of the two
co-a a cynders and two parae panes specfed abo e:
d -ya d d
f 2 dy 2 d dyd 0 27 d d f do tan- Y- Y 1 y2 dy /y
-fffa ay tan- Y 20.................. 6 .
ut f we anne to S any barrer stoppng crcuaton round
the nner cyndrca core a ambguty becomes mpossbe and
the doube e uaton 1 hods. or nstance f the barrer be
the porton of the pane ntercepted between the co-a a
cynders and parae panes consttutng the S of 55 so that
S do- must now ncude ntegraton o er each sde of ths rectanguar
area 6 becomes smpy the strct appcaton of 1 to the case
n ueston.
57. The dffcuty of the e ceptona nterpretaton of Green s
theorem for the cass of cases e empfed n 55 and 56 depends
on the fact that f ds may ha e dfferent aues when rec oned
aong the engths of dfferent cur es drawn wthn the space
bounded by S from a pont P to a pont ds beng an nfntesma eement of the cur e and the rate of araton of G per
unt of ength aong t. Let PC PC be two cur es for whch
the f ds has dfferent aues and et both e whoy wthn S.
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N RTE M TI N
4
If we draw any cur e from P to ma e t frst concde wth
PC and then ary t graduay unt t concdes wth PC t
must n some of ts ntermedate forms cut the boundng surface
S: for we ha e
ds d d d dy d
d dy Y d
throughout the space contaned wthn S and dc/d do/dy do/d
are each of them unambguous by hypothess whch mpes that
f ds has e ua aues for a gradua aratons of one cur e
between P and each yng whoy wthn S. Now n a smpy
contnuous space a cur e onng the ponts P and may be
graduay ared from any cur e PC to any other PC and
therefore f the space contaned wthn S be smpy contnuous
the dffcuty dependng on the mutpcty of aue of G or
cannot e st. And howe er mutpy contnuous . 58 the space
may be the dffcuty may be e aded f we anne to S a surface
or surfaces stoppng e ery aperture or passage on the openness of
whch ts mutpe contnuty depends for these anne ed surfaces
as each of them occupes no space do not dsturb the trpe
ntegratons 1 and w therefore not ater the aues of ts frst
member but by remo ng the mutpcty of contnuty they
free each of the ntegratons by parts by whch ts second or thrd
members are obtaned from a ambguty. To a od crcumocuton we sha ca / the addton thus made to S and further
when the space wthn S s 58 not merey douby but trpy
or uadrupy or more mutpy contnuous we sha desgnate by
/1 /2 or 1/ /2 / and so on the se era parts of / re ured
n any case to stop a mutpe contnuty of the space. These
parts of / may be ute detached from one another as when the
mutpe contnuty s that due to detached rngs or separate
snge tunnes n a sod. ut one part / may cut through part
of another /2 as when two rngs 58 dagram n ed nto one
another wthout touchng consttute part of the boundary of the
space consdered. And we sha denote by ds ntegraton o er
the surface / or o er any one of ts parts / / 2 amp c. Let now
P and be each nfntey near a pont of / but on the two
sdes of ths surface. Let c denote the aue of f ds aong any
cur e yng whoy n the space bounded by S and onng P
wthout cuttng the barrer ths aue beng the same for a
such cur es and for a postons of to whch t may be brought
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44
HYDR DYNAMICS
2
wthout ea ng / and wthout ma ng ether P or pass through
any part of . That s to say c s a snge constant when the
space s not more than douby contnuous but t denotes one or
other of n constants I C2 ... mc whch may be a dfferent from
one another when the space s n-py contnuous. Lasty et
denote the same eement reat ey to 4 as c reat ey to b.
e fnd that the frst steps of the ntegratons by parts now
ntroduce wthout ambguty the addtons
E ffdS b and E ffdSbf............... 7
to the second and thrd members of 1 : 2 denotng summaton
of the ntegratons for the dfferent consttuents 1 2 /2 ... of /
but ony a snge term when the space s 58 not more than
douby contnuous. Green s theorem thus corrected becomes
f d d d dbd4 dbdb dyd
d d dy dy d d
- doa o Cfdsb ff- f 02 d dyd
fd- d d f- 2d dyd ...... 8...... .
58. Adoptng the termnoogy of Remann as nown to me
through Hemhot I sha ca a fnte poston of space n-py
contnuous when ts boundng surface s such that there are n
rreconcabe paths between any two ponts n t. To pre ent
any msunderstandng I add 1 that by a porton of space I mean
such a porton that any pont of t may be tra eed to from any
other pont of t wthout cuttng the boundng surface 2 that
the paths spo en of a e wthn the porton of space referred
to and that by rreconcabe paths between two ponts P
and I mean paths such that a ne drawn frst aong one of
them cannot be graduay changed t t concdes wth the other
beng aways ept passng through P and and aways whoy
wthn the porton of space consdered. Thus when a the paths
between any two ponts are reconcabe the space s smpy
contnuous. hen there are ust two sets of paths so that each
of one set s rreconcabe wth any one of the other set the
space s douby contnuous when there are three such sets t s
trpy contnuous and so on. To a od crcumocutons we sha
suppose S to be the boundary of a hoow space n the nteror
of a sod mass so thc that no operatons whch we sha consder
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N RTE M TI N
45
sha e er ma e an openng to the space outsde t. A tunne
through ths sod openng at each end nto the nteror space
consttutes the whoe space douby contnuous and f more
tunnes be made e ery new one adds one to the degree of
mutpe contnuty. hen one such tunne has been made the
surface of the tunne s contnuous wth the whoe boundng
surface of the space consdered and n rec onng degrees of
contnuty t s of no conse uence whether the ends of any fresh
tunne be n one part or another of ths whoe surface. Thus f
two tunnes be made sde by sde a hoe anywhere openng from
one of them nto the other adds one to the degree of mutpe
contnuty. Any sod detached from the outer boundng sod
and eft whether f ed or mo abe n the nteror space adds to
the boundng surface an soated porton but does not nterfere
wth the rec onng of mutpe contnuty. Thus f we begn
wth a smpy contnuous space bounded outsde by the nner
surface of the supposed e terna sod and nternay by the
boundary of the detached sod n ts nteror and f we dr a
hoe n ths sod we produce doube contnuty. Two hoes or
two sods n the nteror each wth one hoe such as two ordnary
sod rngs consttute trpe contnuty and so on. A sponge e sod whose pores communcate wth one another ustrates a
hgh degree of mutpe contnuty and t s of no conse uence
whether t s attached to the e terna boundng sod or s an
soated sod n the nteror. Another type of mutpe contnuty
that presented by two rngs n ed n one another was referred
to n 57.
hen many rngs are n ed nto one another n arous
combnatons there are compcated mutua ntersectons of the
se era parta barrers / 2 ... re ured to stop a mutpe
contnuty. ut wthout ha ng any porton of the boundng
sod detached as n that case n whch one at east of the two
rngs s oose we ha e aretes of mutpe contnuty curousy
dfferent from that ustrated by a snge ordnary straght or
bent tunne ustrated suffcenty by the smpest types whch
are obtaned by borng a tunne aong a ne agreeng n form wth
the a s of a cord or wre on whch a smpe not s ted and by
f ng the two ends of wre wth a not on t to the boundng
sod so that the surface of the wre sha become part of the
boundng surface of the space consdered the not not beng
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46
HYDR DYNAMICS
2
pued tght and the wre beng arranged not to touch tsef n
any pont or by pacng a notted wre wth ts ends unted n
the nteror of the space. No amount of nottng or nttng
howe er compe n the cord whose a s ndcates the ne of
tunne compcates n any way the contnuty of the space
consdered or aters the smpcty of the barrer surface re ured
to stop the crcuaton. ut t s otherwse when a notted or
ntted wre forms part of the boundng sod. A snge smpe
not though g ng ony doube contnuty re ures a curousy
sef-cuttng surface for stoppng barrer: whch n ts form of
mnmum area s beautfuy shown by the ud fm adherng
to an endess wre e the frst fgure dpped n a soap souton
and remo ed. ut no compcaton of these types or of combnatons of them wth one another eudes the statements and
formuae of 57.
Instament rece ed No .-Dec. 1869 59- 64 / .
59. I sha now g e a dynamca emma for the mmedate
ob ect of preparng to appy Green s corrected theorem 57 to
the moton of a ud through a mutpy contnuous space.
ut ater we sha be ed by t to ery smpe demonstratons of
Hemhot s fundamenta theorems of orte moton and sha
see that t may be used as a substtute for the common e uatons
of hydro netcs.
Lemma. An endess fnte tube of nfntesma norma
secton beng g en fu of ud whether crcuatng round
A fnte ength of tube wth ts ends done away by untng them together.
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N RTE M TI N
through t or at rest s atered n shape ength and norma
secton n any way and wth any speed. The a erage aue of
the component eocty of the fud aong the tube rec oned a
round the crcut rrespect ey of the norma secton ares
n ersey as the ength of the crcut.
59 a To pro e ths consder frst a snge partce of unt
mass acted on by any force and mo ng aong a smooth gudng
cur e whch s mo ed and bent about ute arbtrary. Let p
be the radus of cur ature and A r the component eoctes of
the gudng cur e towards the centre of cur ature and perpendcuar to the pane of cur ature at the pont P through whch
the mo ng partce s passng at any nstant. Let 4 be the
component eocty of the partce tsef aong the nstantaneous
drecton of the tangent through P. Thus: 4 are three
rectanguar components of the eocty of the partce tsef. Let
be the component n the drecton of 4 of the whoe force on
P. e ha e by eementary netcs
d 7...............
dt p ds ds. 1
Ths theorem not htherto pubshed w be g en n the second oume of
Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy. It may be pro ed anaytcay from the
genera e uatons of the moton of a partce aong a aryng gude-cur e aton
Cambrdge Mathematca ourna 1842 ebruary or more synthetcay thusLet 1 m n be the drecton cosnes of PT the tangent to the gude at the pont
through whch the partce s passng at any nstant y the co-ordnates of
ths pont and y ts component eoctes parae to f ed rectanguar a es.
e ha e
I m and 1 nm n
and from ths
- I my n 1
dt
ut t s ready pro ed Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy 9 to be made
more e pct on ths pont n a second edton that the anguar eocty wth
whch PT changes drecton s e ua to / 2 2 -2 and f ths be denoted
by w that
1 P
co C Co
are the drecton cosnes of the ne P perpendcuar to PT n the pane n whch
PT changes drecton and on the sde towards whch t turns. Hence
- 7
dt
f denote the component eocty of P aong P . Now f the cur e were f ed we
shoud ha e wo /p by the nematc defnton of cur ature Thomson and Tat
5 and the pane n whch PT changes drecton woud be the pane of cur ature.
ut n the case actuay supposed there s aso n ths pane an addtona anguar
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48 HYDR DYNAMICS 2
where p denotes the radus of cur ature and d:/ds dr/ds rates
of araton of and from pont to pont aong the cur e at
one tme.
59 b Now nstead of a snge partce of unt mass et an
nfntesma porton f of a ud fng the supposed endess
tube be consdered. Let w be the area of the norma secton of
the tube n the pace where /a s and Ss the ength aong the tube
of the space occuped by t at any nstant so that as the densty
of the fud s caed unty
b as.
urther et dp/ds denote the rate of araton of the fud pressure
aong the tube so that
c SP - _8.
ds
Thus we ha e by 1
d: ... . 2 .
dt p ds ds ds.........
c Now because the two ends of the arc as mo e wth the
fud we ha e by the nematcs of a aryng cur e
dts ds.
dd ts d S s - - 8 s...............
dt ds p
and therefore s s d d................ 4 .
Substtutng n ths for d /dt ts aue by 2 we ha e
d s_ : d: d p d
dt ds ds ds ds s
or d s I 2 _p ..................... 5
or d s 8 2 . 5
eocty e ua to dt/ds and a component anguar eocty n the pane of PT and
e ua to dr/ds due to the norma moton of the aryng cur e. Hence the whoe
anguar eocty c s the resutant of two components
- n the pane of 5
p ds
and d n the pane of r7.
ds
Hence d- d
and the formua 1 of the te t s pro ed.
and the formua 1 of the te t s pro ed.
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N RTE M TI N
49
f denote the resutant fud eocty and 8 the dfferences for
the two ends of the arc s. Integratng ths through the ength
of any fnte arc P P2 of the fud ts ends P1 P2 mo ng wth
the fud we ha e
d ts 2 -p 2 - -p ........ 6
dt
the suff es denotng the aues of the brac eted functon at the
ponts P2 and PI respect ey and E2 denotng ntegraton aong
the arc from P to P2. Let now P2 be mo ed forward or P bac ward t these ponts concde and the arc P1P2 becomes the
compete crcut and et E denote ntegraton round the whoe
cosed crcut. 6 becomes
d .....................7...
dt
and we concude that 28 s remans constant howe er the tube
be ared. Ths s the proposton to be pro ed as the a erage
eocty referred to s found by d dng 8 s by the ength of
the tube.
59 d The tube magned n the precedng has had no other
effect than e ertng by ts nner surface norma pressure on the
contaned rng of fud. Hence the proposton at the begnnng
E uaton 6 from whch as we ha e seen that proposton foows mmedatey
may be pro ed wth greater ease and not merey for an ncompressbe fud but for
any fud n whch the densty s a functon of the pressure by the method of
rectnea rectanguar co-ordnates from the ordnary hydro netc e uatons.
These e uatons are
Du d D dw DD d
Dt d - dy Dt d d
f DIDt denote rate of araton per unt of tme of any functon dependng on
a pont or ponts mo ng wth the fud and w dp/p p denotng densty. In
terms of rectnea co-ordnates we ha e
6s u y w .
D a8s Du D
Hence Da t amp c.
Dt Dt Dt
D6 y D
Now amp 4 -5 and D 0w.
Dt Dt Dt
These and the netc e uatons reduce the precedng to
Dt d d dy d -..
whence by ntegraton e uaton 6 generased to appy to compressbe fuds.
. I .
4
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HYDR DYNAMICS
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of 59 s appcabe to any cosed rng of fud formng part of an
ncompressbe fud mass e tendng n a drectons through any
fnte or nfnte space and mo ng n any possbe way and the
formuae 5 and 6 are appcabe to any nfntesma or nfnte
arc of t wth two ends not met. Thus n wordsPR P. 1 . The ne-ntegra of the tangenta component eocty
round any cosed cur e of a mo ng fud remans constant through
a tme.
And PR P. 2 The rate of augmentaton per unt of tme of
the space ntegra of the eocty aong any termnated arc of the
fud s e ua to the e cess of the aue of 2-p at the end
towards whch tangenta eocty s rec oned as post e abo e
ts aue at the other end.
59 e The condton that ud dy wd s a compete
dfferenta pro ed abo e 1 to be the crteron of rrotatona
moton means smpy
That the fow defned 60 a s the same n a dfferent
mutuay reconcabe nes from one to another of any two ponts
n the fud or whch s the same thng
That the crcuaton 60 a s ero round e ery cosed cur e
capabe of beng contracted to a pont wthout passng out of a
porton of the fud through whch the crteron hods.
rom Proposton 1 ust pro ed we see that ths condton
hods through a tme for any porton of a mo ng fud for whch
t hods at any nstant and thus we ha e another proof of
Lagrange s ceebrated theorem 16 g ng us a new ew of ts
dynamca sgnfcance whch see for e ampe 60 g we sha
fnd of much mportance n the theory of orte moton.
f ut t s ony n a cosed cur e capabe of beng contracted to a pont wthout passng out of space occuped by
rrotatonay mo ng fud that the crcuaton s necessary
ero n rrotatona moton. In 57 we saw that a contnuous
fud mass occupyng douby or mutpy contnuous space may
mo e atogether rrotatonay yet so as to ha e fnte crcuaton
n a cosed cur e PP P pro ded PP and P are rreconcabe paths between P and . That the crcuaton must be the
same n a mutuay reconcabe cosed cur es compare 57 s
an mmedate conse uence from the now pro ed 59 Prop. 2
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N RTE M TI N
51
e uaty of the fows 60 a n a mutuay reconcabe contermnous arcs. or by ea ng one part of a cosed cur e unchanged and aryng the remanng arc contnuousy no change
s produced n the fow n ths part and by repettons of the
process a cosed cur e may be changed to any other reconcabe
wth t.
60. Defntons and eementary propostons. a The nentegra of the tangenta component eocty aong any fnte
ne straght or cur ed n a mo ng fud s caed the fow n that
ne. If the ne s endess that s f t forms a cosed cur e or
poygon the fow s caed crcuaton. The use of these terms
abbre ates the statements of Propostons 2 and 1 of 59 to
the foowng: 59 Prop. 2 . The rate of augmentaton per unt of tme
of the fow n any termnated ne whch mo es wth the fud s
e ua to the e cess of the aue of 2-p at the end from whch
abo e ts aue at the end towards whch post e fow s rec oned.
59 Prop. 1 . The crcuaton n any cosed ne mo ng
wth the fud remans constant through a tme.
b If any open fnte surface yng atogether wthn a fud
be cut nto parts by nes drawn across t the crcuaton n the
boundary of the whoe s e ua to the sum of the crcuatons n
the boundares of the parts. Ths s ob ous as the atter sum
conssts of an e ua post e and negat e fow n each porton of
the boundary common to two parts added to the sum of the fows
n a the parts nto whch the snge boundary of the whoe
s d ded.
c Hence the crcuaton round the boundares of nfntesma areas nfntey near one another n one pane are smpy
proportona to these areas.
d Proposton. Let any part of the fud rotate as a sod
that s wthout changng shape or consder smpy the rotaton
of a sod. The crcuaton n the boundary of any pane fgure
mo ng wth t s e ua to twce the area encosed mutped by
the component anguar eocty n that pane or round an a s
perpendcuar to that pane . or ta ng r 0 to denote poar coordnates of any pont n the boundary A the encosed area and
4-2
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HYDR DYNAMICS
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o the component anguar eocty n the pane and contnung
the notaton of 59 we ha e. rd
o ds
and therefore
d
E 8s wor2 de 8s o r2 o 2A.
ds
60 e Defnton. or a fud mo ng n any manner the
crcuaton round the boundary of an nfntesma pane area
d ded by doube the area s caed the component rotaton n
that pane or round an a s perpendcuar to that pane of the
neghbourng fud.
In ths statement the snge word rotaton s used for
anguar eocty of rotaton: and the defnton s ustfed by c
and d aso by 1 2 abo e apped to p beow. It agrees
n rtue of p wth the defnton of rotaton n fud moton
g en frst of a I bee e by Sto es and used by Hemhot n
hs memorabe orte Moton aso n Thomson and Tat s Natura
Phosophy 182 and 190 .
f Proposton. If 7 be the components of rotaton at
any pont P of a fud round three a es at rght anges to one
another and w the component round an a s ma ng wth them
anges whose cosnes are 1 m n
Co I rm n.
To pro e ths et a pane perpendcuar to the ast-mentoned
a s cut the other three n A C. The crcuaton n the
perphery of the trange A C s by b e ua to the sum of the
crcuatons n the perpheres P C PCA and PA . Hence
cang A and a ry the areas of these four tranges we ha e
by e
o 8a n A7.
ut a / 7 are the pro ectons of A on the panes of the pars of
the rectanguar a es and so the proposton s pro ed.
It foows of course that the composton of rotatons n a
fud fufs the aw of the compostons of anguar eoctes of a
sod of near eoctes of forces amp c.
g Hence n any nfntesma part of the fud the
crcuaton s ero n the perphery of e ery pane area passng
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N RTE M TI N
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through a certan ne -the resutant a s of rotaton of that
part of the fud. ut a the crcuaton remans ero n e ery
cosed ne mo ng wth the fud for whch t s ero at any tme.
Hence
60 h The a a nes defned mo e wth the fud.
Defnton. An a a ne through a fud mo ng rotatonay s a ne straght or cur ed whose drecton at e ery
pont concdes wth the resutant a s of rotaton through that
pont.
Proposton. The resutant rotaton of any part of the
fud ares n smpe proporton to the ength of an nfntesma
arc of the a a ne through t termnated by ponts mo ng wth
the fud. To pro e ths consder any nfntesma pane area A
mo ng wth the fud. Let o be the resutant rotaton and 0
the ange between ts a s and the perpendcuar to the pane of
A. Ths ma es o cos 0 the component rotaton n the pane of A
and therefore Ao cos 0 remans constant. Now draw a a nes
through a ponts of the boundary of A formng a tube whose
area of norma secton s A cos 0. The resutant rotaton must
ary n ersey as ths area and therefore n conse uence of the
ncompressbty of the fud drecty as the ength of an nfntesma ne aong the a s.
orm a surface by a a nes drawn through a ponts of
any cur e n the fud. The crcuaton s ero round the boundary
of any nfntesma area of ths surface and therefore b t s ero
round the boundary of any fnte area of t.
I Let the cur e of be cosed and therefore the surface
tubuar. n ths surface et A CA A C A be any two cur es
cosed round the tube and ADA any arc from A to A . The
crcuaton n the cosed path ADA C A DAC A s ero by h .
Hence the crcuaton n A CA s e ua to the crcuaton n
A C A -that s to say
The crcuatons are e ua n a crcuts of a orte tube.
m Defntons. An a a surface s a surface made up of
a a nes. A orte tube s an a a surface through e ery pont
of whch a fnte endess path cuttng e ery a a ne t meets
can be drawn. Any such path passng ust once round s caed
a crcut or the crcut of the tube. The rotaton of a orte tube
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HYDR DYNAMICS
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s the crcuaton n ts crcut. A orte sheet s a porton as t
were of a coapsed orte tube a surface on the two sdes of
whch the fud mo es wth dfferent tangenta component
eoctes.
60 n Draw any surface cuttng a orte tube and bounded
by t. The surface ntegra of the component rotaton round the
norma has the same aue for a such surfaces and ths common
aue s what we now ca the rotaton of the tube.
o In an unbounded nfnte fud an a a tube must be
ether fnte and endess or nfntey ong n each drecton . In
an nfnte fud wth a boundary for nstance the surface of an
encosed sod an a a tube may ha e two ends each n the
boundary surface or t may ha e one end n the boundary surface
and no other or t may be nfntey ong n each drecton or t
may be fnte and endess. In a fnte fud mass an a a tube
may be endess or may ha e one end but f so must ha e
another both n the boundary surface.
p Proposton. Appyng the notaton of f to a es
parae to those of co-ordnates y and denotng as formery
by u w the components of the fud eocty at y we
ha e
dw d _ du dw d d
2 dy d 2 d d 2 d dy
The proof s ob ous accordng to the pan of notaton amp c.
foowed n 1 abo e.
Hence by f e and b
fIds /d d M d dw /d duA
dy d d d d dy
f ud dy wd
where ffdS denotes ntegraton o er any porton of surface bounded
by a cosed cur e ud amp c. ntegraton round the whoe of
ths cur e and 1 m n the drecton cosnes of any pont y
n the surface. It s worthy of remar that the e uaton of
contnuty for an ncompressbe fud does not enter nto the
orte tubes apparenty endng n the fud for nstance a porton of fud
bounded by a fgure of re outon re o ng round ts a s as a sod consttute no
e cepton. Each nfntesma orte tube n ths case s competed by a strp of
orte sheet and so s endess.
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N RTE M TI N
55
demonstraton of ths proposton and therefore u w may be
any functons whate er of y . In a purey anaytca ght
the resut has an mportant bearng on the theory of the ntegraton of compete or ncompete dfferentas. It was frst g en
wth the ndcaton of a more anaytca proof than the precedng
n Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy 190 .
60 r Propostons h n o of the present secton 60
are due to Hemhot and wth hs ntegraton for assocated
rotatona and cycc rrotatona moton n an unbounded fud to
be g en beow consttute hs genera theory of orte moton.
n and o are purey nematca h and are dynamca.
s Henceforth I sha ca a crcut any cosed cur e not
contnuousy reducbe to a pont n a mutpy contnuous space.
I sha ca dfferent crcuts any two such cosed cur es f
mutuay rreconcabe 58 but dfferent mutuay reconcabe
cosed cur es w not be caed dfferent crcuts.
t Thus n 1 py contnuous space s a space for whch
there are n and ony n dfferent crcuts. Ths s merey the
defnton of 58 abbre ated by the defnte use of the word
crcut whch I now propose. The genera termnoogy regardng
smpy and mutpy contnuous spaces s as I ha e found snce
58 was wrtten atogether due to Hemhot Remann s suggeston to whch he refers ha ng been confned to two-dmensona
space. I ha e de ated somewhat from the form of defnton
orgnay g en by Hemhot n o ng as t does the dffcut
concepton of a stoppng barrer and substtuted for t the
defnton by reconcabe and rreconcabe paths. It s not easy
to conce e the stoppng barrer of any one of the frst three
dagrams of 58 or to understand ts sngeness but t s easy
to see that n each of those three cases any two cosed cur es
drawn round the sod wre represented n the dagrams are reconcabe accordng to the defnton of ths term g en n 58 and
ut wthout ths concepton we can ma e no use of the theory of mutpe
contnuty n hydro netcs see 61-6 and Hemhot s defnton s therefore
perhaps preferabe after a to that whch I ha e substtuted for t. Mr Cer
Ma we tes me that . . Lstng has more recenty treated the sub ect of mutpe
contnuty n a ery compete manner n an artce entted Der Census rumcher
Compe e. - ng. Ges. Gottngen 1861. See aso Prof. Cayey n the Partton
of a Cose. -Ph. Mag. 1861.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
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therefore that the presence of any such sod adds ony one to the
degree of contnuty of the space n whch t s paced.
60 u If we ca a partton a surface whch separates a
cosed space nto two parts and as htherto a barrer any surface
edged by the boundary of the space Hemhot s defnton of
mutpe contnuty may be stated shorty thus:A space s n py contnuous f n barrers can be drawn
across t none of whch s a partton.
Hemhot has ponted out the mportance n hydro-. netcs of many- aued functons such as tan-y/ whch ha e
no pace n the theores of gra taton eectrcty or magnetsm
but are re ured to e press eectro-magnetc potentas and the
eocty potentas for the part of the fud whch mo es rrotatonay n orte moton. It s therefore con enent before
gong farther that we shoud f upon a termnoogy wth
reference to functons of that nd whch may sa e us crcumocutons hereafter.
w A functon 4 y w be caed cycc f t e perences
a constant augmentaton e ery tme a pont P of whch y are
rectanguar rectnear co-ordnates s carred from any poston
round a certan crcut to the same poston agan wthout passng
through any poston for whch ether db/d d4/dy or do/d
becomes nfnte. The aue of ths augmentaton w be caed
the cycc constant for that partcuar crcut. The cycc constant
must ceary ha e the same aue for a crcuts mutuay reconcabe 58 n space throughout whch the three dfferenta
coeffcents reman a fnte.
hen the functon s cycc wth reference to se era
dfferent mutuay rreconcabe crcuts t s caed poycycc.
hen t s cycc for ony one set of crcuts t s caed monocycc.
E AMPLE.-The apparent area of a crce as seen from a pont
y anywhere n space s a monocycc functon of y of
whch the cycc constant s 47r.
The apparent area of a pane cur e of the 2 n th degree
consstng of n detached cosed that s fnte endess branches
some of whch mght be encosed wthn others s an n-cycc
functon of whch the n-cycc constants are essentay e ua
beng each 47r.
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N RTE M TI N
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Agebrac e uatons among three arabes y may easy
be found to represent tortuous cur es consttutng one or more
fnte soated endess branches whch may be notted as shown
n the frst three dagrams of 58 or n ed nto one another as
n the fourth and ffth . The ntegra e pressng what for bre ty
we sha ca the apparent area of such a cur e s a cycc functon
whch f poycycc has essentay e ua aues for a ts cycc
constants. y the apparent area of a fnte endess cur e tortuous
or pane I mean the sum of the apparent areas of a barrers
edged by t whch we can draw wthout ma ng a partton.
It s worthy of notce that e ery poycycc functon may be
reduced to a sum of monocycc functons.
60 y ud moton s caed cycc uness the crcuaton s
ero n e ery cosed path through the fud when t s caed
acycc. Rotatona moton s e essentay cycc.
Irrotatona moton may 59 f be ether acycc or
cycc. If cycc t s monocycc f there s ony one dstnct
crcut or poycycc f there are se era dstnct crcuts n whch
there s crcuaton. It s purey cycc f the boundary of the
space occuped by rrotatonay mo ng fud s at rest. If the
boundary mo es and the moton of the fud s cycc t s acycc
compounded wth cycc.
61 a e are now prepared to n estgate the most genera
possbe rrotatona moton of a snge contnuous fud mass
occupyng ether smpy or mutpy contnuous space wth for
e ery pont of the boundary a norma component eocty g en
arbtrary sub ect ony to the condton that the whoe oume
remans unatered.
b Geness of a cycc moton. Commencng as n wth
a fud mass at rest throughout et a mutpcty of the contnuty of the space occuped by t be done away wth by
temporary barrer surfaces 8 2... stoppng the crcuts as
descrbed n 57. The boundng surface of the fud whch
ordnary conssts of the nner surface of the contanng esse
w thus be temporary e tended to ncude each sde of each of
these barrers. Let now as n any possbe moton be
arbtrary g en to the boundng surface. The ud s conse uenty set n moton purey through fud pressure and the
moton s 10-15 or 60 59 throughout rrotatona. Hence
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HYDR DYNAMICS
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rrotatona moton fufng the prescrbed surface condtons s
possbe and the actua moton s of course as the souton of
e ery rea probem s unambguous. ut from ths bare physca
prncpe we coud not e en suspect what the foowng smpe
appcaton of Green s e uaton pro es that the surface norma
eocty at any nstant determnes the nteror moton rrespect ey
of the pre ous hstory of the moton from rest.
61 c Determnacy of rrotatona moton n smpy contnuous space. In 57 1 whch s mmedatey appcabe as
the oume s now smpy contnuous ma e 0 p and put
2b 0 so that may be the eocty potenta of an ncompressbe fud. That doube e uaton becomes the foowng
snge e uaton
fffd02 d42 do2 yd
2d dy2 d d dyd b
where the surface ntegraton ffdo must now ncude each sde of
each of the barrer surfaces 2.... Hence f bo 0 for e ery
pont of the boundng surface we must ha e
f ffdf2 d t 2 d4
d2 dy02 d2 d dyd
whch re ures that
do-0 dbo0 do0 o
d dy d
that s to say f there s no moton of the boundary surface n
the drecton of the norma there can be no moton of the
rrotatona speces n the nteror whence t foows that there
cannot be two dfferent nterna rrotatona motons wth the
same surface norma component eoctes. Thus as a partcuar
case begnnng wth a fud at rest et ts boundary be set n
moton and brought agan to rest at any nstant after ha ng
been changed n shape to any e tent through any seres of
motons. The whoe ud comes to rest at that nstant.
A demonstraton of ths mportant theorem whch dffers
essentay from the precedng and ncudes what the precedng
does not ncude a purey anaytca proof of the possbty of
rrotatona moton throughout the fud fufng the arbtrary
surface-condton specfed abo e as was frst pubshed n Thomson
and Tat s Natura Phosophy 17 and s to be g en
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N RTE M TI N
59
beow wth some araton and e tenson. In the meantme
howe er we satsfy ourse es as to the possbty of rrotatona
motons fufng the arous surface-condtons wth whch we
are concerned because the surface motons are possbe and re ure
the fud to mo e and 10-15 or 59 because the fud cannot
ac ure rotatona moton through fud pressure from the moton
of ts boundary and we go on by ad of Green s e tended formua
57 7 to pro e the determnateness of the nteror moton
under condtons now to be specfed for mutpy contnuous
space as we ha e done by hs unatered formua 57 1 for
smpy contnuous space.
62. Geness of cycc rrotatona moton. In the case of
moton consdered n 61 the aue of the norma component
eocty s not ndependenty arbtrary o er the whoe boundary
but has e ua arbtrary aues post e and negat e on the two
sdes of each of the barrers / 2 amp c. e must now ntroduce
a fresh restrcton n order that when the barrers are uefed
the moton of the fud may be rrotatona throughout the space
thus re-opened nto mutpe contnuty. or athough we ha e
secured that the norma component eocty s e ua e erywhere
on the two sdes of each barrer we ha e htherto eft the tangenta eocty unheeded. If they are not e ua on the two
sdes and n the same drecton there w be a fnte sppng of
fud on fud across the surface eft by the dssouton of the
nfntey thn barrer membrane consttutng 60 m abo e
as Hemhot has shown a orte sheet. The anaytca
e presson of the condton of e uaty between the tangenta
eoctes s that the araton of the eocty potenta n
tangenta drectons sha be e ua on the two sdes of each
barrer. Hence by ntegraton we see that the dfference between
the aues of the eocty potenta on the two sdes must be the
same o er the whoe of each barrer. Ths condton re ures that
the ntatng pressure be e ua o er the whoe membrane. or
at any tme durng the nsttutng of the moton et p P2 be the
pressures at two ponts P1 P2 of the fud and mo ng wth the
fud nfntey near one another on the two sdes of one of the
membranes so that the pressure w whch must be apped to the
membrane to produce ths dfference of fud pressure on the two
sdes s e ua to p - p2 n the drecton opposed to p . And et
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60
HYDR DYNAMICS
2
4 42 be the eocty potentas at P and P2 so that f fds denote
ntegraton from P to P2 aong any path PIPP2 whate er from
P1 to P2 atogether through the fud and therefore cuttng none
of the membranes and the component of fud eocty aong
the tangent at any pont of ths cur e we ha e
f ds 2- 1........................ 1 .
Hence by 6 of 59
w e 2eo-e ............... 2
where 2 denote the resutant fud eoctes at PI and P.
Now the norma component eoctes at P and P2 are necessary
e ua and therefore f the components parae to the tangent
pane of the nter enng membrane are aso e ua we ha e
2
and the precedng becomes
d 2 - 1
dt........................
ut f the tangenta component eoctes at P and P2 are not
ony e ua but n the same drecton 02- 0 must as we ha e
seen be constant o er the membrane and therefore w must aso
be constant.
Suppose now that after pressure has been apped for any tme
n the manner descrbed of unform aue a o er the membrane
at each nstant t s apped no onger and the membrane ha ng
no onger any nfuence s done away wth. The fud mass s
eft for e er after n a state of moton whch s rrotatona
throughout but cycc. The crcuaton 60 a or the cycc
constant beng e ua to 2- 01 for e ery crcut reconcabe wth
PPP.2P s g en by the e uaton
02 - 1 - fdt.................. 4
fdt denotng a tme-ntegra e tended through the whoe perod
durng whch w had any fnte aue.
The same nd of operaton may be performed on each of the
n barrers temporary ntroduced n 61 to reduce the n 1 fod
contnuty of the space occuped by the fud to smpe contnuty.
The eocty potenta at any pont of the fud w then be a
poycycc functon 60 e ua to the sum of the separate
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N RTE M TI N
61
aues correspondng to the pressure separatey apped to the
se era barrers. Thus we see how a state of rrotatona moton
cycc wth reference to e ery one of the dfferent crcuts of a
mutpy contnuous space and ha ng arbtrary aues for the
correspondng cycc constants or crcuatons may be generated.
ut the proof of the possbty of fud moton fufng such
condtons founded on ths pannng out of a geness of t ea es
us to magne that t mght be dfferent accordng to the nfntey
ared choce we may ma e of surfaces for the nta forms of the
barrers or accordng to the order and the duraton of the appcatons of pressure to them n rtue of whch these fgures may
be changed more or ess and n arous ways before the ntatng
pressures a cease and htherto we ha e seen no reason e en to
suspect the foowng proposton to the contrary.
6 . PR P. The moton of a ud mo ng rrotatonay
wthn an n 1 py contnuous space s determnate when the
norma eocty at e ery pont of the boundary and the aues of
the crcuatons n the n crcuts are g en.
Ths s pro ed by an appcaton of Green s e tended formua
7 of 57 showng as the smpe formua 1 of the same secton
showed us n 61 for smpy contnuous space that the dfference
of the eocty potentas of two motons each fufng ths
condton s necessary ero throughout the whoe fud. Let
b be the eocty potentas of two motons fufng the
prescrbed condtons and et
- .
At e ery pont of the boundary the barrers not ncuded the
prescrbed condtons re ure that bo bb and therefore br 0.
Agan the cycc constants for b are e ua to those for b those
for r beng ther dfferences must therefore ansh. Hence f
the 4 and of 57 7 be made e ua to one another and to
a od confuson wth our present notaton we substtute f for
each the second members of that doube e uaton ansh and t
becomes smpy
a2 d d dyd o
whch as before 61 pro es that 0 and therefore t b
and so estabshes our present proposton.
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62
HYDR DYNAMICS
2
E AMPLE 1 . The souton b tan- y/ consdered n 56
fufs Lapace s e uaton 20 0 and ob ousy satsfes the
surface condton not merey for the annuar space wth rectanguar
merdona secton there consdered but for the hoow space
bounded by the fgure of re outon obtaned by carryng a cosed
cur e of any shape round any a s not cuttng the cur e
whch for bre ty we sha n future ca a hoow crcuar rng.
Hence the rrotatona moton possbe wthn a f ed hoow
crcuar rng s such that the eocty potenta s proportona to
the ange between the merdan pane through any pont and a
f ed merdan.
E AMPLE 2 . The sod ange a subtended at any pont
y by an nfntesma pane area A n any f ed poston
fufs Lapace s e uaton 2a 0. Ths we- nown proposton
may be pro ed by ta ng A at the orgn and perpendcuar to
when we ha e
A d -1
a ------- E A -......... 5
2 y2 2 d 2 2 y 2 5
for whch 2a 0 s erfed.
The sod ange subtended at y by any snge cosed
crcut s the sum of those subtended at the same pont by a
parts nto whch we may d de any mted surface ha ng ths
cur e for ts boundng edge. Consder partcuary cur es such
as those represented by the frst three dagrams of 58. Hence
f we ca the sod ange subtended at y by ths surface
Lapace s e uaton 20 s fufed. Hence represents the eocty
potenta of the rrotatona moton possbe for a ud contaned
n an nfnte f ed cosed esse wthn whch s f ed at an
nfnte dstance from the outer boundng surface an nfntey
thn wre bent nto the form of the cosed cur e n ueston.
The partcuar case of ths e ampe for whch the cur e s a
crce presents us wth the smpest specmen of cycc rrotatona
moton not confned as that of E ampe 1 s to a set of parae
panes. The eocty potenta beng the apparent area of a
crcuar dsc or the area of a spherca epse s ready found
and shown to be e pressbe ready n terms of a compete eptc
ntegra of the thrd cass and therefore n terms of ncompete
eptc functons of the frst and second casses. The e u-potenta
surfaces are therefore traceabe by ad of Legendre s tabes. ut
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1869
N RTE M TI N
6
t s to Hemhot that we owe the remar abe and usefu dsco ery
that the e uatons of the stream nes or nes perpendcuar to
the e u-potenta surfaces are e pressbe n terms of compete
ntegras of the frst and second casses. They are therefore easy
traceabe by ad of Legendre s tabes. The anne ed dagram of
whch we sha ma e much use ater shows these cur es as cacuated and drawn by Mr Macfarane from Hemhot s formua
e pressed n terms of rectanguar co-ordnates. An mpro ed
method of tracng them s descrbed n a note by Mr Cer
Ma we whch he has ndy aowed me to append to ths
paper.

.0
- / -
1-4
008
Cf. Ma we s Eectrcty and Magnetsm o.
SA H5-GPS fe - -y0
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64
HYDR DYNAMICS
2
E AMPLE . The moton descrbed n E ampe 2 w
reman unchanged outsde any sod rng formed by sodfyng and
reducng to rest a porton of the fud bounded by stream nes
surroundng the nfntey thn wre. Thus we ha e a sod thc
endess wre or bar formng a rng or an endess not as ustrated
n the frst three dagrams of 59 of pecuar sectona fgure
dependng on the stream nes round the arbtrary cur e of
E ampe 2 and the cycc rrotatona moton whch f paced
n an nfnte ud t permts s that whose eocty potenta s
proportona to the sod ange defned geometrcay n the genera
souton g en under E ampe 2 .
64. netc energy of compounded acycc and poycycc rrotatona moton- netco-statcs. The wor done n the operaton
descrbed n 62 s cacuated drecty by summng the products
of the pressure nto an nfntesma area of the surface nto the
space through whch the fud contguous wth ths area mo es
n the drecton of the norma for a parts of the surface whether
boundary or nterna barrer where the genetc pressure s apped
and for a nfntesma d sons of the whoe tme from the
commencement of the moton.
a Let w denote the wor done and fdt tme-ntegraton
from the begnnng of moton up to any nstant. At any pre ous
nstant et p be the pressure the eocty and b the eocty
potenta of the fud contguous to any eement do of the
boundng surface the dfference of fud pressures on the two
sdes of any eement d9 of one of the nterna barrers and N the
norma component of the fud eocty contguous to ether do or
d t . The precedng statement e pressed n symbos s
dt - fpNdao I f Nds .................. 6
E denotng summaton for the se era barrers f there are more
than one. Accordng to the genera hydro netc theorem for
rrotatona moton 59 6 compare wth 1 5 wth b e pressed
n terms of the co-ordnates of a pont mo ng wth the fud we
ha e
- - ........................ 7
Now et us suppose the pressure to be mpus e so that there s
nfntey tte change of shape ether of the boundng surface or of
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N RTE M TI N
65
the barrers durng the tme fdt. Ths w aso mpy that do/dt
s nfntey great n comparson wth 2 so that
aP dt......................8dt .
And accordng to the notaton of 57 we ha e
N b........................... 9 .
Aso s constant o er each barrer surface.
Hence 6 becomes
dt ff b a ff Ad ......... 10 .
64 b The ntatng moton of the boundng surface and
the pressures on the barrers may be ared ute arbtrary from
the begnnng to the end of the mpuse so that the hstory
wthn that perod of the ac uston of the prescrbed fna
eocty may be atogether dfferent and not e en smutaneous
n dfferent parts of the boundng surface. Thus and 2 may
be ute dfferent functons of t pro ded ony f dt and f 2dt
ha e the prescrbed aues whch we sha denote by ft and t2
respect ey.
c ut for one e ampe we may suppose f to ha e at each
nstant of fdt e erywhere one and the same proporton of ts fna
aue so that f the atter be denoted by D and f we put. .. 11
t.......................... I
m s ndependent of co-ordnates of poston but may of course be
any arbtrary functon of the tme. Hence obser ng that
dm
dt m dr
as the fna aue of m s 1 10 becomes
ff b do- t. ffbds ............ 12 .
d The second member of ths e uaton doubed agrees wth
the two e ua second members of 7 57 wth f and each
made e ua to D. And the frst member of that e uaton becomes
twce the netc energy of the whoe moton. Hence when
b and 20 0 7 of 57 e presses the e uaton of energy
. I .
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66
HYDR DYNAMICS
2
for the mpus e generaton of the fud moton correspondng to
eocty potenta b by pressures aryng throughout accordng
to the same functon of the tme the frst member beng twce
the netc energy of the moton generated and the second twce
the wor done n the process.
64 e . As another e ampe et us suppose the ntatng
pressures to be so apped as frst to generate a moton correspondng to eocty potenta b and after that to change the
eocty potenta from fb to b b denotng by b and any two
functons such that 4 0 D and each fufng Lapace s
e uaton: and et the augmentaton from ero to and agan
from b to b be unform through the whoe fud. The wor
done n the frst process found as abo e 12
2 ffrr do- Ecff bds ............... 1
f 1 2 amp c. denote the cycc constants reat e to f as fR 2 amp c.
reat ey to t and the addtona wor done n the second process
smary found s
ff 2 I bp do ff 2b be dA ...... 14 .
f Now as we ha e seen 6 that the actua fud moton
depends at each nstant whoy on the norma eocty at each
pont of the boundng surface and the aues of the cycc constants
t foows that the wor done n generatng t ought to be ndependent of the order and aw of the ac uston of eocty at the
boundng surface and of the attanment of the aues of the se era
cycc constants. Hence the sum of 1 and 14 ought to be
e ua to 12 . ut f for 4 n 12 we substtute b c the
dfference between ts aue and that of the sum of 1 and 14
s found to be
ff b - c b do Sc f ds - ff b ds ... 15
whch beng haf the dfference between the two e ua second
members of 7 57 for the case of
20 0 and 20 0
s e ua to ero. Hence the e uaty of the second members of
7 57 consttutes the anaytca reconcaton of the e uatons
of energy for dfferent modes of generaton of the same fud
moton.
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1867
67
. THE TRANSLAT RY EL CITY A CIRC LAR RTE
RING.
Appended to Prof. Tat s transaton of Hemhot s 2emor on orte
Moton Ph. Mag. III. 1867 511-512.
LL ING as neary as may be Hemhot s notaton et g be
the radus of the crcuar a s of a unform orte -rng and a the
radus of the secton of ts core whch w be appro matey
crcuar when a s sma n comparson wth g the orte moton
beng so nsttuted that there s no moecuar rotaton n any part
of the fud e teror to ths core and that n the core the anguar
eocty of the moecuar rotaton s appro matey w or rgorousy

g
for any fud partce at dstance from the straght a s.
I fnd that the eocty of transaton s appro matey e ua to
oa2/ 8g 1
2p og 8#
uanttes of the same order as ths mutped by a/g beng
negected .
The eocty of the ud at the surface of the core s appro matey constant and e ua to coa. At the centre of the rng t s
rwa2 /g.
If these be denoted by and respect ey and f T be the
eocty of transaton we therefore ha e
T a og1
o8g
a 4
27r
5-2
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68 HYDR DYNAMICS
Hence the eocty of transaton s ery arge n comparson
wth the fud eocty aong the a s through the centre of the
rng when the secton s so sma that og 8g/a s arge n cormparson wth 27r. ut the eocty of transaton s aways sma
n comparson wth the eocty of the fud at the surface of the
core and the more so the smaer s the dameter of the secton n
comparson wth the dameter of the rng.
These resuts remo e competey the dffcuty whch has
htherto been fet wth reference to the transaton of nfntey
thn orte -faments. I ha e ony succeeded n obtanng them
snce the communcaton of my mathematca paper Apr 29
1867 to the Roya Socety of Ednburgh but hope to be aowed
to add a proof of them to that paper shoud t be accepted for the
Transactons.
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1871
69
4 5. HYDR INETIC S L TI NS AND
SER ATI NS .
rom the Phosophca Maga ne o. LII. No . 1871 pp. 62- 77
reprnted n atmore Lectures 1904 pp. 584-601.
4. N THE M TI N REE S LIDS THR GH A LI ID.
Part I.- Acycc Moton produced by a freey mo ng Sod.
THIS paper commences wth the foowng e tract from the
author s pr ate ourna of date anuary 6 1858: Let 9 t1 2 be rectanguar components of an
mpus e force and an mpus e coupe apped to a sod of n arabe shape wth or wthout nerta of ts own n a perfect
ud and et u w a p ar be the components of near and
anguar eocty generated. Then f the s at twce the
mechanca aue of the whoe moton be as t cannot but be
g en by the e presson
u 2 2 ... 2 u 2 w u wu ...
2 w u ru ...
where u u amp c. denote 21 constant coeffcents determnabe by transcendenta anayss from the form of the surface
of the sod probaby n o ng ony eptc transcendentas when
the surface s epsoda: n o ng of course the moments of
nerta of the sod tsef: we must ha e
u u t n w u u p u p p a- amp c.
u r u w w p p a- a- t amp c.
Parts I. and II. from the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh for
1870-71. Parts III. and I . from etters to Professor Tat of August 1871. Part .
appended to ths communcaton September 1871.
Henceforth T nstead of I s used to denote the mechanca aue or as
t s now caed the netc energy of the moton.
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70 HYDR INETIC S L TI NS AND SER ATI NS 4
If now a contnuous force Y and a contnuous coupe
L M N referred to a es f ed n the body s apped and f
... amp c. denote the mpus e force and coupe capabe of generatng from rest the moton u w wr p - whch e sts n
reaty at any tme t or merey mathematcay f amp c. denote
for bre ty the precedng near functons of the components of
moton the e uatons of moton are as foows:d _ p d amp c.
d P dt
A w -mA - ap L I
dt
dt
w - Lu - Ap .Mw M
dt
Three frst ntegras when
Y 0 L M N ... 2
must of course be and ob ousy are
2 2 2 const......................
resutant momentum constant
AtD - const............... 4
resutant of moment of momentum constant and
u w I ptM o- ......... 5 .
These e uatons were communcated n a etter to Professor
Sto es of date probaby anuary 1858 and they were referred
to by Professor Ran ne n hs frst paper on Stream-nes
communcated to the Roya Socety of London uy 186 .
They are now communcated to the Roya Socety of Ednburgh and the foowng proof s added: These e uatons w be ery con enenty caed the Eueran e uatons of
the moton. They correspond precsey to Euer s e uatons for the rotaton of a
rgd body and ncude them as a partcuar case. As Euer seems to ha e been
the frst to g e e uatons of moton n terms of co-ordnate components of eocty
and force referred to nes f ed reat ey to the mo ng body t w be not ony
con enent but ust to desgnate as Eueran e uatons any e uatons of moton
n whch the nes of reference whether for poston or eocty or moment of
momentum or force or coupe mo e wth the body or the bodes whose moton
s the sub ect. The noteboo of date 1858 contanng ths eary statement of the
theory of the mpuse has been preser ed. or de eopments see Lamb s
Hydrodynamcs.
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1871 N THE M TI N REE S LIDS THR GH A LI ID 71
Let P be any pont f ed reat ey to the body and at tme t
et ts co-ordnates reat ey to a es Y f ed n space
be y . Let PA P PC be three rectanguar a es f ed
reat ey to the body and A A Y ... the cosnes of the
nne ncnatons of these a es to the f ed a es Y .
Let the components of the mpuse or genera ed momentum parae to the f ed a es be I I and ts moments
round the same a es so that f Y be components
of force actng on the sod n ne through P and L M N
components of coupe we ha e
a y
do d- d d/ -
dt dt dt
d L y- Y M - N Y - y
d -t - dLet 9 and L f be the components and moments
of the mpuse reat ey to the a es PA P PC mo ng wth the
body. e ha e: A 9 C ........................................................... ......................................... 7 .
I A f C y- ...................... ... o ..... o .........................................................................
Now et the f ed a es Y be chosen concdent wth
the poston at tme t of the mo ng a es PA P PC: we sha
conse uenty ha e
y 0
d dy d
d dy d ................ 8
dt dt dt
A Y 1
A Y A C C Y 0
d A Y d d C
dt dt dt
d A d d C Y
dt dt dt
sng 7 8 and 9 n 6 we fnd 1 .
See orte Moton 6 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edn. 1868 .
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72 HYDR INETIC S L TI NS AND SER ATI NS
4
ne chef ob ect of ths n estgaton was to ustrate dynamca effects of hegoda property that s rght or eft-handed
asymmetry . The case of compete sotropy wth he9oda
uaty s that n whch the coeffcents n the uadratc e presson
for T fuf the foowng condtons.
u u w w et m be ther common aue
5 p p o- P n
I I p w h
w 0 p a P o p 0o
and
u p - - C w p 0
so that the formua for T s
T - m u2 2 w2 n 2 p2 a2 2h ur p wo 11 .
or ths case therefore the Eueran e uatons 1 become
d mu h- m - wp amp c.
and d nw hu L amp c.. 11 .
and dt L C.
Memorandum:-Lnes of reference f ed reat ey
to the body.
ut nasmuch as 11 remans unchanged when the nes of
reference are atered to any other three nes at rght anges to
one another through P t s easy shown drecty from 6 7
and 9 that f aterng the notaton we ta e u w to denote
the components of the eocty of P parae to three f ed rectanguar nes and A p a the components of the body s anguar
eocty round these nes we ha e
d mu - h p
d h amp c.
dt
and d nw hu
dt h - - pw L amp c.
Memorandum:-Lnes of reference f ed n space
whch are more con enent than the Eueran e uatons.... 12
The ntegraton of these e uatons when nether force nor
coupe acts on the body 0 amp c. L 0 amp c. presents no
dffcuty but ts resut s ready seen from 21 orte
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1871 N THE M TI N REE S LIDS THR GH A LI ID 7
Moton to be that when the mpuse s both transatory and
rotatona the pont P round whch the body s sotropc
mo es unformy n a crce or spra so as to eep at a constant
dstance from the a s of the mpuse and that the components of anguar eocty round the three f ed rectanguar a es
are constant.
An sotropc hecod may be made by attachng pro ectng
anes to the surface of a gobe n proper postons for nstance
cuttng at 45 each at the mddes of the twe e uadrants of
any three great crces d dng the gobe nto eght uadranta
tranges. y ma ng the gobe and the anes of ght paper a
body s obtaned rgd enough and ght enough to ustrate by
ts motons through ar the motons of an sotropc he od
through an ncompressbe ud. ut curous phenomena not
deducbe from the present n estgaton w no doubt on account
of scosty be obser ed.
Part II.- Cycc Moton through a perforated Sod. -7/
St consderng ony one mo eabe rgd body nfntey
remote from dsturbance of other rgd bodes f ed or mo eabe
et there be an aperture or apertures through t and et there be
rrotatona crcuaton or crcuatons . 60 orte Moton
through them. Let: r be the components of the mpuse
at tme t parae to three f ed a es and /t ts moments
round these a es as abo e wth a notaton the same we st
ha e 26 orte Moton
d- amp c.
dt....... 6 repeated .
L y - Y amp c.
dt
ut nstead of for T a uadratc functon of the components of
eocty as before we now ha e
T E I u ... 2 u ... ...... 1
where E s the netc energy of the fud moton when the sod
s at rest and t u u 2 ... s the same uadratc as before.
The coeffcents u u u amp c. are determnabe by a transcendenta anayss of whch the character s not at a nfuenced
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74 HYDR INETIC S L TI NS AND SER ATI NS
4
by the crcumstance of there beng apertures n the sod. And
nstead of dT/du amp c. as abo e we now ha e
dT dT dT: d 11 d - Im - In
du d dw
dc T - ... 14
I ny-m G1 amp c. amp c.
where I denotes the resutant mpuse of the cycc moton
when the sod s at rest I rn n ts drecton-cosnes G ts
rotatona moment 6 orte Moton and y the coordnates of any pont n ts resutant a s. These 14 wth
1 used n 6 g e the e uatons of the sod s moton referred
to f ed rectanguar a es. They ha e the ncon enence of
the coeffcents u u u amp c. beng functons of the anguar
coordnates of the sod. The Eueran e uatons free from ths
ncon enence are ready found on precsey the same pan as
that adopted abo e for the od case of no cycc moton n the
fud.
The formuae for the case n whch the rng s crcuar has no
rotaton round ts a s and s not acted on by apped forces
though of course easy deduced from the genera e uatons
14 1 6 are more ready got by drect appcaton of frst
prncpes. Let P be such a pont n the a s of the rng and
A such constants that 1 0o2 Au2 2 s the netc
energy due to rotatona eocty o round D any dameter
through P and transatona eoctes u aong the a s and
perpendcuar to t. The mpuse of ths moton together wth
the supposed cycc moton s therefore compounded of
A u I aong the a s
momentum n nes through P Sy I aong th a s
perpendcuar to a s
and moment of momentum oC round the dameter D.
Hence f be the a s of resutant momentum y the
co-ordnates of P reat ey to f ed a es Y 0 the ncnaton
of the a s of the rng to and the constant aue of the
resutant momentum we ha e
cos0 Aue - sn 0 :y o
and.. 15
u cos 0 - sn 0 sn 0 cos 0 0 w
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1871 N THE M TI N REE S LIDS THR GH A LI ID 75
Hence for 0 we ha e the dfferenta e uaton
A d2 Isn sn20 0...... 16
whch shows that the rng oscates rotatonay accordng to the
aw of a hor onta magnetc neede carryng a bar of soft ron
rgdy attached to t parae to ts magnetc a s.
hen 0 s and remans nfntey sma 0 y and y are each
nfntey sma remans nfntey neary constant and the rng
e perences an oscatory moton n perod
72 I A - I A
compounded of transaton aong Y and rotaton round the
dameter D. Ths resut s curousy comparabe wth the we nown gyroscopc bratons.
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76 5
5. IN L ENCE IND AND CAPILLARITY N A ES
IN ATER S PP SED RICTI NLESS.
Part III.-The Infuence of nd on a es n water supposed
frctoness. Letter to Professor Tat of date August 16 1871.
TA ING ertcay downwards and 0 Y hor onta et
h sn n y - at .................... 1
be the e uaton of the secton of the water by a pane perpendcuar to the wa e-rdges and et h the haf wa e-heght be
nfntey sma n comparson wth 2rr/n the wa e-ength . The
-component of the eocty of the water at the surface s then
- nah cos n y - at .................. 2
and ths because h s nfntesma must be the aue of d/d
for the pont 0 y f 4 denote the eocty-potenta at any pont
y of the water. Now because
d20 dy
and b s a perodc functon of y and a functon of whch
becomes ero when oo t must be of the form
P cos ny - e E-n
where P and e are ndependent of and y. Hence ta ng do/d
puttng 0 n t and e uatng t to 2 we ha e
- Pn cos ny - e - nah cos ny - nat
and therefore P ah and e nat so that we ha e
/ ae-n cos n y - at .................. .
Ths t s to be remar ed resuts smpy from the assumptons
that the water s frctoness that t has been at rest and that
ts surface s mo ng n the manner specfed by 1 .
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1871 IN L ENCE IND AND S R ACE-TENSI N N A ES 77
If the ar were a frctoness ud mo ng rrotatonay
wth a constant eocty at heghts abo e the water that s to
say aues of - consderaby e ceedng the wa e-ength ts
eocty potenta 4t found on the same prncpe woud be
- a hen cos n y - at y............... 4 .
Let now denote the resutant eocty at any pont y of the
ar. Negectng nfntesmas of the order nh 2 we ha e
2 2- - a nhe sn n y - at ...... 5 .
Now f p denote the pressure at any pont y n the ar and
cr the densty of the ar we ha e by the genera e uaton for
pressure n an rrotatonay mo ng fud
-P 2 g .................. 6 .
sng 4 and 5 n ths and puttng C a-c 2 we fnd
-p - nh -a 2 esn n y - at - g ...... 7 .
Smary f p denote the pressure at any pont y of the water
snce n ths case 2 s nfntesma we ha e
- p nha2e- nsn n y - at - g ............ 8
the densty of the water beng ta en as unty.
Now et T be the cohes e tenson of the separatng surface of
ar and water. The cur ature of the surface at any pont y
g en by e uaton 1 beng d2 /dy2 s e ua to
- n2h sn n y - at ..................... 9 .
Hence at any pont y fufng 1
p-p Tn2h sn n y - at ............... 10
and by 7 and 8 wth for ts aue by 1 whch as h s
nfntesma ony affects ther ast terms we ha e
p-p h In r - a 2 a2 -g 1o- sn n y -at ... 1 .
Ths compared wth 10 g es
n - a 2 a2 g 1 Tn......... 12 .
Let w / I T n- 1 2 1.................. 1
whch beng the aue of a for s the eocty of pro
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78 HYDR INETIC S L TI NS AND SER ATI NS
5
pagaton of wa es wth no wnd when the wa e-ength s 27r/n.
Then 12 becomes
-a w ..................... 14
a2 or _ca 0 2 14
1 .
whch determnes a the eocty of the same wa es when there
s wnd of eocty n the drecton of propagaton of the wa es.
So ng the uadratc we ha e
a _ a w- gt . 15 .
Ths resut eads to the foowng concusons:
1 hen t w / 1 //-
the aues of a are post e and negat e that s to say wa es
can tra e wth or aganst the wnd. The post e aue s aways
greater that s to say wa es tra e faster wth than aganst the
wnd. The eocty of wa es tra eng aganst the wnd s aways
ess than w the eocty wthout wnd.
2 hen t 2w the eocty of wa es tra eng wth the
wnd s greater than w. hen 2w the eocty of the wa es
wth the wnd s undsturbed by the wnd a resut ob ous wthout
The concuson 2 s ncorrect and s corrected n the reprnt n atmore
Lectures where the resuts 1 2 4 are repaced by the foowng:
for g en wa e-ength 27r/n the greatest wa e- eocty s w / 1 whch s
reached when ths s the eocty of the wnd. It s nterestng to see that wth
wnd of any other speed than that of the wa es and n the drecton of the wa es
ther speed s ess. or nstance the wa e-speed wth no wnd whch s w s ess
by appro matey o- of wt or about 1/1650 than the speed when the wnd s wth
the wa es and of ther speed. The e panaton ceary s that when the ar s motoness reat ey to the wa e crests and hoows ts nerta s not caed nto pay.
1 hen - -287
one of the aues of a s ero that s to say statc corrugatons of wa e-ength
27r/n woud be e ubrated by wnd of eocty
w / o /7 .
ut the e ubrum woud be unstabe.
2 hen 1 .28-7 1 8
T w /o- 825/
the two aues of a are e ua.
a
hen - gt
both aues of a are magnary and therefore the wnd woud bow nto spn-drft
wa es of ength 2rn/n or shorter. Then foows 16 and 16 .
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1871 IN L ENCE IND AND S R ACE-TENSI N N A ES 79
anayss. hen gt 2w the eocty of wa es tra eng wth the
wnd s ess than the eocty of the same wa es wthout wnd.
hen gt w. 1 - /a- wa es of such ength that w woud
be ther eocty wthout wnd cannot tra e aganst the wnd.
4 hen gt w 1 o / /o there cannot be wa es of so sma
ength as that for whch the undsturbed eocty s w and the
e ubrum of the water s essentay unstabe. And 1 shows
that the mnmum aue of w s
2.gT 1-. ....................
Hence the water wth a pane e e surface s unstabe f the
eocty of the wnd e ceeds
/2 gT -........ 16 .
Part I .- Letter to Professor Tat of date August 2 1871.
Defnng a rppe as any wa e on water whose ength
t 27rr T /g t where
1-a T
9g T ............... 1
a 00122 you aways see an e uste pattern of rppes n
front of any sod cuttng the surface of water and mo ng hor ontay at any speed fast or sow. The rppe-ength s the
smaer root of the e uaton
27T
T g-.................... 18
where w s the eocty of the sod. The atter may be a sang esse or a row-boat a poe hed ertcay and carred hor ontay an ory penc-case a pen nfe-bade ether edge or
fat sde foremost or best a fshng-ne ept appro matey
ertca by a ead weght hangng down beow water whe carred
aong at about haf a me per hour by a becamed esse. The
fshng-ne shows both roots admraby rppes n front and
wa es of same eocty the greater root of same e uaton
n rear. If so fortunate as to be becamed agan I sha try
to get a drawng of the whoe pattern showng the transton
at the sdes from rppes to wa es. hen the speed wth whch
woud be unstabe e en f the ar were frctoness. .L. reprnt.
hch for pure water 7 centm. see Part . .
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80 HYDR INETIC S L TI NS AND SER ATI NS
5
the fshng-ne s dragged s dmnshed towards the crtca
eocty
whch s the mnmum eocty of a wa e beng see Part .
beow for pure water 2 centms. per second or 1/2 29 of a
nautca me per hour the rppes n front eongate and become
ess cur ed and the wa es n rear become shorter t at the
crtca eocty wa es and rppes seem neary e ua and wth
rdges neary n straght nes perpendcuar to the ne of moton.
Ths s obser aton. It seems that the crtca eocty may
be determned wth some accuracy by e perment thus see
Part . beow:Remar that the shorter the rppe-ength the greater s the
eocty of propagaton and that the mo ng force of the rppemoton s party gra ty but chefy coheson and wth ery
short rppe-ength t s amost atogether coheson .e. the same
force as that whch ma es a dew drop trembe. The east eocty
of frctoness ar that can rase a rppe on rgorousy uescent
frctoness water s 16 abo e
660 centmetres per second 12 8 nautca mes per hour
r
beng - mnmum wa e- eocty .
bser aton shows the sea to be ruffed by wnd of a much
smaer eocty than ths. Such ruffng therefore s due to
scosty of the ar.
Postscrpt to Part I .- ctober 17 1871 .
The nfuence of scosty g es rse to a greater pressure on
the anteror than on the posteror sde of a sod mo ng unformy
reat ey to a fud. A symmetrca sod as for e ampe a
gobe mo ng unformy through a frctoness fud e perences
augmentaton of pressure n front and behnd e uay and
dmnshed pressure o er an nter enng one. bser aton as
for nstance n Mr . R. Naper s e perments on hs pressure
og for measurng the speed of esses and e perments by oue
and mysef on the pressure at dfferent ponts of a sod gobe
e posed to wnd shows that nstead of beng ncreased the
pressure s sometmes actuay dmnshed on the posteror sde
Therma Effects of uds n Moton Roya Socety Transactons 1860
and Ph. Mag. 1860 o. . p. 552.
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1871
IN L ENCE IND N A ES
81
of a sod mo ng through a rea fud such as ar or water.
nd bowng across rdges and hoows of a f ed sod such
as the furrows of a fed must because of the scosty of the
ar press wth greater force on the sopes facng t than on the
shetered sopes. Hence f a reguar seres of wa es at sea conssted of a sod body mo ng wth the actua eocty of the wa es
the wnd woud do wor upon t or t woud do wor upon the
ar accordng as the eocty of the wnd were greater or ess than
the eocty of the wa es. Ths case does not afford an e act
parae to the nfuence of wnd on wa es because the surface
partces of water do not mo e forward wth the eocty of the
wa es as those of the furrowed sod do. St t may be e pected
that when the eocty of the wnd e ceeds the eocty of propagaton of the wa es there w be a greater pressure on the
posteror sopes than on the anteror sopes of the wa es and
ce ersca that when the eocty of the wa es e ceeds the
eocty of the wnd or s n the drecton opposte to that of the
wnd there w be a greater pressure on the anteror than on
the posteror sopes of the wa es. In the frst case the tendency
w be to augment the wa e n the second case to dmnsh t.
The ueston whether a seres of wa es of a certan heght
graduay augment wth a certan force of wnd or graduay
subsde through the wnd not beng strong enough to sustan
them cannot be decded offhand. Towards answerng t Sto es s
n estgaton of the wor aganst scosty of water re ured to
mantan a wa e g es a most mportant and suggest e nstament. ut no theoretca souton and ery tte of e permenta
n estgaton can be referred to wth respect to the eddyngs of
the ar bowng across the tops of the wa es to whch by ts
g ng rse to greater pressure on the posteror than on the
anteror sopes the nfuence of the wnd n sustanng and mantanng wa es s chefy f not atogether due.
My attenton ha ng been caed three days ago by Mr roude
to Scott Russe s Report on a es rtsh Assocaton Yor
1844 I fnd n t a remar abe ustraton or ndcaton of the
eadng dea of the theory of the nfuence of wnd on wa es
that the eocty of the wnd must e ceed that of the wa es n
the foowng statement:- Let hm an obser er studyng the
I Transactons of the Cambrdge Phosophca Socety 1851 Effect of Interna
rcton of uds on the Moton of Penduums Secton . .
. I . 6
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82 HYDR INETIC S L TI NS AND SER ATI NS
5
surface of a sea or arge a e durng the success e stages of an
ncreasng wnd from a cam to a storm begn hs obser atons
n a perfect cam when the surface of the water s smooth and
refects e a mrror the mages of surroundng ob ects. Ths
appearance w not be affected by e en a sght moton of the
ar and a eocty of ess than haf a me an hour 81 n. per
sec. does not sensby dsturb the smoothness of the refectng
surface. A gente ephyr fttng aong the surface from pont
to pont may be obser ed to destroy the perfecton of the
mrror for a moment and on departng the surface remans
poshed as before f the ar ha e a eocty of about a me an
hour the surface of the water becomes ess capabe of dstnct
refe on and on obser ng t n such a condton t s to be
notced that the dmnuton of ths refectng power s owng
to the presence of those mnute corrugatons of the superfca
fm whch form wa es of the thrd order. These corrugatons
produce on the surface of the water an effect ery smar to
the effect of those panes of gass whch we see corrugated for
the purpose of destroyng ther transparency and these corrugatons at once pre ent the eye from dstngushng forms at a
consderabe depth and dmnsh the perfecton of forms refected
n the water. To fy-fshers ths appearance s we nown as
dmnshng the facty wth whch the fsh see ther captors.
Ths frst stage of dsturbance has ths dstngushng crcumstance
that the phenomena on the surface cease amost smutaneousy
wth the ntermsson of the dsturbng cause so that a spot
whch s shetered from the drect acton of the wnd remans
smooth the wa es of the thrd order beng ncapabe of tra eng
spontaneousy to any consderabe dstance e cept when under
the contnued acton of the orgna dsturbng force. Ths
condton s the ndcaton of present force not of that whch
s past. he t remans t g es that deep bac ness to the
water whch the saor s accustomed to regard as an nde of the
presence of wnd and often as the forerunner of more.
The second condton of wa e moton s to be obser ed when
the eocty of the wnd actng on the smooth water has ncreased
to two mes an hour. Sma wa es then begn to rse unformy
o er the whoe surface of the water these are wa es of the
second order and co er the water wth consderabe reguarty.
Capary wa es dsappear from the rdges of these wa es but
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1871
IN L ENCE IND N A ES
8
are to be found shetered n the hoows between them and on
the anteror sopes of these wa es. The reguarty of the dstrbuton of these secondary wa es o er the surface s remar abe
they begn wth about an nch of amptude and a coupe of
nches ong they enarge as the eocty or duraton of the wa e
ncreases by and by contermna wa es unte the rdges ncrease
and f the wnd ncrease the wa es become cusped and are
reguar wa es of the second order. They contnue enargng ther
dmensons and the depth to whch they produce the agtaton
ncreasng smutaneousy wth ther magntude the surface
becomes e tens ey co ered wth wa es of neary unform
magntude.
The Capary wa es or wa es of the thrd order referred
to by Russe are what I n gnorance of hs obser atons on ths
branch of hs sub ect had caed rppes. The eocty of 8- nches
211 centmetres per second s precsey the eocty he had
chosen as ndcated by hs obser atons for the eocty of
propagaton of the straght-rdged wa es streamng ob uey
from the two sdes of the path of a sma body mo ng at speeds
of from 12 to 6 nches per second and t agrees remar aby
wth my theoretca and e permenta determnaton of the
absoute mnmum wa e- eocty 2 centmetres per second
see Part . . Russe has not e pcty ponted out that hs
crtca eocty of 8 nches per second was an absoute mnmum
eocty of propagaton. ut the dea of a mnmum eocty of
wa es can scarcey ha e been far from hs mnd when he f ed
upon 81 nches per second as the mnmum of wnd that can
sustan rppes. In an artce to appear n Nature on the 26th
of ths month I ha e g en e tracts from Russe s Report
ncudng part of a uotaton whch he g es from Ponceet and
Lesbros n the memors of the rench Insttute for 1829 showng
how far my obser atons on rppes had been antcpated. I need
say no more here than that these antcpatons do not ncude
any ndcaton of the dynamca theory whch I ha e g en and
that the sub ect was new to me when Parts III I and of
the present communcaton were wrtten.
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84 HYDR INETIC S L TI NS AND SER ATI NS
5
Part . a es under mot e power of Gra ty and Coheson
onty wthout wnd.
Lea ng the ueston of wnd consder 1 and ntroduce
notaton of 16 17 n t. It becomes
w2 T........................ 19 .
n
Ths has a mnmum aue
w2 2/gT 7
I....................... 20 .
when n
In appyng these formuae to the case of ar and water we
may negect the dfference between g and g as the aue of a s
about 86 and between T and T athough t s to be remar ed
that t s T rather than T that s ordnary cacuated from
e perments on capary attracton. rom e perments of GayLussac s t appears that the aue of T s about 07 of a gramme
weght per centmetre that s to say n terms of the netc
unt of force founded on the gramme as unt of mass
T g 07 .
To ma e the densty of water unty as that of the ower ud
has been assumed we must ta e one centmetre as unt of ength.
Lasty wth one second as unt of tme we ha e
g 982
and 18 g es
w 982 074 n
for the wa e- eocty n centmetres per second correspondng
to wa e-ength 27r/n. hen /n /07 27 that s when the
wa e-ength s 1 7 centmetre the eocty has a mnmum aue
of 2 centmetres per second.
The part of the precedng theory whch reates to the effect of
coheson on wa es of uds occurred to me n conse uence of
ha ng recenty obser ed a set of ery short wa es ad ancng
steady drecty n front of a body mo ng sowy through water
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1871
A ES NDER GRA ITY AND C HESI N
85
and another set of wa es consderaby onger foowng steady
n ts wa e. The two sets of wa es ad anced each at the same
rate as the mo ng body and thus I perce ed that there were
two dfferent wa e-engths whch ga e the same eocty of propagaton. hen the speed of the body s moton through the
water was ncreased the wa es precedng t became shorter and
those n ts wa e became onger. Cose before the cut-water of
a esse mo ng at a speed of not more than two or three nots
through ery smooth water the surface of the water s mar ed
wth an e ustey fne and reguar frnge of rppes n whch
se era scores of rdges and hoows may be dstngushed and
probaby counted wth a tte practce n a space e tendng 20
or 0 centmetres n ad ance of the sod. Rght astern of ether
a steamer or sang esse mo ng at any speed abo e four or
f e nots wa es may generay be seen foowng the esse at
e acty ts own speed and appearng of such engths as to erfy
as neary as can be udged the ordnary formua
27rw2
for the ength of wa es ad ancng wth eocty w n deep
water. In the we- nown theory of such wa es gra ty s
assumed as the soe orgn of the mot e forces. hen coheson
was thought of at a as for nstance by Mr roude n hs
mportant nautca e perments on modes towed through water
or set to oscate to test uates wth respect to the rong of
shps at sea t was usty udged to be not sensby nfuenta n
wa es e ceedng 5 or 10 centmetres n ength. Now t becomes
apparent that for wa es of any ength ess than 5 or 10 centmetres coheson contrbutes sensby to the mot e system
and that when the ength s a sma fracton of a centmetre
coheson s much more nfuenta than gra ty as mot e for the
bratons.
The foowng e tract t from part of a etter to Mr roude
formng part of a communcaton to Nature to appear on the
26th of ths month descrbes obser atons for an e permenta
determnaton of the mnmum eocty of wa es n sea-water:-...
The speed one not s a eocty of one nautca me per hour or
51 5 centmetres per second.
t Reprnted p. 88 nfra.
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86
6
6. RIPPLES AND A ES .
rom Nature o. . 1871 pp. 1- .
You ha e aways consdered coheson of water capary
attracton as a force whch woud serousy dsturb such e perments as you were ma ng f on too sma a scae. Part of ts
effect woud be to modfy the wa es generated by towng your
modes through the water. I ha e often had n my mnd the
ueston of wa es as affected by gra ty and coheson onty but
ha e ony been ed to brng t to an ssue by a curous phenomenon whch we notced at the surface of the water round a
fshng-ne one day sppng out of ban becamed at about
haf a me an hour through the water. The speed was so sma
that the ead ept the ne amost ertcay downwards so that
the e permenta arrangement was merey a thn straght rod
hed neary ertca and mo ed through smooth water at speeds
from about a uarter to three- uarters of a me per hour. I
tred boat-hoo s oars and other forms of mo ng sods but they
seemed to g e none of them so good a resut as the fshng-ne.
The sma dameter of the fshng-ne seemed to fa our the resut
and I do not thn ts roughness nterfered much wth t. I sha
howe er ta e another opportunty of tryng a smooth round rod
e a penc ept ertca by a ead weght hangng down under
water from one end whe t s hed up by the other end. The
fshng-ne howe er wthout any other appance pro ed ampy
suffcent to g e ery good resuts.
hat we frst notced was an e tremey fne and numerous
set of short wa es precedng the sod much onger wa es foowng
t rght n the rear and ob ue wa es streamng off n the usua
manner at a defnte ange on each sde nto whch the wa es n
E tract from a etter to Mr . roude by Sr . Thomson.
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1871
RIPPLES AND A ES
87
front and the wa es n the rear merged so as to form a beautfu
and symmetrca pattern the tactcs of whch I ha e not been
abe thoroughy to foow htherto. The dameter of the sod
that s to say the fshng-ne beng ony two or three mmetres and the ongest of the obser ed wa es f e or s centmetres t s cear that the wa es at dstances n any drectons
from the sod e ceedng ffteen or twenty centmetres were
sensby unforced that s to say mo ng each as f t were part
of an endess seres of unform parae wa es undsturbed by any
sod . Hence the wa es seen rght n front and rght n rear
showed what became mmedatey an ob ous resut of theory
two dfferent wa e-engths wth the same eocty of propagaton.
The speed of the esse fang off the wa es n rear of the fshngne became shorter and those n ad ance onger showng another
ob ous resut of theory. The speed further dmnshng one set
of wa es shorten and the other engthen unt they become as
neary as I can dstngush of the same engths and the ob ue
nes of wa es n the nter enng pattern open out to an obtuse
ange of neary two rght anges. or a ery short tme a set of
parae wa es some before and some behnd the fshng-ne and
a ad ancng drect wth the same eocty were seen. The speed
further dmnshng the pattern of wa es dsappeared atogether.
Then sght tremors of the fshng-ne produced for e ampe by
str ng t abo e water caused crcuar rngs of wa es to d erge
n a drectons those n front ad ancng at a greater speed
reat ey to the water than that of the fshng-ne. A these
phenomena ustrated ery remar aby a geometry of rppes
communcated a good many years ago to the Phosophca
Maga ne by Hrst n whch howe er so far as I can recoect
the dynamcs of the sub ect were not dscussed. The speed of
the sod whch g es the unform system of parae wa es before
and behnd t was ceary an absoute mnmum wa e- eocty
beng the mtng eocty to whch the common eocty of the
arger wa es n rear and shorter wa es n front was reduced by
shortenng the former and engthenng the atter to an e uaty
of wa e-ength.
Ta ng 074 of a gramme weght per centmetre of breadth
for the cohes e tenson of a water surface cacuated from
e perments by Gay Lussac contaned n Posson s theory of
capary attracton for pure water at a temperature so far as
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88
HYDR DYNAMICS
6
I recoect of about 9 Cent. and one gramme as the mass of a
cubc centmetre I fnd for the mnmum eocty of propagaton
of surface wa es 2 centmetres per second . The mnmum
wa e eocty for sea-water may be e pected to be not ery
dfferent from ths. It woud of course be the same f the
cohes e tenson of sea water were greater than that of pure
water n precsey the same rato as the densty.
About three wee s ater beng becamed n the Sound of
Mu I had an e ceent opportunty wth the assstance of
Prof. Hemhot and my brother from efast of determnng by
obser aton the mnmum wa e eocty wth some approach to
accuracy. The fshng-ne was hung at a dstance of two or three
feet from the esse s sde so as to cut the water at a pont not
sensby dsturbed by the moton of the esse. The speed was
determned by throwng nto the sea peces of paper pre ousy
wetted and obser ng ther tmes of transt across parae panes
at a dstance of 912 centmetres asunder f ed reat ey to the
esse by mar s on the dec and gunwae. y watchng carefuy
the pattern of rppes and wa es whch connected the rppes n
front wth the wa es n rear I had seen that t ncuded a set of
parae wa es santng off ob uey on each sde and presentng
appearances whch pro ed them to be wa es of the crtca ength
and correspondng mnmum speed of propagaton. Hence the
component eocty of the fshng-ne perpendcuar to the fronts
of these wa es was the true mnmum eocty. To measure t
therefore a that was necessary was to measure the ange between
the two sets of parae nes of rdges and hoows sopng away
on the two sdes of the wa e and at the same tme to measure
the eocty wth whch the fshng-ne was dragged through the
water. The ange was measured by hodng a onted two-foot
rue wth ts two branches as neary as coud be udged by the
eye parae to the sets of nes of wa e-rdges. The ange to
whch the ruer had to be opened n ths ad ustment was the
ange sought. y ayng t down on paper drawng two straght
nes by ts two edges and competng a smpe geometrca
constructon wth a ength propery ntroduced to represent the
measured eocty of the mo ng sod the re ured mnmum
ne nautca me per hour the ony other measurement of eocty e cept the
rench metrca rec onng whch ought to be used n any practca measurement
s 51 6 centmetres per second.
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RIPPLES AND A ES
89
wa e- eocty was ready obtaned. S obser atons of ths nd
were made of whch two were re ected as not satsfactory. The
foowng are the resuts of the other four: eocty of Deduced Mnmum
Mo ng Sod. a e- eocty.
51 centmetres per second. 2 0 centmetres per second.
8 2 8.
26 2 2.
24 22 9.
Mean 2 -22
The e treme coseness of ths resut to the theoretca estmate
2 centmetres per second was of course merey a concdence
but t pro ed that the cohes e force of sea-water at the temperature not noted of the obser aton cannot be ery dfferent from
that whch I had estmated from Gay Lussac s obser atons for
pure water.
I need not troube you wth the theoretca formuae ust now
as they are g en n a paper whch I ha e communcated to the
Roya Socety of Ednburgh and whch w probaby appear soon
n the Phosophca Maga ne. If 2 centmetres per second be
ta en as the mnmum speed-they g e 1 7 centmetres for the
correspondng wa e-ength.
I propose f you appro e to ca rppes wa es of engths ess
than ths crtca aue and generay to restrct the name wa es
to wa es of engths e ceedng t. If ths dstncton s adopted
rppes w be unduatons such that the shorter the ength from
crest to crest the greater the eocty of propagaton whe for
wa es the greater the ength the greater the eocty of propagaton. The mot e force of rppes s chefy coheson that of wa es
chefy gra ty. In rppes of engths ess than haf a centmetre
the nfuence of gra ty s scarcey sensbe coheson s neary
paramount. Thus the mot e of rppes s the same as that of the
trembng of a dew drop and of the spherca tendency of a drop
of ran or spherue of mst. In a wa es of engths e ceedng f e
or s centmetres the effect of coheson s practcay nsensbe
and mo ng force may be regarded as whoy gra ty. Ths
seems ampy to confrm the choce you ha e made of dmensons
n your modes so far as concerns escapng dsturbances due to
coheson.
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90
HYDR DYNAMICS
6
The ntroducton of coheson nto the theory of wa es e pans
a dffcuty whch has often been fet n consderng the patterns
of standng rppes seen on the surface of water n a fnger-gass
made to sound by rubbng a most fnger on ts p. If no other
e eng force than gra ty were concerned the ength from crest
to crest correspondng to 256 bratons per second woud be a
forteth of a mmetre. The rppes woud be ute undstngushabe wthout the ad of a mcroscope and the dsturbance of the
surface coud ony be perce ed as a dmmng of the refectons
seen from t. ut ta ng coheson nto account I fnd the ength
from crest to crest correspondng to the perod of I- of a second
to be 1 9 mmetres a ength whch ute corresponds to ordnary
e perence on the sub ect.
hen gra ty s negected the formua for the perod P n
terms of the wa e-ength 1 the cohes e tenson of the surface
T and the densty of the fud p s
P / P
27rT
where T must be measured n netc unts. or water we ha e
p 1 and accordng to the estmate I ha e ta en from Posson
and Gay Lussac T 982 -074 7 . Hence for water
/27r 7 21 4
hen I s anythng ess than haf a centmetre the error from
thus negectng gra ty s ess than 5 per cent. of P. hen 1
e ceeds 51 centmetres the error from negectng coheson s ess
than 5 per cent. of the perod. It s to be remar ed that whe
for wa es of suffcent ength to be nsensbe to coheson the
perod s proportona to the s uare root of the ength for rppes
short enough to be nsensbe to gra ty the perod ares n the
ses upcate rato of the ength.
ILLIAM TH MS N.
Mr roude ha ng caed my attenton to Mr Scott Russe s
Report on a es rtsh Assocaton Yor 1844 as contanng
obser atons on some of the phenomena whch formed the sub ect
of the precedng etter to hm I fnd n t under the headng
982 beng the weght of one gramme n netc unts of force centmetres per
second.
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RIPPLES AND A ES
91
a es of the Thrd rder or Capary a es a most
nterestng account of the rppes as I ha e caed them seen
n ad ance of a body mo ng unformy through water aso a
passage uoted by Russe from a paper of date No . 16 1829
by Ponceet and Lesbros where t seems ths cass of wa es was
frst descrbed.
Ponceet and Lesbros after premsng that the phenomenon s
seen when the e tremty of a fne rod or bar s ghty dpped n a
fowng stream g e a descrpton of the cur ed seres of rppes
whch frst attracted my attenton n the manner descrbed n the
precedng etter . Russe s uotaton concudes wth a statement
from whch I e tract the foowng:-... on trou e ue es rdes
sont mperceptbes uand a tesse est moyennement au dessous
de 25 c. per seconde.
Russe g es a dagram to ustrate ths aw. So far as I can
see the comparat ey ong wa es foowng n rear of the mo ng
body ha e not been descrbed ether by Ponceet and Lesbros or
by Russe nor are they shown n the pan contaned n Russe s
dagram. ut the cur e shown abo e the pan ob ousy ntended
to represent the secton of the water-surface by a ertca pane
g es these wa es n the rear as we as the rppes n front and
pro es that they had not escaped the attenton of that ery acute
and carefu obser er. In respect to the cur es of the rpperdges Russe descrbes them as ha ng the appearance of a
group of confoca hyperboas whch seems a more correct descrpton than that of Ponceet and Lesbros accordng to whch they
present the aspect of a seres of paraboc cur es. It s cear
howe er from my dynamca theory that they cannot be accurate
hyperboas and as far as I am yet abe to udge Russe s
dagram e hbtng them s a ery good representaton of ther
forms. Antcpatng me n the geometrca determnaton of a
mtng eocty by obser ng the ange between the ob ue
termna straght rdge-nes streamng out on the two sdes
Russe estmates t at 81 nches 21 centmetres per second.
Ponceet and Lesbros s estmate of 25 centmetres per second
for the smaest eocty of sod reat ey to fud whch g es
rppes n front and Russe s termna eocty of 211 centmetres
per second are n remar abe harmony wth my theory and
Memors of the rench Insttute 1829.
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92
RIPPLES AND A ES
6
obser aton whch g e 2 centmetres per second as the mnmum
eocty of propagaton of wa e or rppe n water.
Russe cas the rppes n front forced and the ob ue
straght wa es streamng off at the sdes free -appeatons
whch mght seem at frst sght to be n thorough accordance
wth the facts of obser aton as for nstance the foowng ery
mportant obser aton of hs own: It s perhaps of mportance to state that when whe these
forced wa es were beng generated I ha e suddeny wthdrawn
the dsturbng pont the frst wa e mmedatey sprang bac from
the others showng that t had been n a state of compresson
and the rdges became parae and mo ng on at the rate of
8 nches per second dsappeared n about 12 seconds.
Ne ertheess I mantan that the rppes of the arous degrees
of fneness seen n the dfferent parts of the frnge are a
propery free wa es because t foows from dynamca theory
that the moton of e ery porton of fud n a wa e and therefore
of course the eocty of propagaton s appro matey the same
as f t were part of an nfnte seres of straght-rdged parae
wa es pro ded that n the actua wa e the radus of cur ature
of the rdge s a arge mutpe of the wa e-ength and that
there are se era appro matey e ua wa es precedng t and
foowng t.
No ndcaton of the dynamca theory contaned n my communcaton to the Phosophca Maga ne and descrbed n the
precedng etter to Mr roude appears ether n the uotaton
from Ponceet and Lesbros or n any other part of Mr Scott
Russe s report but I fnd wth peasure my obser aton of a
mnmum eocty beow whch a body mo ng through water
g es no rppes antcpated and confrmed by Ponceet and
Lesbros and my e permenta determnaton of the eocty of
the ob ue straght-rdged unduatons mtng the seres of
rppes antcpated and confrmed by Russe.
The dynamca theory shows that the ength from crest to crest depends on
the correspondng component of the sod s eocty. or ery fne rppes t s
appro matey proportona to the recproca of the s uare of ths component
eocty and therefore to the s uare of the secant of the ange between the ne of
the sod s moton and the hor onta ne perpendcuar to the rdge of the rppe.
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9
7. N THE RCES E PERIENCED Y S LIDS IMMERSED
IN A M ING LI ID.
rom the Proceedn s of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh for 1869-70
reprnted wth the addtons n n Papers on Eectrostatcs and
Magnetsm 1872 pp. 567-571.
CYCLIC rrotatona moton 60 once estabshed through
an aperture or apertures n a mo abe sod mmersed n a ud
contnues for e er after wth crcuaton or crcuatons unchanged
60 a howe er the sod be mo ed or bent and whate er
nfuences e perenced from other bodes. The sod f rgd and
eft at rest must ceary contnue at rest reat ey to the fud
surroundng t to an nfnte dstance pro ded there be no other
sod wthn an nfnte dstance from t. ut f there be any
other sod or sods at rest wthn any fnte dstance from the
frst there w be mutua forces between them whch f not
baanced by proper appcaton of force w cause them to mo e.
The theory of the e ubrum of rgd bodes n these crcumstances mght be caed netco-statcs but t s n reaty a
branch of physca statcs smpy. or we now of no case of true
statcs n whch some f not a of the forces are not due to moton
whether as n the case of the hydrostatcs of gases than s to
Causus and Ma we we perfecty understand the character of
the moton or as n the statcs of uds and eastc sods we
ony now that some nd of moecuar moton s essentay concerned. The theorems whch I now propose to brng before the
Roya Socety regardng the forces e perenced by bodes mutuay
nfuencng one another through the medaton of a mo ng ud
though they are but theorems of abstract hydro netcs are of
some nterest n physcs as ustratng the great ueston of the
The references wthout farther tte are to the author s paper on orte
Moton recenty pubshed n the Transactons 1869 whch contans defntons
of a the new terms used n the present artce. Proofs of such of the propostons
now enuncated as re ure proof are to be found n a contnuaton of that paper.
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94
HYDR DYNAMICS
7
18th and 19th centures:-Is acton at a dstance a reaty or s
gra taton to be e paned as we now bee e magnetc and
eectrc forces must be by acton of nter enng matter
I. Proposton. Consder frst a snge f ed body wth one
or more apertures through t as a partcuar e ampe a pece of
straght tube open at each end. Let there be rrotatona crcuaton of the fud through one or more such apertures. It s
ready pro ed from 6 E am. 2 that the eocty of the
fud at any pont n the neghbourhood agrees n magntude and
drecton wth the resutant eectro-magnetc force at the correspondng pont n the neghbourhood of an eectro-magnet
repacng the sod constructed accordng to the foowng specfcaton. The core on whch the wre s wound s to be of
any matera ha ng nfnte damagnetc nduct e capacty-
and s to be of the same s e and shape as the sod mmersed n
the fud. The wre s to form an nfntey thn ayer or ayers
wth one crcut gong round each aperture. The whoe strength
of current n each crcut rec oned n absoute eectro-magnetc
measure s to be e ua to the crcuaton of the fud through
that aperture d ded by /4-7r. The resutant eectro-magnetc
force at any pont w be numercay e ua to the resutant fud
eocty at the correspondng pont n the hydro netc system
mutped by /47r.
Thus consderng for e ampe the partcuar case of a straght
tube open at each end et the dameter be nfntey sma n
comparson wth the ength. The crcuaton w e ceed by
but an nfntey sma uantty the product of the eocty wthn
the tube nto the ength. In the neghbourhood of each end at
dstances from t great n comparson wth the dameter of the
tube and short n comparson wth the ength the stream nes
w be straght nes radatng from the end. The eocty
outwards from one end and nwards towards the other w therefore be n ersey as the s uare of the dstance from the end.
Generay at a consderabe dstances from the ends the ds r from Hemhot s orgna ntegraton of the hydro netc e uatons.
t Rea damagnetc substances are accordng to araday s ery e press e
anguage reat ey to nes of magnetc force worse conductors than ar.
The dea substance of nfnte damagnetc nduct e capacty s a substance
whch competey sheds off nes of magnetc force or whch s perfecty mper ous
to magnetc force.
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1869 RCES E PERIENCED Y IMMERSED S LIDS
95
trbuton of fud eocty w be the same as that of the magnetc
force n the neghbourhood of an nfntey thn bar ongtudnay
magnetsed unformy from end to end.
Merey as regards the comparson between fud eocty and
resutant magnetc forces Euer s fancfu theory of magnetsm s
thus curousy ustrated. Ths comparson whch has been ong
nown as part of the correaton between the mathematca theores
of eectrcty magnetsm conducton of heat and hydro netcs
s merey nematca not dynamca. hen we pass as we
presenty sha to a strcty dynamca comparson reat ey to
the mutua force between two hard stee magnets we sha fnd
the same aw of mutua acton between two tubes wth ud
fowng through each but wth ths remar abe dfference that
the forces are opposte n the two cases un e poes attractng
and e poes repeng n the magnetc system whe n the
hydro netc there s attracton between e ends and repuson
between un e ends.
II. Proposton Consder two or more f ed bodes such
as the one descrbed n Prop. I. The mutua actons of two of
these bodes are e ua but n opposte drectons to those
between the correspondng eectro-magnets. The partcuar
nstance referred to abo e shows us the remar abe resut that
through fud pressure we can ha e a system of mutua acton n
whch e attracts e wth force aryng n ersey as the s uare
of the dstance. Thus f the e t ends of tubes open at each end
wth fud fowng through them be paced n the neghbourhood
of one another and the enterng ends be at nfnte dstances the
mutua forces resutng w be smpy attractons accordng to
ths aw. The engths of the tubes on ths supposton are
nfntey great and therefore as s easy pro ed from the conser aton of energy the uanttes fowng out per unt of tme
are but nfntesmay affected by the mutua nfuence. hen
any change s aowed n the reat e postons of two tubes by
whch wor s done a dmnuton of netc energy of the fud s
produced wthn the tubes and at the same tme an augmentaton
of ts netc energy n the e terna space. The former s e ua
to doube the wor done the atter s e ua to the wor done
and so the oss of netc energy from the whoe ud s smpy
e ua to the wor done.
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96
HYDR DYNAMICS
7
III. Proposton II. hods e en f one of the bodes consdered be merey a sod wth or wthout apertures f wth
apertures ha ng no crcuaton through them. In such a case as
ths the correspondng magnetc system conssts of a magnet or
eectro-magnet and a merey damagnetc body not tsef a
magnet but dsturbng the dstrbuton of magnetc force around
t by ts damagnetc nfuence. Thus for e ampe a spherca
sod at rest n the fed of moton surroundng a f ed body
through apertures n whch there s cycc rrotatona moton
w e perence from fud pressure a resutant force through ts
centre e ua and opposte to that e perenced by a sphere of
nfnte damagnetc capacty smary stuated n the neghbourhood of the correspondng eectro-magnet. Therefore accordng
to araday s aw for the atter and the comparson asserted n
Prop. I. t woud e perence a force from paces of ess towards
paces of greater fud eocty rrespect ey of the drecton of
the stream nes n ts neghbourhood a resut easy deduced
from the eementary formua for fud pressure n hydro netcs.
I ha e ong ago shown that an eongated damagnetc body
n a unform magnetc fed tends as tends an eongated ferromagnetc body to pace ts ength aong the nes of force. Hence
a ong sod p oted on a f ed a s through ts mdde n a unform
stream of ud tends to pace ts ength perpendcuary across
the drecton of moton a nown resut Thomson and Tat s
Natura Phosophy 5 . Agan two gobes hed n a unform
stream wth the nes onng ther centres re ure force to pre ent
them from mutuay approachng one another. In the magnetc
anaogue two spheres of damagnetc or ferromagnetc nduct e
capacty repe one another when hed n a ne at rght anges
to the nes of force. A hydro netc resut smar to ths for
the case of two e ua gobes s to be found n Thomson and
Tat s Natura Phosophy 2.
I . Proposton. If the body consdered n III. be an
nfntey sma gobe and be acted on by force apped so as
aways to baance the resutant of the fud pressure cacuated
for t accordng to II. and III. for whate er poston t may
come to at any tme and f t be nfuenced besdes by any
The proposton as orgnay pubshed wthout mtaton s ob ousy fase
athough that t s so I ha e ony perce ed to-day. Sept. 1872.
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1869
RCES E PERIENCED Y IMMERSED S LIDS
97
other system of apped forces supermposed on the former t
w mo e ust as t woud mo e under the nfuence of the
atter system of forces aone were the fud at rest e cept n so
far as compeed to mo e by the body s own moton through t.
A partcuar case of ths proposton was frst pubshed many
years ago by Professor ames Thomson on account of whch he
ga e the name of orte of free mobty to the cycc rrotatona moton symmetrca round a straght a s. Addtona
Sept. 14 1872.-The same proposton hods for a gobe of any
dmensons n a fed of fud moton consstng of crcuaton or
crcuatons wth nfntey fne rgd endess cur e or cur es for
core and no other rgd body n the ud. Demonstraton to
appear n the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh for
1871-2 .
Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh March 4 1872 nfra p. 108 .
. I .
7
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98
8
8. N ATTRACTI NS AND REP LSI NS D E T I RATI N.
E tracts from two etters to Prof. . Guthre from the Phosophca
Maga ne for une 1871 reprnted n Papers on Eectrostatcs and
Magnetsm 1872 pp. 571-4 741- .
GLASG No . 14th 1870.
I HA E to-day rece ed the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety
contanng your paper n Approach caused by braton
whch I ha e read wth great nterest. The e perments you
descrbe consttute ery beautfu ustratons of the nown
theorem for fud pressure n abstract hydro netcs wth whch
I ha e been much occuped n mathematca n estgatons
connected wth orte -moton.
741. Accordng to ths theorem the a erage pressure at any
pont of an ncompressbe frctoness fud orgnay at rest
but set n moton and ept n moton by sods mo ng to and
fro or whrng round n any manner though a fnte space of
t s e ua to a constant dmnshed by the product of the
densty nto haf the s uare of the eocty. Ths mmedatey
e pans the attractons demonstrated n your e perments
for n each case the a erage s uare of eocty s greater
on the sde of the card nearest the tunng-for than on the
remote sde. Hence ob ousy the card must be attracted by
the for as you ha e found t to be but t s not so easy at
frst sght to perce e that the s uare of the a erage eocty
must be greater on the surfaces of the tunng-for ne t to the
card than on the remote portons of the bratng surface.
Your theoretca obser aton howe er that the attracton must
be mutua s beyond doubt ad as we may con nce ourse es
by magnng the stand whch bears the tunng-for and the
card to be perfecty free to mo e through the fud. If the
card were attracted towards the tunng-for and there were
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1871 N ATTRACTI NS AND REP LSI NS D E T I RATI NS 99
not an e ua and opposte force on the remander of the whoe
surface of the tunng-for and support the whoe system woud
commence mo ng and contnue mo ng wth an acceerated
eocty n the drecton of the force actng on the card-an
mpossbe resut. It mght ndeed be argued that ths resut
s not mpossbe as t mght be sad that the netc energy
of the bratons coud graduay transform tsef nto netc
energy of the sod mass mo ng through the fud and of the
fud escapng before and cosng up behnd the sod. ut
common sense amost suffces to put down such an argument
and eementary mathematca theory especay the theory of
momentum n hydro netcs e paned n my artce on orte moton negat es t.
742. The aw of the attracton whch you obser ed agrees
perfecty wth the aw of magnetc attracton n a certan dea
case whch may be fuy specfed by the appcaton of a prncpe
e paned n a short artce 7 -740 communcated to the
Roya Socety of Ednburgh n ebruary ast 1870 as an abstract
of an ntended contnuaton of my paper on orte -moton.
Thus f we ta e as an dea tunng-for two gobes or ds s
mo ng rapdy to-and-fro n the ne onng ther centres the
correspondng magnet w be a bar wth poes of the same name
as ts two ends and a doube opposte poe n ts mdde. Agan
the anaogue of your paper ds s an e ua and smar damagnetc of e treme damagnetc nduct e capacty 7 4 .
The mutua force between the magnetc and the damagnetc
w be e ua and opposte to the correspondng hydro netc
force at each nstant. To appy the anaogy we must suppose
the magnet to graduay ary from ma mum magnet aton to
ero then through an e ua and opposte magnet aton bac
through ero to the prmt e magnet aton and so on perodcay. The resutant of fud pressure on the ds s not at
each nstant e ua and opposte to the magnetc force at the
correspondng nstant but the a erage resutant of the fud
pressure s e ua to the a erage resutant of the magnetc force.
Inasmuch as the force on the damagnetc s generay repuson
from the magnet howe er the magnet be hed and s unatered
n amount by the re ersa of the magnet aton t foows that
Transactons of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh read 29th Apr 1867.
7 2
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HYDR DYNAMICS
8
the a erage resutant of the fud pressure s an attracton on the
whoe towards the tunng-for nto whate er poston the tunngfor be turned reat ey to t....
No . 2 1870.
74 ....There are no doubt curousy cose anaoges between
some of the crcumstances of moton n contguous fuds of
dfferent denstes and the dstrbuton of magnetc force n a
fed occuped by substances of dfferent nduct e capactes.
Thus f n a great space occuped by frctoness ncompressbe
ud denser n some portons than n others a sod be suddeny
set n moton the nes of the fud moton frst generated agree
perfecty compare 751-76 beow wth the permanent nes
of magnetc force n a correspondngy heterogeneous medum
under the nfuence of a bar-magnet to be substtuted for the
mo eabe sod and paced wth ts magnetc a s n the ne of
the sod s moton. As to amounts the fud eocty mutped
nto the densty s smpy e ua to the resutant magnetc force
at each pont f the partcuar defnton the eectromagnetc
defnton 517 Postscrpt of the resutant magnetc force
n a medum of heterogeneous nduct e capacty g en n the
foot-note to 516 abo e 48 of my paper on the Mathematca
Theory of Magnetsm be adopted. ut here the anaogy
ends the rgdty n rtue of whch a sod mo eabe n a fud
medum dfferng from t n magnetc nduct e capacty eeps
ts form does not e st contrast 751 beow n the hydro netc
anaogue....
Phosophca Transactons une 21 1849. Pubshed n Part I. for 1851.
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101
9. N THE M TI N RIGID S LIDS IN A LI ID CIRC LATING
IRR TATI NALLY THR GH PER RATI NS IN THEM R IN
A I ED S LID.
rom the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh reprnted n
Ph. Iagy. o. L . 187 pp. 2- 45.
1. LET A ... be the aues at tme t of generased coordnates fuy specfyng the postons of any number of sods
mo abe through space occuped by a perfect ud desttute of
rotatona moton and not acted on by any force whch coud
produce t. Some or a of these sods beng perforated et
amp c. be the uanttes of ud whch from any era of
rec onng up to the tme t ha e tra ersed the se era apertures.
Accordng to an e tenson of Lagrange s genera e uatons of
moton used n o. I. of Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy
1- 6 pro ed n 29 1 of the German transaton of
that oume and to be further de eoped n the second Engsh
edton now n the press t we may use these uanttes ... as
f they were co-ordnates so far as concerns the e uatons of moton.
Thus athough the poston of any part of the fud s not ony
not e pcty specfed but s actuay ndetermnate when - b ...
... are a g en we may regard ... as specfyng a that
t s necessary for us to ta e nto account regardng the moton
of the ud n formng the e uatons of moton of the sods so
that f I ... and P t ... denote the generased components of
momentum and of force Thomson and Tat 1 c b reat ey
to r sb ... and f c ... ... denote correspondng eements
The tte and frst part 1-1 are new. The remander 14 15 was communcated to the Roya Socety at the end of ast December.- . T. September 26
1872.
t nder the headng gnoraton of coordnates.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
9
reat ey to ... we ha e Hamtonan form of Lagrange s
genera e uatons
dt d# dt do
d bT dc bT. 1
d ...
dt d dt d
where T denotes the whoe netc energy of the system and b
dfferentaton on the hypothess of I 7 ... ... constant.
2. To ustrate the meanng of ... et be one
of the perforated sods to be regarded generay as mo abe.
Draw an mmatera barrer surface f2 across the aperture to
whch they are reated and consder ths barrer as f ed reat ey
to . Let N denote the norma component eocty reat ey to
and f2 of the fud at any pont of and et ffda denote
ntegraton o er the whoe area of f2: then
ffNdo ......... ................. 2
and fdtffNdo-.........................
whch s a symboca e presson of the defnton of . To the
surface of fud concdng wth f at any nstant et pressure be
apped of constant aue per unt of area o er the whoe area
and at the same tme et force or force and coupe be apped to
e ua and opposte to the resutant of ths pressure supposed
for a moment to act on a rgd matera surface f2 rgdy connected wth . The mot e that s to say system of forces
consstng of the pressure on the fud surface and force and
coupe as ust defned consttutes the generased component
force correspondng to Thomson and Tat 1 b for t
does no wor upon any moton of or other bodes of the system
f s ept constant and f ares wor s done at the rate
per unt of tme
whate er other motons or forces there may be n the system.
Lasty cang the densty of the fud unty et denote
crcuaton . M. 60 a t of the fud n any crcut crossng
r f ds f denote the tangenta component of the absoute eocty of the
fud at any pont of the crcut and fds ne ntegraton once round the crcut.
References dstngushed by the ntas . M. are to the part aready pubshed
of the author s paper on orte Moton. Transactons of the Roya Socety of
Ednburgh 1867-8 and 1868-9.
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187
CYCLIC M TI N RING-SHAPED S LIDS
10 / once and ony once: t s ths whch consttutes the generased
component momentum reat ey to Thomson and Tat 1
e for . M. 72 we ha e
a: dt........................... 4
o
f the system g en at rest or n any state of moton for whch
0 be acted on by the mot e durng tme t .
. The netc energy T s of course necessary a uadratc
functon of the generased momentum-components I ... ..
wth coeffcents generay functons of E b ... but necessary
ndependent of ... In conse uence of ths pecuarty t s
con enent to put
T -a/c- a - amp c. -8: -/ / - amp c. ... c ... ......... 5
where denote two uadratc functons. Ths we may ceary
do because f be the number of the arabes: 7 ... and the
number of c ... the whoe number of coeffcents n the snge
uadratc functon e pressng r s 1 whch s
e ua to the whoe number of the coeffcents 2 1 - 1
of the two uadratc functons together wth the a aabe
uanttes a ... a / ......
4. The meanng of the uanttes a a ... a .o. thus ntroduced
s e dent when we remember that
dT dT dT d.
fdT d d d 6
or dfferentatng 5 and usng these we fnd
1- .......................
d d
and usng these atter
d ot do
2 d c. d - a - E- c. ............ 8 .
E uatons 8 show that - a - 4 - a amp c. are the contrbutons to the fu across I 2 amp c. g en by the separate eocty The genera mtaton for mpus e acton that the dspacements effected
durng t are nfntey sma s not necessary n ths case. Compare 5 11
beow.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
9
components of the sods. And 7 show that to pre ent the sods
from beng set n moton when mpuses ... are apped to the
ud at the barrer surfaces we must appy to them mpuses
e pressed by the e uatons
a aC amp c r. 7 / / amp c ....... 9 .
5. To form the e uatons of moton we ha e n the frst
pace
... 10
d -o d
and therefore by 1
d dtc
d ................... 11
dt dt 1
whch show that the acceeraton of c under the nfuence of
foows smpy the aw of acceeraton of a mass under the nfuence
of a force. Agan for the motons of the sods et
to -a - a C - amp c. 70 7 - / - / - amp c. .... 12
and et /d r amp c. denote aratons of on the hypothess of
0f 0 ... each constant.
e ha e from 5 rememberng that bIT/dr amp c. denote
aratons of T on the hypothess of I a7 ... f c ... constant
bT d da d
d r d# da d d # s c.
d a d d amp - amp
d d# d# c
-- - - amp c. C c.. d
or by 7
d d- dr dr
- -d amp . - amp amp c. . 1 .
the dnr f the dse r
Hence by 1
c D - d da da .
-- --- - f amp C.
1 Pe d
dt d da d d/ d/ 9 b gt
- - - amp C. - amp C. -...... 14 .
d I d r dd
7Now remar that accordng to the notaton of 12 0 o ... are
the momentum-components of the sods due to ther own moton
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187
CYCLIC M TI N RING-SHAPED S LIDS
105
aone wthout cycc moton of the ud and therefore emnate: 7 .-. by 12 from 14 . Thus we fnd
do d a d amp
d- C d - amp c.
dt d#fd dt dt
d da d amp c
c da td da dy
d c7 - - amp C. amp C.t- 15
d d d d# r dcy
whch wth the correspondng e uaton for o amp c. and wth 11
for c c amp c. are the desred e uatons of moton.
6. The hypothetca mode of appcaton of ... 1 s
mpossbe and e ery other such as the nfuence of gra ty on a
rea ud at dfferent temperatures n dfferent parts s mpossbe
for our dea ud that s to say a homogeneous ncompressbe
perfect fud. Hence we ha e 0 0 and from 11
concude that c ... are constants. They are sometmes caed
the cycc constants . M. 62-64 . The e uatons of
moton 15 thus become smpy
dao da _ cdd d 1
dt d d c dpr doI d1
f da dy /d dy amp c _
d0
wth correspondng e uatons for 0 0 and wth the foowng
reatons from 7 between 0 o70... and d 4 ...
d a d
T cr c 8 -0 0 amp c......... 17 .
do do d co
7. Let
du- _ du -d amp c. be denoted by . 18
so that we ha e
I - ..................... 19 .
These uanttes t 0 r amp c. near functons of the cycc
constants wth coeffcents dependng on the confguraton of the
system are to be generay regarded smpy as g en functons of
the co-ordnates 0 ...: and the e uatons of moton are
dt t r f amp 0 1 c amp b- t
dt d d# 2
d 0 D b ... 20 .
dt _ d 1 I0 1 o. amp c.
dt do 0
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HYDR DYNAMICS
9
In these beng of the Hamtonan form s regarded as a
uadratc functon of to 0 4o... wth ts coeffcents functons of
0 amp c. and D apped to t ndcates aratons of these coeffcents. If now we emnate: 0 o... from by the near
e uatons of whch 17 s an abbre ated e presson and so
ha e e pressed as a uadratc functon of r w 0 ... wth
ts coeffcents functons of r b 0 amp c. and f we denote by
d /d# d /do amp c. aratons of dependng on aratons of
these coeffcents and by d /d r d /d amp c. aratons of
dependng on aratons of t amp c. we ha e compare Thomson
and Tat 29 1 and 15
- d 0d
d de............ 21
and D d d
dad d d d d
and the e uatons of moton become
d d t b
d a _
dt d d d
d d d f 0
-t 9 0 .... - - -
dT t de d d
The frst members here are of Lagrange s form wth the remar abe addton of the terms n o ng the eoctes smpy n
mutpcaton wth the cycc constants dependng on the cycc
fud moton. The ast terms of the second members contan traces
of ther Hamtonan orgn n the symbos b/d b/d ....
8. As a frst appcaton of these e uatons et - 0 0
0 0 .... Ths ma es 0 0 o 0... and therefore aso 0
and the e uatons of moton 16 now e uatons of e ubrum
of the sods under the nfuence of apped forces P amp c.
baancng the fud pressure due to the poycycc moton /C ...
become
y amp c ......... ..... 2
a resut whch a drect appcaton of the prncpe of energy
renders ob ous the augmentaton of the whoe energy produced
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CYCLIC M TI N RING-SHAPED S LIDS
107
by an nfntesma dspacement 8 r s b /d . 8f and T8 s
the wor done by the apped forces . It s pro ed n 724 -7 0 of a oume of coected papers on eectrcty and magnetsm
soon to be pubshed that t /d-4 b t/df amp c. are the components
of the forces e perenced by bodes of perfect damagnetc nduct e
capacty paced n the magnetc fed anaogous to the supposed
cycc rrotatona moton. Hence the mot e nfuence of the
cycc moton of the ud upon the sods n e ubrum s e ua
and opposte to that of magnetsm n the magnetc anaogue.
Ths s proposton II. of the paper n the orces e perenced
by Sods mmersed n a Mo ng L ud whch reates to the
forces re ured to eep the mo abe sods at rest. The present
n estgaton shows Prop. II. of that artce to be fase. Compare
Reprnt 740.
9. E uatons 16 for the case of a snge perforated mo abe
sod undsturbed by others agree substantay wth e uatons 6
and 14 of my communcatonS to the Roya Socety of Ednburgh
of ebruary 1871. The:0 0o ... of the present artce correspond
to the dT/du dT/d amp c. of the former the A ... mean the
same n both. The e uatons now demonstrated consttute an
e tenson of the theory not ready dsco ered or pro ed by that
smpe consderaton of the prncpe of momentum and moment
of momentum on whch aone was founded the n estgaton of
my former artce.
10. Gong bac to the anaytca defnton of n 5
we see that when none of the mo abe sods s perforated ths
confguratona functon s e ua to the whoe netc energy E
whch the poycycc moton woud ha e were there no mo abe
sods dmnshed by the energy whch woud be g en up
were the ud whch on ths supposton fows through the space
of the mo abe sod or sods suddeny rgdfed and brought to
rest. Puttng then
E - ........................ 24
and remar ng that E s ndependent of the co-ordnates of the
mo abe sods we may put - n pace of t n the e uatons
Proposton I. of artce on The orces e perenced by Sods mmersed
n a Mo ng L ud Proceedngs R. S. E. ebruary 1870 reprnted n oume of
Eectrc and Magnetc papers 7 -740 .
t See Proceedngs R. S. E. Sesson 1870-71 or reprnt n Phosophca Maga ne No ember 1871.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
9
of moton whch for ths sght modfcaton need not be wrtten
out agan. T mght be drecty defned as the whoe uantty of
wor re ured to remo e the mo abe sods each to an nfnte
dstance from any other sod ha ng a perforaton wth crcuaton
through t and wth ths defnton - may be put for n
the e uatons of moton wthout e cuson of cases n whch there
s crcuaton through apertures n mo abe sods.
11. I concude wth a ery smpe case the sub ect of my
communcaton to the Roya Socety of ast December n whch
the resut was g en wthout proof. Let there be ony one mo ng
body and t spherca et the perforated sod or sods be reduced
to an nfntey fne mmo abe rgd cur e or group of cur es
endess of course that s ether fnte and cosed or nfnte and
et there be no other f ed sod. The rgd cur e or cur es w
be caed the core or cores as ther part s smpy that of cores for
the cycc or poycycc moton. In ths case t s con enent to
ta e for b 0 the rectanguar co-ordnates y of the
centre of the mo abe gobe. Then because the cores beng
nfntey fne offer no obstructon to the moton of the ud
ma ng way for the gobe mo ng through t we ha e
m 2 2 .................. 25
where m denotes the mass of the gobe together wth haf that of
ts bu of the fud. Hence
d d d
d dy d
dA dy d .......... 26 .
and _0 . d M
n_7- f m 0 y
A further great smpfcaton occurs because n the present case
ad# d ... or as we now ha e t ad dy yd s a
compete dfferenta . To pro e ths et be the eoctypotenta at any pont a b c due to the moton of the gobe
rrespect ey of any cycc moton of the ud. e ha e
TT7- o / d. d d
d dy d D
where r denotes the radus of the gobe and
D - c 2 y - b 2 - c 2.
hch means that f the gobe after any moton whate er great or sma.
comes agan to a poston n whch t has been before the ntegra uantty of
ud whch ths moton has caused to cross any f ed area s ero.
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187
CYCLIC M TI N RING-SHAPED S LIDS
109
Hence f N denote the component eocty of the ud at a b c
n any drecton Mu we ha e
N d b bc ...... 27
where y a b c -r -d /d D
2 d dA deb
Let now a b c be any pont of the barrer surface 2 2 and
/t the drecton cosnes of the norma. y 2 of 2 we see
that the part of due to the moton of the gobe s ffNdr or
by 26
du y a b c do...... 28 .
d dy d /
Hence puttng
ff y a b c do-
we see by 8 of 4 that
d d d
d dy d ... 29 .
Hence wth the notaton of 7 18 for y ... nstead of 4 gt ...
y 0 0 y 0.
y ths and 25 the e uatons of moton 22 wth 24 become
smpy
d2 T d2y y d2 . 0 .
rdt2 d dt2 dy d
These e uatons e press that the gobe mo es as a matera partce
of mass m wth the forces Y e pressy apped to t woud
mo e n a fed of force ha ng for potenta.
12. The aue of s of course easy found by ad of spherca
harmoncs from the eocty potenta P of the poycycc moton
whch woud e st were the gobe remo ed and whch we must
suppose nown: and n wor ng t out beow t s ready
seen that f for the hypothetca undsturbed moton denote
the fud eocty at the pont reay occuped by the centre
of the rgd gobe we ha e
T -L 2 w........................ 1
where /u denotes one and a haf tmes the oume of the gobe
and w denotes the netc energy of what we may ca the nterna
moton of the ud occupyng for an nstant n the undsturbed
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HYDR DYNAMICS
9
moton the space of the rgd gobe n the rea system. To defne
w remar that the harmonc anayss pro es the eocty of the
centre of nerta of an rrotatonay mo ng ud gobe to be
e ua to the eocty of the ud at ts centre and consder
the eocty of any part of the ud sphere reat ey to a rgd
body mo ng wth the eocty . The netc energy of ths
reat e moton s what s denoted by w. Remar aso that f
by mutua forces between ts parts the ud gobe were suddeny
rgdfed the eocty of the whoe woud be e ua to and
that m 2 s the wor g en up by the rgdfed gobe and
surroundng ud when the gobe s suddeny brought to rest
beng the same as the wor re ured to start the gobe wth
eocty from rest n a motoness ud.
Let P be the eocty potenta at y n the actua
moton of the ud when the rgd gobe s f ed. Let a be the
radus of the gobe r dstance of y from ts centre and ff do
ntegraton o er ts surface. At any pont of the surface of the
nstantaneous ud gobe the component eocty perpendcuar
to the spherca surface n the undsturbed moton s dP/dr .
and hence the mpus e pressure on the spherca surface
re ured to change the eocty potenta of the e terna ud
from P to P f beng - - undoes an amount of wor e ua to
Iffd I cdP
do- . dr
n reducng the norma component from that aue to ero. n
the other hand the nterna eocty-potenta s reduced from P
to ero and the wor undone n ths process s
Hence dff- P dP..... 2 .
odr. 2 2 dr
Hence d P Y d .................. 2 .
The condton that wth eocty-potenta P s there s no fow
perpendcuar to the spherca surface g es
d d - 0................. .
dr drra
Ths foows mmedatey from the proposton Thomson and Tat s
Natura Phosophy 496 that any functon satsfyng Lapace s e uaton
d2 /d 2 d2 /dy2 d2 /d 2 throughout a spherca space has for ts mean aue
through ths space ts aue at the centre. or dP/d satsfes Lapace s e uaton.
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CYCLIC M TI N RING-SHAPED S LIDS
111
Now et r p amp
-P - Po - P - _ -... P - - amp c.
2 I -I L...... 4
f ... amp C.
be the spherca harmonc de eopments of P and r reat ey to
the centre of the rgd gobe as orgn the former necessary
con ergent throughout the argest spherca space whch can be
descrbed from ths pont as centre wthout encosng any part of
the core the atter necessary con ergent throughout space
e terna to the sphere. y we ha e
T P........................ 5 .
Hence 2 g es
w ffdo P P
whch by ffdo-PP 0
becomes 2 1 ffdP....... 6 .
2a .
Now remar ng that a sod spherca harmonc of the frst degree
may be any near functon of y put
P - A y C ................. 7
whch g es 2 A2 2 C
and
I a 2
1 da-P A2 2 CG2 . ff.d 2 oume of gobe y 2.
Hence by 6
2 ... 2 2. 8
and therefore by comparson wth 1
d 2 5 .47 p .......... 9
1 . hen the radus of the gobe s nfntey sma
2 ........................... 40
where / denotes one and a haf tmes the oume of the gobue
and the undsturbed eocty of the fud n ts neghbourhood.
Ths corresponds to the formua whch I ga e twenty-f e years
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HYDR DYNAMICS
9
ago for the force e perenced by a sma sphere whether of ferromagnetc or damagnetc non-crystane substance n rtue
of the nduct e nfuence whch t e perences n a magnetc
fed.
14. y ta ng an nfnte straght ne for the core a smpe
but ery mportant e ampe s afforded. In ths case the undsturbed moton of the fud s n crces ha ng ther centres n
the core or a s as we may now ca t and ther panes perpendcuar to t. As s we nown the eocty of rrotatona
re outon round a straght a s s n ersey proportona to dstance
from the a s. Hence the potenta functon for the force
e perenced by an nfntesma sod sphere n the fud s n ersey
as the s uare of the dstance of ts centre from the a s and
therefore the force s n ersey as the cube of the dstance and s
towards the nearest pont of the a s. Hence when the gobue
mo es n a pane perpendcuar to the a s t descrbes one or
other of the forms of Cotesan sprast. If t be pro ected ob uey
to the a s the component eocty parae to the a s w reman
constant and the other component w be unaffected by that one
so that the pro ecton of the gobue on the pane perpendcuar
to the a s w aways descrbe the same Cotesan spra as woud
be descrbed were there no moton parae to the a s. If the
gobue be eft to tsef n any poston t w commence mo ng
towards the a s as f attracted by a force aryng n ersey as the
cube of the dstance. It s remar abe that t tra erses at rght
anges an ncreasng ud current wthout any apped force to
pre ent t from beng as we mght erroneousy at frst sght e pect
t to be carred sdeways wth the augmented stream. A propery
traned dynamca ntegence woud at once perce e that the
constancy of moment of momentum round the a s re ures the
gobue to mo e drecty towards t.
15. Suppose now the gobue to be of the same densty as
the ud. If beng nfntey sma t s pro ected n the
n the orces E perenced by Sma Spheres under Magnetc Infuence and
some of the Phenomena presented by Damagnetc Substances Cambrdge and
Dubn Mathematca ourna May 1847 and Remar s on the orces e perenced
by Induct ey Magnetsed erromagnetc or Damagnetc Non-crystane Substances Ph. Mag. ctober 1850 . Reprnt of Papers on Eectrostatcs and
Magnetsm 6 4-668 Macman 1872.
t Tat and Steee s Dynamcs of a Partce 149 15 .
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187
CYCLIC M TI N RING-SHAPED S LIDS
11
drecton and wth the eocty of the ud s moton t w mo e
round the a s n the same crce wth the ud but ths moton
woud be unstabe and the negected term w 9 adds to the
nstabty . Compare Tat and Steee s Dynamcs of a Partce
149 15 Speces I . case A 0 and A fnte aso mtng
arety between Speces I. and Speces . The gobue w
descrbe the same crce n the opposte drecton f pro ected wth
the same eocty opposte to that of the fud. If the gobue
be pro ected ether n the drecton of the ud s moton or
opposte to t wth a eocty ess than that of the ud t w
mo e aong the Cotesan spra Speces I. of Tat and Steee
from apse to centre n a fnte tme wth an nfnte number of
turns. If t be pro ected n ether of those drectons wth a
eocty greater by than that of the ud t w mo e aong
the Cotesan spra Speces . of Tat and Steee from apse to
asymptote. Its eocty aong the asymptote at an nfnte dstance
from the a s w be
/ /
/ 7ra
and the dstance of the asymptote from the a s w be
a 2 a/
where a denotes the dstance of the apse from the a s and /c/27rct
the eocty of the ud at that dstance from the a s. If the
gobue be pro ected from any pont n the drecton of any
straght ne whose shortest dstance from the a s s p t w be
drawn nto the orte or escape from t accordng as the component
eocty n the pane perpendcuar to the a s s ess or greater
than /27rp. It s to be remar ed that n e ery case n whch the
gobue s drawn n to the a s e cept the e treme one n whch
ts eocty s nfntey tte ess than that of the fud and ts
spra path nfntey neary perpendcuar to the radus ector
the spra by whch t approaches athough t has aways an
nfnte number of con outons s of. fnte ength and therefore
of course the tme ta en to reach the a s s fnte. Consderng
for smpcty moton n a pane perpendcuar to the a s at any
pont nfntey dstant from the a s et the gobue be pro ected
wth a eocty aong a ne passng at dstance p on ether sde
. I . 8
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HYDR DYNAMICS
9
of the a s. Then f 7 denote the eocty of the fud at dstance
unty from the a s whch s e ua to /27r and f we put
T2
1......................... 41
the poar e uaton of the path s
r C S n........................
cos n 42 .
Hence the nearest approach to the a s attaned by the gobue
s np and the whoe change of drecton whch t e perences
s 7 n1 - 1 . The case of n-1 2 s represented n the
anne ed dagram coped from Tat and Steee s boo 149 15
Speces . .
gt R-.
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115
10. RTE STATICS.
rom the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh Sesson 1875-76
reprnted n Ph. fag. Aug. 1880.
THE sub ect of ths paper s steady moton of ortces.
1. E tended defnton of steady moton. The moton of
any system of sod or fud or sod and fud matter s sad to be
steady when ts confguraton remans e ua and smar and the
eoctes of homoogous partces e ua howe er the confguraton
may mo e n space and howe er dstant nd dua matera
partces may at one tme be from the ponts homoogous to ther
postons at another tme.
2. E ampes of steady and not steady moton: 1 A rgd body symmetrca round an a s set to rotate
round any a s through ts centre of gra ty and eft free performs
steady moton. Not so a body ha ng three une ua prncpa
moments of nerta.
2 A rgd body of any shape n an nfnte homogeneous
ud rotatng unformy round any aways the same f ed ne
and mo ng unformy parae to ths ne s a case of steady
moton.
A perforated rgd body n an nfnte ud mo ng n
the manner of e ampe 2 and ha ng cycc rrotatona moton
of the ud through ts perforatons s a case of steady moton.
To ths case beongs the rrotatona moton of ud n the
neghbourhood of any rotatonay mo ng porton of fud of the
same shape as the sod pro ded the dstrbuton of the
rotatona moton s such that the shape of the porton endowed
wth t remans unchanged. The ob ect of the present paper
s to n estgate genera condtons for the fufment of ths
pro so and to n estgate further the condtons of stabty
of dstrbutons of orte moton satsfyng the condton of
steadness.
8-2
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HYDR DYNAMICS
10
. Genera Synthetca Condton for Steadness of orte
Moton. The change of the fud s moecuar rotaton at any
pont f ed n space must be the same as f for the rotatonay
mo ng porton of the fud were substtuted a sod wth the
amount and drecton of a s of the fud s actua moecuar
rotaton nscrbed or mar ed at e ery pont of t and the whoe
sod carryng these nscrptons wth t were compeed to mo e
n some manner answerng to the descrpton of e ampe 2 . If
at any nstant the dstrbuton of any moecuar rotaton through
the fud and correspondng dstrbuton of fud- eocty are such
as to fuf ths condton t w be fufed through a tme.
4. Genera Anaytca Condton for Steadness of orte
Moton. If wth 24 beow ortcty and mpuse g en
the netc energy s a ma mum or a mnmum t s ob ous
that the moton s not ony steady but stabe. If wth same
condtons the energy s a ma mum-mnmum the moton s
ceary steady but t may be ether unstabe or stabe.
5. The smpe crcuar Hemhot rng s a case of stabe
steady moton wth energy ma mum-mnmum for g en ortcty
and g en mpuse. A crcuar orte rng wth an nner rrotatona annuar core surrounded by a rotatonay mo ng annuar
she or endess tube wth rrotatona crcuaton outsde a
s a case of moton whch s steady f the outer and nner
contours of the secton of the rotatona she are propery shaped
but certany unstabe f the she be too thn t. In ths case
aso the energy s ma mum-mnmum for crcuar g en ortcty
and g en mpuse.
6. In these e ampes of steady moton the resutantmpuse . M. 8 s a smpe mpus e force wthout coupe:
the correspondng rgd body of e ampe s a torod and
ts moton s purey transatona and parae to the a s of the
torod.
ne of Hemhot s now we- nown fundamenta theorems shows that fromn
the moecuar rotaton at e ery pont of an nfnte fud the eocty at e ery pont
s determnate beng e pressed synthetcay by the same formua as those for
fndng the magnetc resutant force of a pure eectromagnet. Thomson s
Reprnt of Papers on Eectrostatcs and Magnetsm.
f The phrase n s deeted n a copy annotated by Lord e n.
My frst seres of papers on orte Moton n the Transactons of the Roya
Socety of Ednburgh w be thus referred to henceforth.
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RTE STATICS
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e ha e aso e ceedngy nterestng cases of steady moton
n whch the mpuse s such that f apped to a rgd body t
woud be reducbe accordng to Ponsot s method to an mpus e
force n a determnate ne and a coupe wth ths ne for a s.
To ths category beong certan dstrbutons of ortcty g ng
ongtudna bratons wth thc enngs and thnnngs of the
core tra eng as wa es n one drecton or the other round a
orte -rng whch w be n estgated n a future communcaton
to the Roya Socety. In a such cases the correspondng rgd
body of 2 e ampe 2 has both rotatona and transatona
moton.
7. To fnd ustratons suppose frst the ortcty defned
beow 24 and the force resutant of the mpuse to be
accordng to the condtons e paned beow 29 such that the
cross secton s sma n comparson wth the aperture. Ta e
a rng of fe be wre a pece of boc tn ppe wth ts ends
sodered together answers we bend t nto an o a form and
then g e t a rght-handed twst round the ong a s of the o a
so that the cur e comes to be not n one pane fg. 1 . A
propery-shaped twsted epse of ths
nd a shape perfecty determnate
when the ortcty the force resutant of
the mpuse and the rotatona moment
of the mpuse . M. 6 are a g en
s the fgure of the core n what we
may ca the frstt steady mode of snge
and smpe toroda orte moton wth g..
rotatona moment. To ustrate the second steady mode commence wth a crcuar rng of fe be wre and pu t out at
three ponts 1200 from one another so as to ma e t nto as t
were an e uatera trange wth rounded corners. G e now a
rght-handed twst round the radus to each corner to the pane
of the cur e at and near the corner and eepng the character
of the twst thus g en to the wre bend t nto a certan deternnate shape proper for the data of the orte moton. Ths s
oc tn ppe s substtuted here for ery stout ead wre.
t rst or greatest and second and thrd and hgher modes of steady moton
to be regarded as anaogous to the frst second thrd and hgher fundamenta
modes of an eastc brator or of a stretched cord or of steady unduatory moton
n an endess unform cana or n an endess chan of mutuay repus e n s.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
10
the shape of the orte -core n the second steady mode of snge
and smpe toroda orte moton wth rotatona moment. The
thrd s to be smary arr ed at by twstng the corners of a
s uare ha ng rounded corners the fourth by twstng the corners
of a reguar pentagon ha ng rounded corners the ffth by twstng
the corners of a he agon and so on.
In each of the anne ed dagrams of toroda heces a crce
s ntroduced to gude the udgment as to the reef abo e and
depresson beow the pane of the dagram whch the cur e represented n each case must be magned to ha e. The crce may
be magned n each case to be the crcuar a s of a toroda core
on whch the he may be supposed to be wound.
To a od crcumocuton I ha e sad g e a rght-handed
twst n each case. The resut n each case as n fg. 1 ustrates a orte moton for whch the correspondng rgd body
descrbes eft-handed heces by a ts partces round the centra
a s of the moton. If now nstead of rght-handed twsts to the
pane of the o a or the corners of the trange s uare pentagon
amp c. we g e eft-handed twsts as n fgs. 2 4 the resut n
each case w be a orte moton for whch the correspondng
g. 2. g. . g. 4.
rgd body descrbes rght-handed heces. It depends of course
on the reaton between the drectons of the force resutant and
coupe resutant of the mpuse wth no ambguty n any case
whether the twsts n the forms and n the nes of moton of the
correspondng rgd body w be rght-handed or eft-handed.
8. In each of these modes of moton the energy s a ma mummnmum for g en force resutant and g en coupe resutant of
mpuse. The modes success ey descrbed abo e are success e
soutons of the ma mum-mnmum probem of 4-a determnate
probem wth the mutpe soutons ndcated abo e but no other
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RTE STATICS
119
souton when the ortcty s g en n a snge smpe rng of the
ud.
9. The probem of steady moton for the case of a orte ne wth nfntey thn core bears a cose anaogy to the foowng
purey geometrca probem: nd the cur e whose ength sha be a mnmum wth g en
resutant pro ectona area and g en resutant area moment
27 beow . Ths woud be dentca wth the orte probem
f the energy of an nfntey thn orte -rng of g en oume
and g en cycc constant were a functon smpy of ts apertura
crcumference. The geometrca probem ceary has mutpe
soutons answerng precsey to the soutons of the orte
probem.
10. The ery hgh modes of souton are ceary ery neary
dentca for the two probems nfntey hgh modes dentca
and are found thus:Ta e the souton der ed n the manner e paned abo e
from a reguar poygon of N sdes when N s a ery great
number. It s ob ous that ether probem must ead to a form
of cur e e that of a ong reguar spra sprng of the ordnary
nd bent round t ts two ends meet and then ha ng ts ends
propery cut and oned so as to g e a contnuous endess he
wth a s a crce nstead of the ordnary straght ne-a s and
N turns of the spra round ts crcuar a s. Ths cur e I ca a
toroda he because t es on a torod ust as the common
I ca a crcuar torod a smpe rng generated by the re outon of any sngycrcumferenta cosed pane cur e round any a s n ts pane not cuttng t. A
tore foowng rench usage s a rng generated by the re outon of a crce
round any ne n ts pane not cuttng t. Any smpe rng or any sod wth
a snge hoe through t may be caed a torod but to deser e ths appeaton t
had better be not ery un e a tore.
The endess cosed a s of a torod s a ne through ts substance passng somewhat appro matey through the centres of gra ty of a ts cross sectons. An
apertura crcumference of a torod s any cosed ne n ts surface once round ts
aperture. An apertura secton of a torod s any secton by a pane or cur ed surface
whch woud cut the torod nto two separate torods. It must cut the surface of
the torod n ust two smpe cosed cur es one of them competey surroundng the
other on the sectona surface: of course t s the space between these cur es whch
s the actua secton of the toroda substance and the area of the nner one of
the two s a secton of the aperture.
A secton by any surface cuttng e ery apertura crcumference each once and
ony once s caed a cross secton of the torod. It conssts essentay of a smpe
cosed cur e.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
10
reguar he es on a crcuar cynder. Let a be the radus of
the crce thus formed by the a s of the cosed he et r denote
the radus of the cross secton of the dea torod on the surface
of whch the he es supposed sma n comparson wth a and
et 0 denote the ncnaton of the he to the norma secton of
the torod. e ha e
27ra a
tan 0 2 a
t N.2-rr Nr
because 2rra/N s as t were the step of the screw and 2 rr s
the crcumference of the cyndrca core on whch any short part
of t may be appro matey supposed to be wound.
Let be the cycc constant I the g en force resutant of the
mpuse and t the g en rotatona moment. e ha e 28
appro matey
I 7ra2 IN7 rT2 a.
Hence a / -- r
tan 0 A/ t1r.
11. Suppose now nstead of a snge thread wound spray
round a toroda core we ha e two separate threads formng as t
were a two-threaded screw and et each thread ma e a whoe
number of turns round the toroda core. The two threads each
endess w be two hecay tortuous rngs n ed together and
w consttute the core of what w now be a doube orte -rng.
The formuae ust now obtaned for a snge thread woud be
appcabe to each thread f c denoted the cycc constant for the
crcut round the two threads or twce the cycc constant for
ether and N the number of turns of ether aone round the toroda
core. ut t s more con enent to ta e N for the number of
turns of both threads so that the number of turns of one thread
aone s IN and the cycc constant for ether thread aone
and thus for ery hgh steady modes of the doube orte -rng
I 2 /7ra2 fcN7rr2a
tan 0 // I
Lower and ower steady modes w correspond to smaer and
smaer aues of N but n ths case as n the case of the snge
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RTE STATICS
121
orte -core the form w be a cur e of some utra-transcendent
character e cept for ery great aues of N7 or for aues of 0
nfntey neary e ua to a rght ange ths atter mtaton
eadng to the case of nfntey sma trans erse bratons .
12. The gra est steady mode of the doube orte -rng corresponds to N 2. Ths wth the snge orte -core g es the
case of the twsted epse 7 . th
the doube core t g es a system whch s
most easy understood by ta ng two pane
crcuar rngs of stff meta n ed together.
rst pace them as neary concdent as
ther beng n ed together permts fg. 5 .
Then separate them a tte and ncne
ther panes a tte as shown n the dagram. Then bend each
nto an un nown shape determned by the strct souton of the
transcendenta probem of anayss to whch the hydro- netc
n estgaton eads for ths case.
1 . Go bac now to the supposton of 11 and ater t to
ths:
Let each thread ma e one turn and a haf or any odd number
of haf turns round the toroda core: thus each thread w ha e
an end concdent wth an end of the other. Let these concdent
ends be unted. Thus there w be but one endess thread ma ng
an odd number N of turns round the toroda core. The cases
of N and N 9 are represented n the anne ed dagrams fgs.
8 and 9 .
Imagne now a three-threaded toroda he and et N denote
the whoe number of turns round the toroda core we ha e
I cw7ra2 fL /crTrr2cta
tan 0 / L
Suppose now to be d sbe by then the three threads
form three separate endess rngs n ed together. The case of
N s ustrated by the anne ed dagram fg. 6 whch s
repeated from the dagram of . M. 58. If N be not d sbe
The frst of these was g en n 58 of my paper on orte Moton. It as
snce become nown far and wde by beng seen on the bac of the nseen
n erse.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
10
by the three threads run together nto one as ustrated for the
case of N 14 n the anne ed dagram fg 7 .
g. 6. g. 7. g. 8. Trefo not.
14. The rrotatona moton of the ud round the rotatona
cores n a these cases s such that the fud- eocty at any
pont s e ua to and n the same drecton as the resutant
magnetc force at the correspondng pont n the neghbourhood
of a cosed ga anc crcut or ga anc crcuts of the same shape
as the core or cores. The settng-forth of ths anaogy to peope
famar as modern naturasts are wth the dstrbuton of
magnetc force n the neghbourhood of an eectrc crcut does
much to promote a cear understandng of the st somewhat
strange fud-motons wth whch we are at present occuped.
15. To understand the moton of the ud n the rotatona
core tsef ta e a pece of Indan-rubber gas-ppe stffened
nternay wth wre n the usua manner and wth t construct
any of the forms wth whch we ha e been
occuped for nstance the symmetrca trefo not fg. 8 1 untng the two
ends of the tube carefuy by tyng them
frmy by an nch or two of straght cyndrca pug then turn the tube round
and round round ts snuous a s. The
rotatona moton of the fud orte -core
s thus represented. ut t must be
g. 9. Nne-ea ed not.
remembered that the outer form of the
core has a moton perpendcuar to the pane of the dagram
and a rotaton round an a s through the centre of the dagram
and perpendcuar to the pane n each of the cases represented
by the precedng dagrams. The whoe moton of the fud
rotatona and rrotatona s so reated n ts dfferent parts to
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RTE STATICS
12
one another and to the transatona and rotatona moton of the
shape of the core as to be e erywhere spess.
16. Loo to the precedng dagrams and thn ng of what
they represent t s easy to see that there must be a determnate
partcuar shape for each of them whch w g e steady moton
and I thn we may confdenty udge that the moton s stabe
n each pro ded ony the core s suffcenty thn. It s more
easy to udge of the cases n whch there are mutpe snuostes
by a synthetc ew of them than by consderaton of the
ma mum-mnmum probem of 8.
17. It seems probabe that the two- or three- or mutpethreaded toroda he motons cannot be stabe or e en steady
uness I /u and N are such as to ma e the shortest dstances
between dfferent postons of the core or cores consderabe n
comparson wth the core s dameter. Consder for e ampe the
smpest case 12 fg. 5 of two smpe rngs n ed together.
18. Go bac now to the smpe crcuar Hemhot rng. It
s cear that there must be a shape of absoute ma mum energy
for g en ortcty and g en mpuse f we ntroduce the
restrcton that the fgure s to be a fgure of re outon-that s
to say symmetrca round a straght a s. If the g en ortcty
be g en n ths determnate shape the moton w be steady
and there s no other fgure of re outon for whch t woud be
steady t beng understood that the mpuse has a snge force
resutant wthout coupe . If the g en mpuse d ded by the
cycc constant be ery great n comparson wth the two-thrds
power of the oume of ud n whch the ortcty s g en the
fgure of steadness s an e ceedngy thn crcuar rng of arge
aperture and of appro matey crcuar cross secton. Ths s the
case to whch chefy attenton s drected by Hemhot . If on
the other hand the mpuse d ded by the cycc constant be
ery sma compared wth the two-thrds power of the oume
the fgure becomes e a ong o a bored through aong ts a s
of re outon and wth the ends of the bore rounded off or
trumpeted symmetrcay so as to g e a fgure somethng e
the hande of a chd s s ppng-rope but symmetrca on the two
sdes of the pane through ts mdde perpendcuar to ts ength.
It s certan that howe er sma the mpuse wth g en ortcty
the fgure of steadness thus ndcated s possbe howe er ong n
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HYDR DYNAMICS
10
the drecton of the a s and sma n dameter perpendcuar to
the a s and n aperture t may be. I cannot howe er say at
present that t s certan that ths possbe steady moton s stabe
for there are fgures not of re outon de atng nfntey tte
from t n whch wth the same ortcty there s the same
mpuse and the same energy and consderaton of the genera
character of the moton s not reassurng on the pont of stabty
when rgorous demonstraton s wantng .
19. Htherto I ha e not ndeed succeeded n rgorousy
demonstratng the stabty of the Hemhot rng n any case.
th g en ortcty magne the rng to be thc er n one pace
than n another. Imagne the g en ortcty nstead of beng
dstrbuted n a symmetrca crcuar rng to be dstrbuted n a
rng st wth a crcuar a s but thnner n one part than n the
rest. It s cear that wth the same ortcty and the same
mpuse the energy wth such a dstrbuton s greater than when
the rng s symmetrca. ut now et the fgure of the cross
secton of the rng nstead of beng appro matey crcuar be
made consderaby o a. Ths w dmnsh the energy wth the
same ortcty and the same mpuse. Thus from the fgure of
steadness we may pass contnuousy to others wth same ortcty
same mpuse and same energy. Thus we see that the fgure
of steadness s as stated abo e a fgure of ma mum-mnmum
and not of absoute ma mum nor of absoute mnmum energy.
Hence from the ma mum-mnmum probem we cannot der e
proof of stabty.
20. The nown phenomena of steam-rngs and smo e-rngs
show us enough of as t were the natura hstory of the sub ect
to con nce us beforehand that the steady confguraton wth
ordnary proportons of dameters of core to dameter of aperture
s stabe and consderatons connected wth what s rgorousy
demonstrabe n respect to stabty of orte coumns to be g en
n a ater communcaton to the Roya Socety may ead to a
rgorous demonstraton of stabty for a smpe Hemhot rng
f of thn-enough core n proporton to dameter of aperture. ut
at present nether natura hstory nor mathematcs g es us perfect
assurance of stabty when the cross secton s consderabe n
proporton to the area of aperture.
Pro e steady . T. May 10 1887.
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RTE STATICS
125
21. I concude wth a bref statement of genera propostons
defntons and prncpes used n the precedng abstract of whch
some appeared n my seres of papers on orte moton communcated to the Roya Socety of Ednburgh n 1867 -68 and -69
and pubshed n the Transactons for 1869. The rest w form
part of the sub ect of a contnuaton of that paper whch I hope
to communcate to the Roya Socety before the end of the present
sesson.
Any porton of a ud ha ng orte moton s caed orte core or for bre ty smpy core. Any fnte porton of ud
whch s a orte -core and has contguous wth t o er ts whoe
boundary rrotatonay mo ng ud s caed a orte . A orte
thus defned s essentay a rng of matter. That t must be so
was frst dsco ered and pubshed by Hemhot . Sometmes the
word orte s e tended to ncude rrotatonay mo ng ud
crcuatng round or mo ng n the neghbourhood of orte -core
but as dfferent portons of ud may success ey come nto the
neghbourhood of the core and pass away agan whe the core
aways remans essentay of the same substance t s more proper
to mt the substant e term a orte as n the defnton I ha e
g en.
22. Defnton I. The crcuaton of a orte s the crcuaton . M. 60 a n any endess crcut once round ts core.
hate er ared confguratons a orte may ta e whether on
account of ts own unsteadness 1 abo e or on account of
dsturbances by other ortces or by sods mmersed n the
ud or by the sod boundary of the ud f the ud s not
nfnte ts crcuaton remans unchanged . M. 59 Prop. 1 .
The crcuaton of a orte s sometmes caed ts cycc constant.
Defnton II. An a a ne through a fud mo ng rotatonay
s a ne straght or cur ed whose drecton at e ery pont
concdes wth the a s of moecuar rotaton through that pont
. M. 59 2 .
E ery a a ne n a orte s essentay a cosed cur e beng
of course whoy wthout a orte .
2 . Defnton III. A cosed secton of a orte s any
secton of ts core cuttng normay the a a nes through e ery
Phrase n deeted by Lord e n.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
10o
pont of t. D de any cosed secton of a orte nto smaer
areas the a a nes through the borders of these areas form
what are caed orte -tubes. I sha ca after Hemhot a
orte -fament any porton of a orte bounded by a orte tube not necessary nfntesma . f course a compete orte
may be caed therefore a orte -fament but t s generay
con enent to appy ths term ony to a part of a orte as ust
now defned. The boundary of a compete orte satsfes the
defnton of a orte -tube.
A compete orte -tube s essentay endess. In a orte fament nfntey sma n a dameters of cross sectons rotaton
ares . M. 60 e from pont to pont of the ength of the
fament and from tme to tme n ersey as the area of the cross
secton. The product of the area of the cross secton nto the
rotaton s e ua to the crcuaton or cycc constant of the
fament.
24. ortcty w be used to desgnate n a genera way the
dstrbuton of moecuar rotaton n the matter of a orte .
Thus f we magne a orte d ded nto a number of nfntey
thn orte -faments the ortcty w be competey g en when
the oume of each fament and ts crcuaton or cycc constant
are g en but the shapes and postons of the faments must
aso be g en n order that not ony the ortcty but ts dstrbuton can be regarded as g en.
25. The orte -densty at any pont of a orte s the crcuaton of an nfntesma fament through ths pont d ded
by the oume of the compete fament. The orte -densty
remans aways unchanged for the same porton of fud. y
defnton t s the same a aong any one orte -fament.
26. D de a orte nto nfntesma faments n ersey as
ther denstes so that ther crcuatons are e ua and et the
crcuaton of each be 1/n of unty. Ta e the pro ecton of a
the faments on one pane. 1/n of the sum of the areas of these
pro ectons s . M. 6 62 e ua to the component mpuse
of the orte perpendcuar to that pane. Ta e the pro ectons
of the faments on three panes at rght anges to one another
and fnd the centre of gra ty of the areas of these three sets of
pro ectons. nd accordng to Ponsot s method the resutant
a s force and coupe of the three forces e ua respect ey to
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RTE STATICS
127
1/n of the sums of the areas and actng n nes through the three
centres of gra ty perpendcuar to the three panes. Ths w be
the resutant a s the force resutant of the mpuse and the
coupe resutant of the orte .
The ast of these that s to say the coupe s aso caed the
rotatona moment of the orte . M. 6 .
27. Defnton I . The moment of a pane area round any
a s s the product of the area mutped nto the dstance from
that a s of the perpendcuar to ts pane through ts centre of
gra ty.
Defnton . The area of the pro ecton of a cosed cur e on
the pane for whch the area of pro ecton s a ma mum w be
caed the area of pro ecton of the cur e or smpy the area of
the cur e. The area of the pro ecton on any pane perpendcuar
to the pane of the resutant area s of course ero.
Defnton I. The resutant a s of a cosed cur e s a ne
through the centre of gra ty and perpendcuar to the pane of
ts resutant area. The resutant area moment of a cosed cur e
s the moment round the resutant a s of the areas of ts pro ectons on two panes at rght anges to one another and parae
to ths a s. It s understood of course that the areas of the
pro ectons on these two panes are not e anescent generay
e cept for the case of a pane cur e and that ther ero- aues
are generay the sums of e ua post e and negat e portons.
Thus ther moments are not n genera ero.
Thus accordng to these defntons the resutant mpuse
of a orte -fament of nfntey sma cross secton and of unt
crcuaton s e ua to the resutant area of ts cur e. The
resutant a s of a orte s the same as the resutant a s of the
cur e and the rotatona moment s e ua to the resutant area
moment of the cur e.
28. Consder for a moment a orte -fament n an nfnte
ud wth no dsturbng nfuence of other ortces or of sods
mmersed n the ud. e now see from the constancy of the
mpuse pro ed generay n . M. 19 that the resutant area
and the resutant area moment of the cur e formed by the
fament reman constant howe er ts cur e may become contorted and ts resutant a s remans the same ne n space.
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128 HYDR DYNAMICS 10
Hence whate er motons and contortons the orte -fament may
e perence f t has any moton of transaton through space ths
moton must be on the a erage aong the resutant a s.
29. Consder now the actua orte made up of an nfnte
number of nfntey sma orte -faments. If these be of oumes
n ersey proportona to ther orte -denstes 25 so that ther
crcuatons are e ua we now see from the constancy of the
mpuse that the sum of the resutant areas of a the orte faments remans constant and so does the sum of ther rotatona
moments: and the resutant area a s of them a regarded as one
system s a f ed ne n space. Hence as n the case of a orte fament the transaton f any through space s on the a erage
aong ts resutant a s. A ths of course s on the supposton
that there s no other orte and no sod mmersed n the ud
and no boundng surface of the ud near enough to produce any
sensbe nfuence on the g en orte .
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129
11. N THE PRECESSI NAL M TI N A LI ID
LI ID GYR STATS .
rom Nature o. . 1877 pp. 297-8 Communcated to Secton A
of the rtsh Assocaton at Gasgow September 7 1876.
THE formuas e pressng ths moton were ad before the
meetng and brefy e paned but the anaytca treatment of
them was reser ed for a more mathematca paper to be communcated to the Secton on Saturday. The chef ob ect of the
present communcaton was to ustrate e permentay a concuson from ths theory whch had been announced by the author
n hs openng address to the Secton to the effect that f the
perod of the precesson of an obate spheroda rgd she fu of
ud s a much greater mutpe of the rotatona perod of the
ud than any dameter of the spherod s of the dfference
between the greatest and east dameters the precessona effect
of a g en coupe actng on the she s appro matey the same
as f the whoe were a sod rotatng wth the same rotatona
eocty. The e perment conssted n showng a ud gyrostat
n whch an obate spherod of thn sheet copper fed wth water
was substtuted for the sod fy-whee of the ordnary gyrostat.
In the nstrument actuay e hbted the e uatora dameter of
the ud she e ceeded the poar a s by about one-tenth of
ether.
Supposng the rotatona speed to be thrty turns per second
the effect of any mot e whch f actng on a rotatng sod of the
same mass and dmensons woud produce a precesson ha ng ts
perod a consderabe mutpe of I of a second must accordng to
the theory produce ery appro matey the same precesson n
the thn she fed wth ud as n the rotatng sod. Accordngy the man precessona phenomena of the ud gyrostat
were not notceaby dfferent from those of ordnary sod gyrostats
Popuar Lectures and Addresses Macman o. II. pp. 2 8-272.
. I . 9
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1 0
HYDR DYNAMICS
11
whch were shown n acton for the sa e of comparson. It s
probabe that carefu obser aton wthout measurement mght
show ery sensbe dfferences between the performances of the
ud and the sod gyrostat n the way of nutatona tremors
produced by str ng the case of the nstrument wth the fst.
No attempt at measurement ether of speeds or forces was
ncuded n the communcaton and the author merey showed the
ud gyrostat as a rough genera ustraton whch he hoped
mght be regarded as an nterestng ustraton of that ery
nterestng resut of mathematca hydro- netcs the uas-rgdty
produced n a frctoness ud by rotaton.
P.S.-Snce the communcaton of ths paper to the Assocaton
and the de ery of my openng address whch preceded t on the
same day I ha e rece ed from Prof. Henry No. 240 of the Smthsonan Contrbutons to nowedge of date ctober 1871 entted
Probems of Rotatory Moton presented by the Gyroscope the
Precesson of the E uno es and the Penduum by re et Ma orGen. . G. arnard Co. of Engneers .S.A. n whch I fnd a
dssent from the porton of my pre ousy-pubshed statements
whch I had ta en the occason of my address to correct e pressed
n the foowng terms: I do not concur wth Sr am Thomson n the opnons
uoted n note p. 8 from Thomson and Tat and e pressed n hs
etter to Mr G. Pouett Scrope Nature eb. 1 1872 . So far as
regards fudty or mperfect rgdty wthn an nfntey rgd
en eope I do not thn the rate of precesson woud be affected.
Esewhere n the same paper Gen. arnard spea s of the
practca rgdty conferred by rotaton. Thus he has antcpated
my correcton of the statements contaned n my paper on the
Rgdty of the Earth so far as regards the effect of nteror fudty
on the precessona moton of a perfecty rgd epsoda she
fed wth fud.
I regret to see that the other error of that paper whch I
corrected n my openng address had not been corrected by
Gen. arnard and that the pausbe reasonng whch had ed me
to t had aso seemed to hm con ncng. or mysef I can ony
say that I too the ery earest opportunty to correct the errors
after I found them to be errors and that I deepy regret any
mschef they may ha e done n the meantme.
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LI ID GYR STATS
1 1
Addendum.-Sod and L ud Gyrostats. The sod gyrostat
has been reguary shown for many years n the Natura Phosophy
Cass of the n ersty of Gasgow as a mechanca ustraton of
the dynamcs of rotatng sods and t has aso been e hbted n
London and Ednburgh at con ersa ones of the Roya Socetes
I
g. 1.
and of the Socety of Teegraph Engneers but no account of t
has yet been pubshed. The foowng bref descrpton and
drawng may therefore e en now be acceptabe to readers of
Nature:
The sod gyrostat conssts essentay of a mass e fy-whee
possessng great moment of nerta p oted on the two ends of ts
a s n bearngs attached to an outer case whch competey ncoses t. g. 1 represents a secton by a pane through the a s
of the fy-whee and g. 2 a secton by a pane at rght anges to
the a s and cuttng through the case ust abo e the fy-whee.
The contanng case s ftted wth a thn pro ectng edge n the
pane of the fy-whee whch s caed the bearng edge. Its
boundary forms a reguar cur near poygon of s teen sdes wth
ts centre at the centre of the fy-whee. Each sde of the poygon
s a sma arc of a crce of radus greater than the dstance of the
corners from the centre. The frcton of the fy-whee woud f
the bearng-edge were crcuar cause the case to ro aong on t
e a hoop and t s to pre ent ths effect that the cur ed poygona
9-2
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HYDR DYNAMICS
11
form descrbed abo e and represented n the drawng s g en to
the bearng-edge.
To spn the sod gyrostat a pece of stout cord about forty feet
ong and a pace where a cear run of about s ty feet can be obtaned are con enent. The gyrostat ha ng been paced wth the
g. 2.
a s of ts fy-whee ertca the cord s passed n through an
aperture n the case two-and-a-haf tmes round the bobbn-shaped
part of the shaft and out agan at an aperture on the opposte
sde. Ha ng ta en care that the sac cord s paced cear of a
g. .
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LI ID GYR STATS
1
obstaces and that t s free from n s the operator hods the
gyrostat steady so that ts case s pre ented from turnng whe
an assstant pus the cord through by runnng at a graduay
ncreasng pace away from the nstrument whe hodng the end
of the cord n hs hand. Suffcent tenson s apped to the
enterng cord to pre ent t from sppng round on the shaft. In aa s
t --- S --- -------
g. 4.
ths way a ery great anguar eocty s communcated to the fywhee suffcent ndeed to eep t spnnng for upwards of twenty
mnutes.
If when the gyrostat has been spun t be set on ts bearng
edge wth the centre of gra ty e acty o er the bearng pont on
a smooth hor onta pane such as a pece of pate-gass yng on a
tabe t w contnue apparenty statonary and n stabe e ubrum. If whe t s n ths poston a coupe round a hor onta
a s n the pane of the fy-whee be apped to the case no
defecton of ths pane from the ertca s produced but t rotates
sowy round a ertca a s. If a hea y bow wth the fst be
g en to the sde of the case t s met by what seems to the senses
the resstance of a ery stff eastc body and for a few seconds
after the bow the gyrostat s n a state of oent tremor whch
howe er subsdes rapdy. As the rotatona eocty graduay
dmnshes the rapdty of the tremors produced by a bow aso
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1 4
HYDR DYNAMICS
11
dmnshes. It s ery curous to notce the totterng condton
and sow seemngy pased tremuousness of the gyrostat when
the fy-whee has neary ceased to spn.
In the ud gyrostat the fy-whee s repaced by an obate
spherod made of thn sheet copper and fed wth water. The
eptcty of ths she n the nstrument e hbted s I- that s to
say the e uatora dameter e ceeds the poar by that fracton of
ether. It s p oted on the two ends of ts poar a s n bearngs
f ed n a crcuar rng of brass surroundng the spherod. Ths
crce of brass s rgdy connected wth the cur ed poygonabearng edge whch es n the e uatora pane of the nstrument
thus formng a frame-wor for the support of the a s of the
spheroda she. In g. a secton s represented through the
a s to show the eptcty and g. 4 g es a ew of the gyrostat
as seen from a pont n the proongaton of the a s. To pre ent
accdent to the she when the gyrostat fas down at the end of ts
spn cage bars are ftted round t n such a way that no pane can
touch the she.
The method of spnnng the ud gyrostat s smar to that
descrbed for the sod gyrostat dfferng ony n the use of a ery
much onger cord and of a arge whee for the purpose of pung
t. The cord s frst wound on a bobbn free to rotate round a
f ed pn. The end of t s then passed two-and-a-haf tmes
round the tte puey shown n the anne ed sectona drawng
and thence to a pont n the crcumference of the arge whee to
whch t s f ed. An assstant then turns the whee wth graduay
ncreasng eocty whe the frame of the gyrostat s frmy hed
and the re uste tenson apped to the enterng cord to pre ent
t from sppng round the puey.
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12. L ATING MAGNETS ILL STRATING RTE -SYSTEMS .
rom Nature o. III. 1878 pp. 1 14.
THE e tract from the Amercan ourna of Scence descrbng
e perments wth foatng magnets by Mr Afred M. Mayer to
ustrate the e ubrum of mutuay-repeent moecues each
ndependenty attracted towards a f ed centre whch appeared n
Nature o. . p. 487 must ha e nterested many readers.
It has nterested me partcuary because the mode of e permentng there descrbed wth a sght modfcaton g es a perfect
mechanca ustraton easy rea ed wth satsfactory enough
appro mateness of the netc e ubrum of groups of coumnar
ortces re o ng n crces round ther common centre of gra ty
whch formed the sub ect of a communcaton I had made to the
Roya Socety of Ednburgh on the pre ous Monday. In Mr
Mayer s probem the hor onta resutant repuson between any
two of the needes ares accordng to a compcated functon of
ther mutua dstance ready cacuabe f the dstrbuton of
magnetsm n each neede were accuratey nown. Suppose the
dstrbutons to be precsey smar n a the bars and n each to
be accordng to the foowng aw:-Let the ntensty of magnetsaton be rgorousy unform throughout a ery arge porton
CD of the whoe ength of the bar g. 1 and et t ary unformy
from C and D to the two ends A and . The bar w act as f
for ts magnetsm were substtuted dea magnetc matter or
poarty as t may be caed unformy dstrbuted through the
end portons CA and D the whoe uantty n D to be e ua
n amount and opposte n nd to that of CA. or e ampe
suppose true northern poarty n A and true southern n D.
The engths of CA and D need not be e ua. Let now A C D
Reprnt of papers on Eectrostatcs and Magnetsm 469 . Thomson .
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1 6
HYDR DYNAMICS
12
be another bar wth an e acty smar dstrbuton of magnetsm
to that of A CD and et the two be hed parae to one another.
The mutua repuson w ary n ersey as the dstance f the
dstance be nfntey sma n comparson wth D or CA and f
each of these be nfntey sma n comparson wth CD. If the
true south poe S of a powerfu bar-magnet be hed n a ne mdway between A and A at a dstance from the ends and
nfntey great n comparson wth and comparabe wth the
ength of each neede the hor onta component of ts effect on
each magnet w be a force aryng drecty as ts dstance from
the centra a s. nder these condtons Mr Mayer s e perments
w show confguratons of e ubrum of two or three or four
or any muttude of dea ponts n a pane repeng one another
wth forces n ersey as the mutua dstances and each ndependenty attracted towards a f ed centre wth a force aryng drecty
as the dstance. Ths as I showed n my communcaton to the
Roya Socety of Ednburgh s the confguraton of the group of
ponts n whch a muttude of straght coumnar ortces wth
nfntey sma cores s cut by a pane perpendcuar to the
coumns the centre of nerta of a group of dea partces of
e ua mass paced at these ponts beng the f ed centre n the
statc anaogue.
The consderaton of stabty referred to by Mr Mayer has
occuped me much n the numerca probem and t s remar abe
that the crteron of stabty or nstabty s dentca n the
statc and netc probems. In the statc probem t s of course
that the potenta energy of the mutua forces between the partces
together wth that of the attracton towards a f ed centre s ess
for the confguraton of stabe e ubrum than for any confguraton dfferng nfntey tte from t. The potenta energy
of the attract e. force s a functon of dstance from the centra
a s ef the dstance ncreases and the statement of
the crteron may be con enenty modfed to the foowng: or a g en aue of ths functon the mutua potenta energy
of the atoms must be a mnmum for stabe e ubrum. hen
as supposed abo e the attract e force ares drecty as the
dstance ts potenta energy s
C -c cr2
where C c denote constants and r2 the sum of the s uares of
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1878 L ATING MAGNETS ILL STRATING RTE -SYSTEMS 1 7
the dstances of a the partces from the attract e centre. And
when the aw of force between the partces s the n erse dstance
ther mutua potenta energy s e ua to
- og DD D ...
where denote constants and D D D amp c. denote the mutua
dstances between the partces. Thus
the condton of stabe e ubrum becomes that the product of the mutua
dstances between the partces must be
a true ma mum for a g en aue of the
sum of the s uares of ther dstances from
the attract e centre. A frst concuson
from ths condton must be that the
centre of gra ty of the partces must
be the attract e centre. Now the condton of netc e ubrum of a group a
of orte coumns that s to say the
condton that they may re o e n crces n
round ther common centre of nerta s D
as pro ed n my communcaton to the
Roya Socety of Ednburgh that the
product of ther mutua dstances must
be a ma mum or mnmum or a ma mum-mnmum for a g en aue of the
sum of the s uares of ther dstances
from the common centre of gra ty and
the condton that ths netc e ubrum may be stabe s that the product
be a true mnmum for a g en aue of
the sum of the s uares of ther dstances
from the centre of nerta. Ta ng for
c c
e ampe a trad of ortces or of the tte C
magnetc needes of Mr Mayer s probem s
t s thus ob ous the e ubrum s -
unstabe n the case represented by
g. 2 and stabe n the case represented g. 1.
by g. . The arrow-heads n gs. 2 and represent the motons
Hemhot pro ed that whate er be the compcaton of motons due to mutua
nfuences among the ortces ther centre of gra ty must reman at rest. f.
orte Statcs supra.
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1 8
HYDR DYNAMICS
12
of the orte coumns round ther centre of gra ty. It must be
understood that the core of each coumn re o es aso round ts
centre of gra ty n the same drecton as the group round the
common centre of gra ty of a wth enormousy greater anguar
eoctes.
I ha e farther consdered the probem of oscatons n the
t. taLe
t
g. 2. g. .
neghbourhood of confguraton of stabe e ubrum. The genera
probem whch t represents for mathematca anayss has a ery
easy and smpe souton for the case of a trad of e ua orte
coumns n the neghbourhood of the anges of an e uatera
trange.
A mechansm for producng t nematcay s represented n
g. 4 showng three crcuar dscs of cardboard p oted on pns
through ther centres at the anges of an e uatera trange
rotatng n a ertca pane. The pane carryng these three
centres may be con enenty made of a crcuar dsc of stff card
g. 4.
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1878 L ATING MAGNETS ILL STRATING RTE -SYSTEMS 1 9
board or of ght wood p oted on a f ed pn through ts centre.
Each of the sma dscs or epcyces s pre ented from rotaton
by a fne thread bearng a weght and attached to a pont of ts
crcumference and on each of them s mar ed by a sma dar
shaded crce the secton of one of the orte cores n proper
poston.
The rue for pacng the ortces on ther epcyces s as
foows:-Each orte eeps a constant dstance from ts mean
poston ths beng the centre of the epcyce carryng t n the
mechansm each of the radus ectors drawn from the centres
of the epcyces to the centres of the ortces eeps an absoutey
f ed drecton whe the e uatera trange of the centres of the
epcyces rotates unformy and these three f ed drectons are
ncned to one another at e ua anges of 120 measured bac wards reat ey to the order n whch we ta e the three ortces.
It s easy erfed that when the dstances of the ortces from
ther mean postons are nfntey sma that s to say when the
trange of the trad s nfntey neary e uatera the product
of ts three sdes remans constant n the mo ement actuay g en
by the mechansm and so does the sum of the s uares of the
dstances of ts three corners from ts centre of gra ty. rom
the stabty of the e uatera trange t foows that there must
be stabty wth three e ua ortces at the corners of an e uatera trange and one whether e ua to them or not at ts
centret or four e ua ortces I ha e found that the
s uare order aso s stabe. rom the stabty of the
s uare foows for ortces or for partces repeng accordng to
n erse dstance the stabty of four e uas at the corners of the
s uare and one whether e ua to them or not at ts centre
I ha e not yet ascertaned mathematcay whether for a
In the case of ortces or of the statc probem when the aw of the mutua
repusons s the n erse dstance but not wth the aw of repuson wth ordnary
proportons of near dmensons and magnetc dstrbutons n Mr Mayer s magnetc
arrangement.
t In repettons of Mr Mayer s e perments I ha e aways found ths confguraton unstabe and for four ony the s uare stabe.
Ths confguraton of the foatng magnets I ha e found stabe but wth ess
wde mts of stabty than the pentagon.
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140
HYDR DYNAMICS
12
pentad of e ua ortces there s stabty aso n the pentagona
arrangement ut Mr Mayer s e perment showng t to
be stabe for the magnets s an e permenta proof that t must
be stabe for the ortces for t s easy pro ed that f any of the
fgures s stabe wth mutua repuson aryng more rapdy as
s the case wth the magnets n Mr Mayer s e perment than
accordng to the n erse dstance d fortor t must be stabe
when the force ares n ersey as the dstance. rom the stabty
of the pentagon I nfer for ortces and for partces repeng
accordng to n erse dstance the stabty of the confguraton
Mr Mayer s fgure . shows that the he agona order was
unstabe for hs s magnets. I had amost con nced mysef
before seeng the account of hs e perments n Nature that the
he agona order s stabe for s e ua ortces and Mr Mayer s
ast fgure shows that wth hs magnets the he agona order s
rendered stabe by the addton of one n the centre
The nstabty of the he agon of s magnets shows the
smpe poygon to be unstabe for se en or any other number
e ceedng s . Thus Mr Mayer s beautfu e perment brngs us
ery near an e permenta souton of a probem whch has for
years been before me unso ed-of ta mportance n the theory
of orte atoms-to fnd the greatest number of bars whch a
orte mouse-m can ha e.
I ha e not found ths nor any other confguraton than the pentagon wth
centre stabe for s foatng magnets.
or further e permenta de eopment see L. Derr Proc. Amercan Acad. May
1909. or theory see . . Thomson s Moton of orte Rngs 188 .
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141
1 . N GRA ITATI NAL SCILLATI NS R TATING ATER.
rom the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh March 17 1879:
reprnted n Ph. ag. o. 1880 pp. A0 /
t -1Ib
THIS s reay Lapace s sub ect n hs Dynamca Theory of
the Tdes where t s deat wth n ts utmost generaty e cept
one mportant restrcton-the moton of each partce to be
nfntey neary hor onta and the eocty to be aways e ua
for a partces n the same ertca. Ths mpes that the
greatest depth must be sma n comparson wth the dstance
that has to be tra eed to fnd the de aton from e eness of the
water-surface atered by a sensbe fracton of ts ma mum
amount. In the present short communcaton I adopt ths
restrcton and further nstead of supposng the water to co er
the whoe or a arge part of the surface of a sod spherod as does
Lapace I ta e the smper probem of an area of water so sma
that the e ubrum-fgure of ts surface s not sensby cur ed.
Imagne a basn of water of any shape and of depth not necessary
unform but at greatest sma n comparson wth the east
dameter. Let ths basn and the water n t rotate round a
ertca a s wth anguar eocty w so sma that the greatest
e ubrum-sope due to t may be a sma fracton of the radan:
n other words the anguar eocty must be sma n comparson
wth /g/ A where g denotes gra ty and A the greatest dameter
of the basn. The e uatons of moton are
du - 2 - dp
dt p d
d ........................ 1
- 2Cow -
dt p dy
where u and are the component eoctes of any pont of the
fud n the ertca coumn through the pont y reat ey
to hor onta a es y re o ng wth the basn p the pressure
at any pont y of ths coumn and p the unform densty
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142
HYDR DYNAMICS
1
of the ud. The terms 2o e2y whch appear n ordnary
dynamca e uatons referred to rotatng a es represent components of centrfuga force and therefore do not appear n these
e uatons . Let now D be the mean depth and D h the actua
depth at any tme t n the poston y . The e uaton of
contnuty s
d Du d D dh
d dy d..................... 2 .
Lasty by the condton that the pressure at the free surface
s constant and that the dfference of pressures at any two ponts
n the fud s e ua to g dfference of e es we ha e
dp dh
d d
-......... .
dp dh
dy Pdy
Hence for the case of gra tatona oscatons 1 becomes
du dh
dt- 2 - gd
A A..................... 4 .
d dh. 4 .
-d 2ou - dy
rom 1 or 4 we fnd by dfferentaton amp c.
d d du 2 du d
t / 2c d 2 - - 0............ 5
dt d dy/ d dy
whch s the e uaton of orte moton n the crcumstances.
These e uatons reduced to poar coordnates wth the foowng
notaton
r cos 0 y r sn 0
u Ccos - Tsn 0 sn T cos 0
-D d D d dD dh
become D d d _
become M -................ 2
dt dh
d.................- r
d dh. 4
d-t 2w - g rddd r dT df / dr dr
dtr dr rd 2o r d rd 0. 5 .
They ony ater the mean e e.
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1879 N GRA ITATI NAL SCILLATI NS R TATING ATER 14
In these cases D may be any functon of the co-ordnates. Cases
of speca nterest n conne on wth Lapace s tda e uatons are
had by supposng D to be a functon of r aone. or the present
howe er we sha suppose D to be constant. Then 2 used n
5 or 2 n 5 g es after ntegraton wth respect to t
d du h
d dy D
or n poar coordnates
7 dT dT h
- 2. ........... 6
r dr rd ......
These e uatons 6 6 are nstruct e and con enent though
they contan nothng more than s contaned n 2 or 2 and
4 or 4 .
Separatng u and n 4 or and T n 4 we fnd
dt2 42 u - dt d C 2 dA
dt2 dt dy
and d2 2 - dh d dh .
dt d dt dy
or n poar coordnates
d24 d dh 2 h
d2r # f2 dh d dh .
dt2 rdr dt rd
sng t4 7 7 n 2 2 wth D constant or n 6 6
we fnd
d2h d2h d2h
gD d dy - dt 42h..................... 8
d2h 1dh A d h d2h
and gD r dr d - 4- 2h......... 8 .
r dr2 r dr r-2 d6 dt2
It s to be remar ed that 8 and 8 are satsfed wth u or
substtuted for h.
I. S L TI NS R RECTANG LAR C - RDINATES.
The genera type souton of 8 s h e e Y et where a / y
are connected by the e uaton
a2 .-. .2 2.. .
-g....................
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144
HYDR DYNAMICS
1
or wa es of oscatons we must ha e y a/ -1 where as rea.
I a. Noda Tessera scatons.
or noda oscatons of the tessera type we must ha e
M m /- 1/ n /- 1 where m and n are rea and by puttng
together propery the magnary consttuents we fnd
sn sn sn
h C sat s n ny............... 10
cos cos cos
where m n a- are connected by the e uaton
2 -2 - 4 amp 2
mn2 n2 ..................... 11 .
gD
ndng the correspondng aues of u and we see what the
boundary-condtons must be to aow these tessera oscatons
to e st n a sea of any shape. No boundng-ne can be drawn
at e ery part of whch the hor onta component eocty perpendcuar to t s ero. Therefore to produce or permt oscatons
of the smpe harmonc type n respect to form water must be
forced n and drawn out aternatey a round the boundary or
those parts of t f not a for whch the hor onta component
perpendcuar to t s not ero. Hence the oscatons of water
n a rotatng rectanguar trough are not of the smpe harmonc
type n respect to form and the probem of fndng them remans
unso ed.
If o 0 we fa on the we- nown souton for wa es n a
non-rotatng trough whch are of the smpe harmonc type.
I b. a es or scatons n an endess Cana wth straght
parae sdes.
or wa es n a cana parae to the souton s
h He-y cos m - at .................. 12
where 1 m a satsfy the e uaton
m212 f-D --- s 1
gD.....................
n rtue of 9 or 11 .
sng these n 7 we fnd that anshes throughout f we
ma e................. 14
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1879 N GRA ITATI NAL SCILLATI NS R TATING ATER 145
and wth ths aue for 1 n 12 we fnd by 7
u H g e-y cos m - at ............... 15
and usng 14 and 1 we fnd
m2- a........... 16
gD.....................
from whch we nfer that the eocty of propagaton of wa es s
the same for the same perod as n a f ed cana. Thus the
nfuence of rotaton s confned to the effect of the factor
6-2 n/c.y. Many nterestng resuts foow from the nterpretaton
of ths factor wth dfferent partcuar suppostons as to the
reaton between the perod of the oscaton 27r/ t r the perod
of the rotaton 27r/w and the tme re ured to tra e at the
eocty a/m across the cana. The more appro matey noda
character of the tdes on the north coast of the Engsh Channe
than on the south or rench coast and of the tdes on the west
or Irsh sde of the Irsh Channe than on the east or Engsh
sde s probaby to be accounted for on the prncpe represented
by ths factor ta en nto account aong wth frctona resstance
n rtue of whch the tdes of the Engsh Channe may be
roughy represented by more powerfu wa es tra eng from west
to east combned wth ess powerfu wa es tra eng from east to
west and those of the southern part of the Irsh Channe by more
powerfu wa es tra eng from south to north combned wth ess
powerfu wa es tra eng from north to south. The probem of
standng oscatons n an endess rotatng cana s so ed by the
foowng e uatons:h H e-y cos m - at - ey cos m at
t Hgm -y cos m - at Ey cos m a-t ... 17 .

If we g e ends to the cana we fa upon the unso ed probem
referred to abo e of tessera oscatons. If nstead of beng
rgorousy straght we suppose the cana to be crcuar and endess pro ded the breadth of the cana be sma n comparson wth
the radus of the crce the souton 17 st hods. In ths
case f c denote the crcumference of the cana we must ha e
m 27r/c where s an nteger.
. I .
10
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146
HYDR DYNAMICS
1
II. SCILLATI NS AND A ES IN CIRC LAR ASIN P LAR
C RDINATES .
Let h P cos - at ..................... 18
be the souton for heght where P s a functon of r. y 8 P
must satsfy the e uaton
d2P 1 dP 2P o2 - 42
- o. ........ 19
dr2 r d r r2 gD
and by 7 we fnd
Cr2 -4Sn o -/ dro r/P
- C -t dP P...... 20 .
T 2 4- cos d - ut 2c r - r
Ths s the souton for water n a crcuar basn wth or
wthout a centra crcuar sand. Let a be the radus of the
basn and f there be a centra sand et a be ts radus. The
boundary condtons to be fufed are 0 when r a and
when r- a . The rato of one to the other of the two constants
of ntegraton of 19 and the speed a of the oscaton are
the two un nown uanttes to be found by these two e uatons.
The rato of the constants s mmedatey emnated and the
resut s a transcendenta e uaton for a. There s no dffcuty
ony a tte abour n thus fndng as many as we pease of the
fundamenta modes and wor ng out the whoe moton of the
system for each. The roots of ths e uaton whch are found to
be a rea by the ourer-Sturm-Lou e theory are the speeds
of the success e fundamenta modes correspondng to the dfferent
crcuar noda subd sons of the dametra d sons mped by
the assumed aue of . Thus by g ng to the success e aues
0 1 2 amp c. and so ng the transcendenta e uaton so found
for each we fnd a the fundamenta modes of braton of the
mass of matter n the supposed crcumstances.
In the ast two or three tda reports of the rtsh Assocaton the word
speed n reference to a smpe harmonc functon has been used to desgnate
the anguar eocty of a body mo ng n a crce n the same perod. Thus f T
be the perod 2/rT s the speed ce ersa f a be the speed 27r/r s the perod.
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1879 N GRA ITATI NAL SCILLATI NS R TATING ATER 147
If there s no centra sand the souton of 19 whch must
be ta en s that for whch P and ts dfferenta coeffcents are
a fnte when r 0. Hence P s what s caed a esse s functon
of the frst nd and of order and accordng to the estabshed
notaton we ha e
P r / T2-4 2 . 21 .
.5 goD .................. 21
The souton found abo e for an endess crcuar cana s faen
upon by g ng a ery great aue to r. Thus f we put 27rr/
so that may denote wa e-ength we ha e /r 27/ whch w
now be the m of former notaton. e must now negect the term
1/r dh/dr n 19 and thus the dfferenta e uaton becomes
d2h f2- _ 2 2
dr2 g- 0
d2h
or d -12h 0................................ 22
d 2
where 12 denotes m2 - or2 - 4w2 /gD. A souton of ths e uaton s
h Ce-IY where y a - r and usng ths n 20 abo e we fnd
_ g/ a-2 - 4o2 C sn m - at a - 2om e-y where m .
Hence to ma e 0 at each boundary we ha e a 2wm whch
ma es 0 not ony at the boundares but throughout the space
for whch the appro mate e uaton 22 s suffcenty neary true.
And puttng for 12 ts aue abo e we ha e
40 2 n2 2 t2 g- - o
whence m2 gD
whch agrees wth 16 abo e.
I hope n a future communcaton to the Roya Socety to go
n deta nto partcuar cases and to g e detas of the soutons at
present ndcated some of whch present great nterest n reaton
to tda theory and aso n reaton to the abstract theory of orte
moton. The characterstc dfferences between cases n whch ar
s greater than 2w or ess than 2o are remar aby nterestng and
of great mportance n respect to the theory of durna tdes n
Neumann Theore der esse schen unctonen Lep g 1867 5 and
Lomme Studen ber de esse schen unctonen Lep g 1868 29.
10-2
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148 HYDR DYNAMICS 1
the Medterranean or other more or ess neary cosed seas n
mdde attudes and of the unar fortnghty tde of the whoe
ocean. It s to be remar ed that the precedng theory s appcabe
to wa es or bratons n any narrow a e or porton of the sea
co erng not more than a few degrees of the earth s surface f for
co we ta e the component of the earth s anguar eocty round a
ertca through the ocaty-that s to say w y sn I where y
denotes the earth s anguar eocty and I the attude.
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149
14. N THE RMATI N C RELESS RTICES Y THE M TI N
A S LID THR GH AN IN ISCID INC MPRESSI LE L ID.
rom Proc. Roy. Soc. eb. 1887 Ph. Mag. III. 1887 pp. 255-257.
TA E the smpest case: et the mo ng sod be a gobe and
et the fud be of nfnte e tent n a drectons. Let ts pressure
be of any g en aue P at nfnte dstances from the gobe and
et the gobe be ept mo ng wth a g en constant eocty .
If the fud eeps e erywhere n contact wth the gobe ts
eocty reat ey to the gobe at the e uator whch s the pace
of greatest reat e eocty s . Hence uness P gt -y2 the
fud w not reman n contact wth the gobe.
Suppose n the frst pace P to ha e been gt 5 2 and to be
suddeny reduced to some constant aue t 2. The fud w be
thrown off the gobe at a bet of a certan breadth and a oenty
dsturbed moton w ensue. To descrbe t t w be con enent
to spea of eoctes and motons reat e to the gobe. The fud
must as ndcated by the arrow-heads n fg. 1 fow party bac wards and party forwards at the pace I where t mpnges on
the gobe after ha ng shot off at a tangent at A. The bac -fow
aong the bet that had been bared must brng to E some fud n
contact wth the gobe and the free surface of ths fud must
code wth the surface of the fud ea ng the gobe at A. It
mght be thought that the resut of ths coson s a orte sheet whch n rtue of ts nstabty gets drawn out and m ed
up ndefntey and s carred away by the fud further and further
from the gobe. A defnte amount of netc energy woud thus
be practcay annued n a manner whch I hope to e pan n an
eary communcaton to the Roya Socety of Ednburght.
The densty of the fud s ta en as unty.
t Infra p. 166.
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150
HYDR DYNAMICS
14
ut t s mpossbe ether n our dea n scd ncompressbe
fud or n a rea fud such as water or ar to form a orte -sheet
that s to say an nterface of fnte sp by any natura acton.
hat happens n the case at present under consderaton and n
g. 1.
e ery rea and magnabe case of two portons of ud meetng
one another as for nstance a drop of ran fang drecty or
ob uey on a hor onta surface of st water s that contnuty
and the aw of contnuous fud moton become estabshed at the
nstant of frst contact between two ponts or between two nes n
a cass of cases of dea symmetry to whch our present sub ect
beongs.
An ne tabe resut of the separaton of the ud from the
sod whether our supposed gobe or any other fgure perfecty
symmetrca round an a s and mo ng e acty n the ne of the
a s s that two crces of the freed ud surface come nto contact
and ntate n an nstant the encosure of two rngs of acuum
G and H n fg. 2 whch howe er may be enormousy far from
e the true confguraton .
The crcuaton ne-ntegra of tangenta component eocty round any endess cur e encrcng the rng as a rng on a
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1887
RMATI N C RELESS RTICES
151
rng or one of two rngs n ed together s determnate for each
of these acuum-rngs and remans constant for e er after: uness
t d des tsef nto two or more or the two frst formed unte nto
one aganst whch accdents there s no securty.
g. 2.
It s conce aby possbe that a coreess rng- orte wth
rrotatona crcuaton round ts hoow sha be eft oscatng n
the neghbourhood of the e uator of the gobe pro ded 2 - P /P
be not too great. If the matera of the gobe be scousy eastc
the orte settes to a steady poston round the e uator n a
shape perfecty symmetrca on the two sdes of the e uatora
pane and the whoe moton goes on steady henceforth for e er.
If 2-P /P e ceed a certan mt I suppose coreess
ortces w be success ey formed and shed off behnd the gobe
n ts moton through the fud.
If ths conce abe possbty be mpossbe for a gobe t s certany
possbe for some cases of proate fgures of re outon.
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152
15
15. I RATI NS A C L MNAR RTE .
rom the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh March 1 1880
Ph. Mag. . 1880 pp. 155-168.
THIS s a case of fud-moton n whch the stream-nes are
appro matey crces wth ther centres n one ne the a s of
the orte and the eoctes appro matey constant and appro matey e ua at e ua dstances from the a s. As a premnary
to treatng t t s con enent to e press the e uatons of moton
of a homogeneous ncompressbe n scd fud the descrpton of
fud to whch the present n estgaton s confned n terms of
coumnar coordnates r 0 -that s coordnates such that
r cos 0 r sn 0 y.
If we ca the densty unty and f we denote by y the
eocty-components of the fud partce whch at tme t s passng
through the pont y and by d/dt d/d d/dy d/d dfferentatons respect ey on the supposton of y constant t y
constant t constant and t y constant the ordnary e uatons
of moton are
dp d: d dd d
b 2
d dt d dy d
dy dt d dy d
dp d d .d d I
d dt d dy d
and d d d.2 .
and d - dd - y..................... 2
d dy d
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1880
I RATI NS A C L MNAR RTE
15
To transform to the coumnar coordnates we ha e
rcos0 y rsn
cos 0 - r0 sn 0
y r sn 0 r0 cos 0
d d d..................
d d d. .
- cos 0 - sn 0
d dr rd
sn 0 cos d
dy dr rd0
The transformed e uatons are
dp dr. dr r0 2 dr dr
d - d .d _ -_
dr dt dr r r d d
dp d d r d r d r
dp d d d d
d dt dr d d
d r d r d
and -r- .............. 5 .
dr r rd06 d
Now et the moton be appro matey n crces round wth
eocty e erywhere appro matey e ua to T a functon of r
and to fuf these condtons assume
r p cos m sn nt - 0 r0 T r cos m cos nt -
w sn m sn nt - p P w cos m cos nt -
wth Tdr
r
where p r w and w are functons of r each nfntey sma n
comparson wth T. Substtutng n 4 and 5 and negectng
s uares and products of the nfntey sma uanttes we fnd
-d n- - p- 2- T
-dr r I 7 r
-r n - dr 7
/ p........ T
ms n- - w
dp p T
dp - w 0.....................
dr r r
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154
HYDR DYNAMICS
15
Ta ng 7 emnatng a and reso ng for p T we fnd
1 /. T . T dw T dT
P n- - n -n- -d- w
1 / dT . T dw T2 fdT 2 _. T 2 2
T - - - - - - - - n - -- w
mD r r dr r dr r
2T T dT .T2
where D - - n-
r r drr......... 9 .
or the partcuar case of m 0 or moton n two dmensons
r 0 t s con enent to put........................... 10 .
In ths case the moton whch supermposed on 0 and r T
g es the dsturbed moton s rrotatona and fb sn nt - s
ts eocty-potenta. It s aso to be remar ed that when m
does not ansh the supermposed moton s rrotatona where f
at a and ony where T const./r and that whene er t s rrotatona b cos m sn nt - wth b as g en by 10 s ts
eocty-potenta.
Emnatng p and T from 8 by 9 we ha e a near dfferenta e uaton of the second order for w. The ntegraton of ths
and substtuton of the resut n 9 g e w p and r n terms of
r and the two arbtrary constants of ntegraton whch wth m n
and are to be determned to fuf whate er surface-condtons
or nta condtons or condtons of mantenance are prescrbed
for any partcuar probem.
Crowds of e ceedngy nterestng cases present themse es.
Ta ng one of the smpest to begn:CASE I.
Let T or o const. ..................... 11
c cos m sn nt - 8 when appro matey r a
r t cos m sn nt- r a . 1
c t m n a a beng any g en uanttes and
any g en nteger
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1880
I RATI NS A C L MNAR RTE
155
The condton T wr smpfes 9 to
dw 2w
n - co n - c d - 2w
P
......... a
m 42- n-o 2
n _- 2 dw n - to w
rn 40 2 - n - o 2
and the emnaton of p and T by these from 8 g es
d2w 1 dw 2w 4o-2 - n- 2. - m2 0. 14
dr2 r dr r2 n - 2
d2w 1 dw 2w
or - 242 0
dr2 r dr r2
/4 92- _ _ ............ 15
where m / - 2
od2w 1 dw 2w
or -_ _ _ _ 2w 0
dr2 dr r2 r
where o- m a _ - 2 -Hence f denote esse s functons of order and of the frst
and second nds that s to say fnte or ero for nfntey
sma aues of r and fnte or ero for nfntey great aues
of r and f I and denote the correspondng rea functons wth
magnary we ha e
w C r r ............... 17
or w I or f or ............... 18
where C and denote arbtrary constants to be determned n
the present case by the e uatons of condton 12 . These are
e u aent to p c when r a and p C when r a and when
17 or 18 s used for w n 1 g e two smpe e uatons to
determne C and C.
The probem thus so ed s the fndng of the perodc dsturbance n the moton of rotatng ud n a space between two
boundares whch are concentrc crcuar cyndrc when unds Compare Proceedngs March 17 1879 Gra tatona scatons of
Rotatng ater. Souton II Case of Crcuar asns . Ph. Mag. August
1880 p. 114.
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156
HYDR DYNAMICS
15
turbed produced by nfntey sma smpe harmonc norma
moton of these boundares dstrbuted o er them accordng to
the smpe harmonc aw n respect to the coordnates 0. The
most nterestng Subcase s had by supposng the nner boundary
e anescent a 0 and the ud contnuous throughout the
space contaned by the outer cyndrc boundary of radus a.
Ths as s easy seen ma es w when r 0 e cept for the
case and essentay wthout e cepton re ures that c be
ero. Thus the souton for w becomes
w C r ......... .............. 19
or w C o r ........................ 20
and the condton p c when r a g es by 1
2C/m
C -221............ 21
a - n- we a
or the correspondng I formua.
y summaton after the manner of ourer we fnd the souton
for any arbtrary dstrbuton of the generat e dsturbance o er
the cyndrc surface or o er each of the two f we do not confne
ourse es to the Subcase and for any arbtrary perodc functon of
the tme. It s to be remar ed that 6 represents an unduaton
tra eng round the cynder wth near eocty na/ at the
surface or anguar eocty n/ throughout. To fnd the nteror
effect of a standng braton produced at the surface we must
add to the souton 6 or any sum of soutons of the same type
a souton or a sum of soutons n a respects the same e cept
wth - n n pace of n.
It s aso to be remar ed that great enough aues of ma e
2 negat e and therefore magnary and for such the soutons
n terms of a- and the I functons must be used.
CASE II. Hoow Irrotatona orte n a f ed
Cyndrc Tube.
Condtons:c
T - r 0 when r a
and r 0 for the dsturbed orbt r a fradt.... 22
and p 0 for the dsturbed orbt r a frdt
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1880 I RATI NS A C L MNAR RTE 157
a and a beng the rad of the hoow cyndrc nteror or free
boundary and of the e terna f ed boundary and ra the aue of
r when r s appro matey e ua to a. The condton T c/r
smpfes 9 and 8 to
1 dw w
P - m dr and r.............. 2
m dr mr
d2w 1 dw 2
-- 2w ......... 24
dr2 drdr r2 24
and by 7 we ha e
m - I n - w..................... 25 .
Hence w C mr CE mr ............... 26
and the e uaton of condton for the f ed boundary rada eocty
ero there g es
CI ma T ma 0............... 27 .
To fnd the other e uaton of condton we must frst fnd an
e presson for the dsturbance from crcuar fgure of the free
nner boundary. Let for a moment r 0 be the coordnates of one
and the same partce of fud. e sha ha e
0 dt and r dt ro
where ro denotes the radus of the mean crce of the partce s
path.
Hence to a frst appro maton
0 t. 28
0 ........................................ 28
and therefore by 6
p cosm sn n- 2 t
whence r ro - mP - cos m cos nt- ...... 29 .
c
n --
r2
Hence the e uaton of the free boundary s
r a p cos m cos nt - ...... 0
n -
awhere2o ........ 1 .
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158
HYDR DYNAMICS
15
Hence at r 0 of ths surface we ha e fromn P T2dr/r of 6
abo e
T2
P - r - a
r
C2 P a
ca m cos nt - ...... 2 .
an T- - w
Hence and by 6 and 26 and 25 and 2 the condton
p at the free boundary g es
C2 n - o
c C ma ma c ma 01 ma 0......... .
Emnatng C/C from ths by 27 we get an e uaton to
determne n by whch we fnd
n o N ..................... 4
where s an essentay post e numerc.
S CASE.
A ery nterestng Subcase s that of a oo whch by 27
ma es C 0 and therefore by g es
m a a .................... 5
ma . 5 .
hether n Case II or the Subcase we see that the dsturbance
conssts of an unduaton tra eng round the cynder wth anguar
eocty
eo 1 N/ or o 1 - N/
or of two such unduatons supermposed on one another tra eng
round the cynder wth anguar eoctes greater than and
agebracay ess than the anguar eocty of the mass of the
ud at ts free surfaces by e ua dfferences. The propagaton
of the wa e of greater eocty s n the same drecton as that n
whch the ud re o es the propagaton of the other s n the
contrary drecton when N gt 2 as t certany s n some cases .
If the free surface be started n moton wth one or other of
the two prncpa anguar eoctes 4 or near eoctes
aco 1 N/ and the ud be then eft to tsef t w perform
the smpe harmonc unduatory mo ement represented by 6
26 2 . ut f the free surface be dspaced to the corrugated
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1880
I RATI NS A C L MNAR RTE
159
form 0 and then eft free ether at rest or wth any other
dstrbuton of norma eocty than ether of those the corrugaton
w as t were spt nto two sets of wa es tra eng wth the
two dfferent eoctes aco 1 IN/ .
The case 0 s ceary e ceptona and can present no
unduatons tra eng round the cynder. It w be consdered
ater.
The case 1 s partcuary mportant and nterestng. To
e auate N for t remar that
I r I mr .................. 6 .
and I nmr Io mnr
Now the genera souton of 24 s
w E Dog 1 m2r2 2 44 amp
2 S1 22 42 amp c
where E and D are constants and S 1- 2-1 ... -1. Hence
accordng to our notaton
m2 r2 m4 r 4
Io mr 1 - amp c............. 7
the constant factor beng ta en so as to ma e 1o 0 1.
Sto es n estgated the reaton between E and D to ma e
w 0 when r oo and found t to be
E/D og 8 7r- P 2-079442 - 1 96 510 1159
or to 20 paces 8 .
E/D 1159 15156 58412 44881...........................
n the Effect of Interna rcton of uds on the Moton of Penduums
e uatons 9 and 106 . Camb. Ph. Trans. Dec. 1850.
P.S.-I am nformed by Mr . . L. Gasher that Gauss n secton 2 of hs
Ds ustones Generaes crca Serem Infntam 1 a. P / . y amp c. pera
o. . p. 155 g es the aue of -r r 2 or - -p n hs notaton to
2 paces as foows:1-96 51 00260 2142 47944 099.
Thus t appears that the ast fgure n Sto es s resut 106 ought as n the te t
to be 0 nstead of 2. In Caet s Tabes we fnd
og 8 2-07944 15416 798 5 92825
and subtractng the former number from ths we ha e the aue of E/D to 20 paces
g en n the te t.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
15
Hence and by con enent assumpton for constant factor
I .n2 12 m4 4
01 mr og 1 2 4 amp c.
7 2 72 y2 4 4r4
1159 S2 1159 amp c.
It s to be remar ed that the seres n 6 and 9 are
con ergent howe er great be mr though for aues of mr
e ceedng 6 or 7 the semcon ergent e pressons w g e the
aues of the functons neary enough for most practca purposes
wth much ess arthmetca abour.
rom 7 and 9 we fnd by dfferentaton
r 2 r /75 75
I mr - 2- 4 2 4. 6 amp c....... 40 .
1 m2r2 m4r4 amp c
I mr 4 2-2- 22.. 2 amp c.46
mr r 22 -1 / S 1159 15
m r
42 -1 4 S2 1159 15 amp c.
I mr m r m5r5 r
ogr 22 4 2 46 amp c.
1 gt ...... 41 .
nr 2r2 - 1.2 S 1159 15
22
m2r2
22 - .4 S2 1159 15 amp c.
1 / m2r2 5m4r
og mr 22 4 22 42 6 amp c.
or an ustraton of the Subcase wth 1 suppose ma to
be ery sma. Remar ng that S 1 we ha e
n2a2 og I 159
- ma / ma 1 2- og ma - 1159 ma 2...... 42 .
2 m0 2
1 m og m-a -1159...... 42 .
7n 1
Sto es bd.
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1880
I RATI NS A C L MNAR RTE
161
Hence n ths case at a e ents N gt 2 and the anguar eocty
of the sow wa e n the re erse drecton to that of the ud s
re outon s
-n m22 og -1159 ............ 4 .
Ths s ery sma n comparson wth
2w wc m2a2 og-a .1159 ............ 44
the anguar eocty of the drect wa e and therefore ceary f
the nta norma eocty of the surface when eft free after beng
dspaced from ts cyndrca fgure of e ubrum be ero or anythng sma the amptude of the uc er drect wa e w be ery
sma n proporton to that of the re erse sow one.
CASE III.
A sghty dsturbed orte coumn n ud e tendng through
a space between two parae panes the undsturbed coumn
consstng of a core of unform ortcty that s to say rotatng
e a sod surrounded by rrotatonay re o ng ud wth no
sp at the cyndrc nterface. Denotng by a the radus of ths
cynder we ha e
T r when r t a
a 2.................. 45 .
and T w - r gt a
r
Hence 1 14 hod for r t a and 2 24 for r gt a.
Gong bac to the form of assumpton 6 we see that t suts the
condton of rgd boundary panes f the a s be perpendcuar
to them 0 n one of them and the dstance between them 7r/m.
The condtons to be fufed at the nterface between core
and surroundng ud are that p and w must ha e the same
aues on the two sdes of t: t s easy pro ed that ths mpes
aso e ua aues of r on the two sdes. The e uaty of p on the
two sdes of the nterface g es by 1 and 2
f -n fL - n dr - nterna /dwe terna
4r- tha the rad erc s sma 4
4-2 _ t- e w 2 r a - dr /.
Here ma s ery sma as supra so that the radus of the orte -core s sma
compared wth the wa e-ength aong ts a s. -
. I .
11
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HYDR DYNAMICS
15
and from ths and the e uaty of w on the two sdes we ha e
dw nterna 2. / co-n o wd ---r r a a dw e terna
4o2 - eo - n 2 wdr/r a
The condton that the ud e tends to nfnty a round ma es
w 0 when r co. Hence the proper ntegra of 24 s of the
form : and the condton of undsturbed contnuty through the
a s shows that the proper ntegra of 15 s of the form .
Hence
w C r for r t a.............. 48
and w mr r gt a a. 48
by whch 47 becomes
o n -c - a 2o
a a m ma
4602 - o - n 2 - ma
or by 15 / - I ma .. 50
2 ma ma .
w - n
where - 2co..................... 51
and m2a2 2..................... 52 .
Remar ng that s the same for post e and negat e
aues of and that t passes from post e through ero to a
fnte negat e ma mum thence through ero to a fnte post e
ma mum and so on an nfnte number of tmes whe s
ncreased from 0 to oo we see that whe s ncreased from -1
to 0 the frst member of 50 passes an nfnte number of tmes
contnuousy through a rea aues from - co to cc and that
t does the same when s dmnshed from 1 to 0. Hence 50
regarded as a transcendenta e uaton n has an nfnte number
of roots between - 1 and 0 and an nfnte number between 0 and
1. And t has no roots e cept between - 1 and 1 because ts
second member s ceary post e whate er be ma and ts frst
member s essentay rea and negat e for a rea aues of
e cept between - 1 and 1 as we see by remar ng that when
2 gt 1 2 s rea and post e and - / s rea and
gt / - 2 whe / 2 whether post e or negat e s of ess
absoute aue than / - 2 .
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1880
I RATI NS A C L MNAR RTE
16
Each of the nfnte number of aues of yeded by 50 g es
by 51 48 and 1 a souton of the probem of fndng smpe
harmonc bratons of a coumnar orte wth m of any assumed
aue. A possbe smpe harmonc bratons are thus found:
and summaton after the manner of ourer for dfferent aues
of m wth dfferent amptudes and dfferent epochs g es e ery
possbe moton de atng nfntey tte from the undsturbed
moton n crcuar orbts.
The smpest Subcase that of 0 s curousy nterestng.
or t 50 51 52 g e
-o ma : mao m .................. 5
0 maEo ma
2wma
and:/ m2a2 2 ....................... 54 .
The success e roots of 5 regarded as a transcendenta e uaton
n e between the 1st 2nd rd ... roots of 0 n order of
ascendng aues of and the ne t greater roots of 0
comng nearer and nearer down to the roots of the greater they
are. They are easy cacuated by ad of Hansen s Tabes of
esse s functons o and 1 whch s e ua to - o from 0
to 20 . hen ma s a sma fracton of unty the second
member of 5 s a arge number and e en the smaest root
e ceeds by but a sma fracton the frst root of o 0 whch
accordng to Hansen s Tabe s 2 4049 or appro matey enough
for the present 2 4. In e ery case n whch s ery arge n
comparson wth ma whether ma s sma or not 54 g es
2coma
n - appro matey.
Now gong bac to 6 we see that the summaton of two
soutons to consttute wa es propagated aong the ength of the
coumn g es: -psn nt-m r T T C7os 71t- -M
r w cos nt - m p P cos nt - m
The eocty of propagaton of these wa es s n/m. Hence when
s arge n comparson wth ma the eocty of ongtudna
wa es s 2wa/ or 2/ of the transatona eocty of the surface
of the core n ts crcuar orbt. Ths s 1/1 2 or 5 of the trans Repubshed n L6mme s esse sche unctonen Lep g 1868.
11-2
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HYDR DYNAMICS
15
atona eocty n the case of ma sma and the mode correspondng to the smaest root of 5 . A fu e amnaton of the
nterna moton of the core as e pressed by 55 1 48 15
s most nterestng and nstruct e. It must form a more de eoped
communcaton to the Roya Socety.
The Subcase of 1 and ma ery sma s partcuary
nterestng and mportant. In t we ha e by 42 for the second
member of 50 appro matey
-t/ mwa
- ma _ M a2 1ogI 1159 ... 56 .
ma ma - m2a ma
In ths case the smaest root s comparabe wth ma and a
the others are arge n comparson wth ma. To fnd the smaest
remar that when s ery sma we ha e to a second appro maton
1 1
... 57 .
4 1................... 57.
Hence 50 wth 1 becomes to a frst appro maton
2 1 .2 2 ..... 58
Ths and 52 used to fnd the two un nowns and 2 g e
- and 2 m2a2
for a frst appro maton. Now wth 1 51 becomes
1 / n
- 1-
and therefore n/o s nfntey sma. Hence 52 g es for a
second appro maton
2 m2a2 1 ................. 59
1 2 1 I 5n
and we ha e 2.................. 60 .
m a - ................ .
sng now 57 59 60 and 56 n 50 we fnd to a second
appro maton
1 / 8n 1 2 5n
m2a2 I -4 4 m2a
m2 a2 f a2ogmc -1159
whence -m22a g 4 2ma
whence -n 1 22 a og -1159............ 61 .
-o 2 a oma 4 /s 61 .
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I RATI NS A C L MNAR RTE
165
Compare ths resut wth 4 abo e. The fact that as n 4
-n s post e n 61 shows that n ths case aso the drecton
n whch the dsturbance tra es round the cynder s retrograde
or opposte to that of the transaton of fud n the undsturbed
orte and as was to be e pected the aues of - n are appro matey e ua n the two cases when ma s sma enough but - n
s smaer by a reat ey sma dfference n 4 than n 61 as
was aso to be e pected.
The case of ma sma and gt 1 has a partcuary smpe
appro mate souton for the smaest -root of the transcendenta
50 . th any aue of nstead of unty we st ha e 58
as a frst appro maton for sma. Emnatng 2/m2a2 between
ths and 52 we st fnd but nstead of n 0 by 51 we
now ha e n - 1 w. Thus s pro ed the souton for wa es of
deformaton of sectona fgure tra eng round a cyndrca orte
announced thrteen years ago wthout proof n my frst artce
respectng orte Moton .
orte Atoms Proc. Roy. Soc. Edn. eb. 18 1867 supra p. tI6 .
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16
16. N THE STA ILITY STEADY AND PERI DIC
L ID M TI N.
rom Ph. Mag. III. 1887 pp. 459-464 529-5 9 read before Roy. Soc.
Edn. Apr 18 1887 pp. 172-18 beng reprnted from Nature III.
ct. 28 1880.
1. THE fud w be ta en as ncompressbe but the resuts
w generay be appcabe to the moton of natura uds and
of ar or other gases when the eocty s e erywhere sma n
comparson wth the eocty of sound n the partcuar fud
consdered. I sha frst suppose the fud to be n scd. The
y steady moton of a system whether a set of matera ponts or a rgd
body or a fud mass or a set of sods or portons of fud or a system composed
of a set of sods or portons of fud or of portons of sod and fud I mean
moton whch at any and e ery tme s precsey smar to what t s at one tme.
y perodc moton I mean moton whch s perfecty smar at a nstants of
tme dfferng by a certan nter a caed the perod.
E ampe 1. E ery possbe adynamc moton of a free rgd body ha ng two
of ts prncpa moments of nerta e ua s steady. So aso s that of a sod of
re outon fed wth rrotatona n scd ncompressbe fud.
E ampe 2. The adynamc moton of a sod of re outon fed wth homogeneousy rotatng n scd ncompressbe fud s essentay perodc and s steady
ony n partcuar cases.
E ampe . The adynamc moton of a free rgd body wth three une ua
prncpa moments of nerta s essentay perodc and s ony steady n the
partcuar case of rotaton round one or other of the three prncpa a es so aso
and accordng to the same aw s the moton of a rgd body ha ng a hoow or
hoows fed wth rrotatona n scd ncompressbe fud wth the three rtua
moments of nerta une ua.
E ampe 4. The adynamc moton of a hoow rgd body fed wth rotatonay
mo ng fud s essentay unsteady and non-perodc e cept n partcuar cases.
E en n the case of an epsoda hoow and homogeneous moecuar rotaton the
moton s non-perodc. The moton whether rotatona or rrotatona of fud
n an epsoda hoow s fuy n estgated n a paper under ths tte pubshed
n the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh for December 7 1885 nfra
p. 19 . Among other resuts t was pro ed that the rotaton f ntay g en
homogeneous remans homogeneous pro ded the fgure of the hoow be ne er at
any tme deformed from beng e acty epsoda.
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1887 STA ILITY STEADY AND PERI DIC L ID M TI N 167
resuts obtaned on ths supposton w hep n an n estgaton
of effects of scosty whch w foow.
2. I sha suppose the fud competey encosed n a contanng
esse whch may be ether rgd or pastc so that we may at
peasure moud t to any shape or of natura sod matera and
therefore scousy eastc that s to say returnng aways to the
same shape and s e when tme s aowed but resstng a deformatons wth a force dependng on the speed of the change
supermposed upon a force of uas-perfect eastcty . The whoe
mass of contanng- esse and fud w sometmes be consdered as
absoutey free n space undsturbed by gra ty or other force
and sometmes we sha suppose t to be hed absoutey f ed.
ut more fre uenty we may suppose t to be hed by sod supports
of rea and therefore scousy eastc matera so that t w
be f ed ony n the same sense as a three-egged tabe restng
on the ground s f ed. The fundamenta phosophc ueston
hat s f ty s of paramount mportance n our present sub ect.
Drectona f edness s e paned n Thomson and Tat s Natura
Phosophy 2nd edton Part I. 249 and more fuy dscussed
by Prof. ames Thomson n a paper n the Law of Inerta the
Prncpe of Chronometry and the Prncpe of Absoute Cnura
Rest and of Absoute Rotaton. or our present purpose we sha
cut the matter short by assumng our patform the earth or the
foor of our room to be absoutey f ed n space.
. The ob ect of the present communcaton so far as t
reates to n scd fud s to pro e and to ustrate the proof
of the three foowng propostons regardng a mass of fud g en
wth any rotaton n any part of t: I The energy of the whoe moton may be nfntey
ncreased by dong wor n a certan systematc manner on the
contanng- esse and brngng t utmatey to rest.
II If the contanng- esse be smpy contnuous and be
of natura scousy eastc matera the fud g en mo ng wthn
t w come of tsef to rest.
III If the contanng- esse be compe y contnuous and
be of natura scousy eastc matera the fud w ose energy
not to ero howe er but to a determnate condton of rrotatona
Ths appears substantay n Proc. oy. Soc. Edn. nII. 1885 p. 114
wth the tte n Energy n orte Moton.
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168
HYDR DYNAMICS
16
crcuaton wth a determnate cycc constant for each crcut
through t.
4. To pro e I remar frst that mere dstorton of the
fud by changng the shape of the boundary can ncrease the
netc energy ndefntey. or smpcty suppose a fnte or an
nfntey great change of shape of the contanng- esse to be
made n an nfntey short tme ths w dstort the nterna
fud precsey as t woud ha e done f the fud had been g en
at rest and thus by Hemhot s aws of orte moton we can
cacuate from the nta state of moton supposed nown the
moecuar rotaton of e ery part of the fud after the change.
or e ampe et the shape of the contanng- esse be atered by
homogeneous stran that s to say dated unformy n one or
n each of two drectons and contracted unformy n the other
drecton or drectons of three at rght anges to one another.
The ud w be homogeneousy deformed throughout the a s
of moecuar rotaton n each part w change n drecton so as
to eep aong the changng drecton of the same ne of fud
partces and ts magntude w change n n erse smpe proporton to the dstance between two partces n the ne of the
a s.
5. ut now to smpfy subse uent operatons to the utmost
suppose that anyhow by uc moton or by sow moton the
contanng- esse be changed to a crcuar cynder wth perforated
daphragm and two pstons as shown n fg. 1. In the present
crcumstances the moton of the ud may be supposed to ha e
any degree of compe ty of moecuar rotaton throughout. It
mght chance to ha e no moment of momentum round the a s of
the cynder but we sha suppose ths not to be the case. If t
dd chance to be the case whch coud be dsco ered by e terna
tests a moton of the cynder round a dameter to a fresh
poston of rest woud ea e t wth moment of momentum of the
nterna fud round the a s of the cynder. thout further
preface howe er we sha suppose the cynder to be g en wth
the pstons as n fg. 1 contanng fud n an e ceedngy rreguar
state of moton but wth a g en moment of momentum Mf round
the a s of the cynder. The cynder tsef s to be hed absoutey f ed and therefore whate er we do to the pstons we
cannot ater the whoe moment of momentum of the fud round
the a s of the cynder.
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1887 STA ILITY STEADY AND PERI DIC L ID M TI N 169
6. Suppose now the pston A to be temporary f ed n ts
mdde poston CC and the whoe contanng- esse of cynder and pstons to
be mounted on a frctoness p ot so as
to be free to turn round AA the a s of
the cynder. If the esse be of deay
rgd matera and f ts nner surface be
an e act fgure of re outon t w
though eft free to turn reman at rest
because the pressure of the fud on t s
e erywhere n pane wth the a s. ut
now nstead of beng deay rgd et the
esse be of natura scous-eastc sod
I
- - - - _ - I
g. 1.
matera. The unsteadness of the nterna fud moton w cause
deformatons of the contanng-sod wth oss of energy and the
resut fnay appro mated to more and more neary as tme
ad ances s necessary the one determnate condton of mnmum
energy wth the g en moment of momentum whch as s we
nown and easy pro ed s the condton of sod and fud
rotatng wth e ua anguar eocty. If the stffness of the
contanng- esse be sma enough and ts scosty great enough
t s easy seen that ths fna condton w be cosey appro mated to n a ery moderate number of tmes the perod of
rotaton n the fna condton. St we must wat an nfnte
tme before we can fnd a perfect appro maton to ths condton
reached from our hghy compe or rreguar nta moton. e
sha now therefore cut the affar short by smpy supposng the
fud to be g en rotatng wth unform anguar eocty e a
sod wthn the contanng- esse a true fgure of re outon whch
we sha now agan consder as absoutey rgd and consstng of
cynder wth perforated daphragm and two mo abe pstons as
represented n fg. 1.
7. G e A a sudden pu or push and ea e t to tsef t
w mo e a short dstance n the drecton of the mpuse and
then sprng bac . eep aternatey pung and pushng t
The sub ect of ths statement rece es an nterestng e permenta ustraton
n the foowng passage e tracted from the Proceedngs of the Roya Insttuton
of Great rtan for March 4 1881 beng an abstract of a rday-e enng dscourse
on Eastcty ewed as possby a Mode of Moton and now n the press for
repubcaton aong wth other ectures and addresses n a oume o. r. of the
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170 HYDR DYNAMICS 16
aways n the drecton of ts moton. It w not thus be brought
nto a state of ncreasng oscaton but the wor done upon t
w be spent n augmentng the energy of the fud moton: so
that f after a great number of to-and-fro motons of the pston
wth some wor done on t durng each of them the pston s once
more brought to rest the energy of the fud moton w be
greater than n the begnnng when t was rotatng homogeneousy
e a sod. It has st e acty the same moment of momentum and
the same ortcty n e ery part and the moton s symmetrca
round the a s of the cynder. Hence t s easy seen that the
Nature Seres. A tte wooden ba whch when thrust down under st water
umped up agan n a moment remaned down as f mbedded n ey when the
water was caused to rotate rapdy and sprang bac as f the water had eastcty
/
g. 2.
e that of ey when t was struc by a stff wre pushed down through the
centre of the cor by whch the gass esse contanng the water was fed.
The ortcty of an nfntesma oume d of fud s the aue of d . wse
where w s ts moecuar rotaton and e the rato of the dstance between two of
ts partces n the a s of rotaton at the tme consdered to the dstance between
the same two partces at a partcuar tme of reference. The amount of the
ortcty thus defned for any part of a mo ng fud depends on the tme of
reference chosen. Hemhot s fundamenta theorem of orte moton pro es t
to be constant throughout a tme for e ery sma porton of an n scd fud.
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1887 STA ILITY STEADY AND PERI DIC L ID M TI N 171
greater energy mpes the a a regon of the fud beng stretched
a ay and so ac urng anguar eocty greater than the orgna
anguar eocty of the whoe fud mass.
8. The accompanyng dagram fg. represents an easy
performed e permenta ustraton n
whch rotatng water s churned by
uc up-and-down mo ement of a dsc
carred on a ertca rod guded to
mo e aong the a s of the contanng esse whch s attached to a rotatng
ertca shaft. The nd of churnng
moton thus produced s ery dfferent _ __
from that produced by the perforated:
daphragm but the utmate resut
s so far smar that the statement
of 7 s e uay appcabe to the two -
cases. In the e perment a tte ar
s eft under the cor n the nec of
the contanng- esse to aow somethng to be seen of the motons of
the water. hen the esse has been.
g. .
ept rotatng steady for some tme
wth the churn-dsc restng on the bottom the surface of the
water s seen n the parabooda form ndcated deay by the
upper dotted cur e but of course greaty dstorted by the
refracton of the gass . Now by fnger and thumb apped to
the top of the rod mo e smarty up and down se era tmes the
churn-ds . A hoow orte or coumn of ar bounded by water
endng rreguary a tte abo e the dsc s seen to dart down
from the nec of the esse. If now the churn-dsc s hed at
rest n any poston the ragged ower end of the ar-tube becomes
rounded and drawn up the free surface of the water ta ng a
successon of shapes e that ndcated by the ower dotted cur e
unt after a few seconds or about a uarter of a mnute t
becomes steady n the parabooda shape ndcated by the upper
dotted cur e.
9. e ha e supposed the pston brought to rest after ha ng
done wor upon the fud durng a ast but fnte number of toand-fro motons. ut f eft to tsef t w not reman at rest
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172
HYDR DYNAMICS
16
t w get nto a state of rreguar oscaton due to superposton
of oscatons of the fud accordng to an nfnte number of
fundamenta modes of the nd n estgated n my artce
bratons of a Coumnar orte Proc. Roy. Soc. Edn.
March 1 1880 but not as there mted to beng nfntesma
If the moton of the pston be scousy ressted these bratons
w be graduay camed down and f tme enough s aowed
the whoe energy that has been mparted to the ud by the
wor done on the pstons w be ost and t w agan be rotatng
unformy e a sod as t was n the begnnng.
MA IM M AND MINIM M ENERGY IN RTE M TI N.
10. The condton for steady moton of an ncompressbe
n scd fud fng a fnte f ed porton of space that s to say
moton n whch the eocty and drecton of moton contnue
unchanged at e ery pont of the space wthn whch the fud s
paced s that wth g en ortcty the energy s a thorough
ma mum or a thorough mnmum or a mnma . The further
condton of stabty s secured by the consderaton of energy
aone for any case of steady moton for whch the energy s a
thorough ma mum or a thorough mnmum because when the
boundary s hed f ed the energy s of necessty constant. ut
the mere consderaton of energy does not decde the ueston
of stabty for any case of steady moton n whch the energy s a
mnma .
11. It s ceart that commencng wth any g en moton
the energy may be ncreased ndefntey by propery-desgned
operaton on the boundary understood that the prmt e boundary
s returned to . Hence wth g en ortcty but wth no other
condton there s no thorough ma mum of energy n any case.
There may aso e cept n the case of rrotatona crcuaton n a
mutpe y contnuous esse referred to n III abo e be
compete annument of the energy by operaton on the boundary
wth return to the prmt e boundary as we see by the foowng
ustratons: eng a communcaton read before the rtsh Assocaton Secton A at the
Swansea Meetng Saturday August 28 1880 and pubshed n the Report for that
year p. 47 and n Nature ct. 28 1880. Reprnted now wth correctons
amendments and addtons.
See aso to 9 abo e.
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1880 MA IM M AND MINIM M ENERGY IN RTE M TI N 17
a Two e ua parae and oppostey rotatng orte
coumns termnated perpendcuary by two f ed parae panes.
y proper operaton on the cyndrc boundary they may n
purey two-dmensona moton be thoroughy and e uaby m ed
n two nfntey thn sheets. In ths condton the energy s
nfntey sma.
b A snge Hemhot rng reduced by dmnuton of ts
aperture to an nfntey ong tube coed wthn the encosure.
In ths condton the energy s nfntey sma.
c A snge orte coumn wth two ends on the boundary
bent t ts mdde nfntey neary meets the boundary and
further bent and e tended t t s bro en nto two e ua and
opposte orte coumns connected one end of one to one end
of the other by a anshng orte gament nfntey near the
boundary and then further deat wth t these two coumns are
m ed together to rtua annhaton.
12. To a od for the present the e tremey dffcut genera
ueston ustrated or suggested by the consderaton of such
cases confne ourse es now to two-dmensona motons n a
space bounded by two f ed parae panes and a cosed cyndrc
not generay crcuar cyndrc surface perpendcuar to them
sub ected to changes of fgure but aways truy cyndrc and
perpendcuar to the panes . Aso for smpcty confne ourse es for the present to ortcty ether post e or ero n e ery
part of the fud. It s ob ous that wth the mtaton to twodmensona moton the energy cannot be ether nfntey sma
or nfntey great wth any g en ortcty and g en cyndrc
fgure. Hence under the g en condtons there certany are
at east two stabe steady motons-those of absoute ma mum
and absoute mnmum energy. The confguraton of absoute
ma mum energy ceary conssts of east ortcty or ero
ortcty f there be fud of ero ortcty ne t the boundary
and greater and greater ortcty nwards. The confguraton of
absoute mnmum energy ceary conssts of greatest ortcty
ne t the boundary and ess and ess ortcty nwards. If there
be any fud of ero ortcty a such fud w be at rest ether
n one contnuous mass or n soated portons surrounded by
rotatonay mo ng fud. or ustraton see fgs. 4 and 5
where t s seen how e en n so smpe a case as that of the
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174
HYDR DYNAMICS
16
contanng- esse represented n the dagram there can be an
nfnte number of stabe steady motons each wth ma mum
though not greatest ma mum energy and aso an nfnte
number of stabe steady motons of mnmum though not east
mnmum energy.
1 . That there can be an nfnte number of confguratons
of stabe motons each of them ha ng the energy a thorough
mnmum as sad n 12 we see by consderng the case n
whch the cyndrc boundary of the contanng-canster conssts
of two wde portons communcatng by a narrow passage as
shown n the drawngs. If such a canster be competey fed
wth rotatonay mo ng fud of unform ortcty the streamnes must be somethng e those ndcated n fg. 4.
g. 4.
Hence f a not too great porton of the whoe fud s rrotatona t s cear that there may be a mnmum energy and
therefore a stabe confguraton of moton wth the whoe of
ths n one of the wde parts of the canster or the whoe n
the other or any proporton n one and the rest n the other.
g. 5.
Snge ntersecton of stream-nes
be at any ange as shown n fg. 4.
anges n rrotatona moton as shown
n rotatona moton may
It s essentay at rght
n fg. 5 representng the
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1880 MA IM M AND MINIM M ENERGY IN RTE M TI N 175
stream-nes of the confguraton of ma mum energy for whch
the rotatona part of the ud s n two e ua parts n the
mddes of two wde parts of the encosure. There s an nfnte
number of confguratons of ma mum energy n whch the
rotatona part of the fud s une uay dstrbuted between the
two wde parts of the encosure.
14. In _ ry steady moton when the boundary s crcuar ff
the stream-nes are concentrc crces and the fud s dstr-
buted n co-a a cyndrc ayers of e ua ortcty. In the
stabe moton of ma mum energy the ortcty s greatest at
the a s of the cynder and s ess and ess outwards to the
crcumference. In the stabe moton of mnmum energy the
ortcty s smaest at the a s and greater and greater outwards
to the crcumference. To e press the condtons symbocay
et T be the eocty of the fud at dstance r from the a s
understood that the drecton of the moton s perpendcuar to
the drecton of r and et a be the radus of the boundary. The
ortcty at dstance r s
dr
If the aue of ths e presson dmnshes from r 0 to r a
the moton s stabe and of ma mum energy. If t ncreases
from r 0 to r a the moton s stabe and of mnmum energy.
If t ncreases and dmnshes or dmnshes and ncreases as r
ncreases contnuousy the moton s unstabe .
15. As a smpest Subcase et the ortcty be unform
through a g en porton of the whoe fud and ero through
the remander. In the stabe moton of greatest energy the
porton of fud ha ng ortcty w be n the shape of a
crcuar cynder rotatng e a sod round ts own a s
Ths concuson I had neary reached n the year 1875 by rgd mathematca
n estgaton of the bratons of appro matey crcuar cyndrc ortces but
I was antcpated n the pubcaton of t by Lord Rayegh who concudes hs
paper n the Stabty or Instabty of certan ud Motons Proceedngs of
the London Mathematca Socety eb. 12 1880 wth the foowng statement: It may be pro ed that f the fud mo e between two rgd concentrc was the
moton s stabe pro ded that n the steady moton the rotaton ether contnuay
ncreases or contnuay decreases n passng outwards from the a s -whch was
un nown to me at the tme August 28 1880 when I made the communcaton to
Secton A of the rtsh Assocaton at Swansea.
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176 HYDR DYNAMICS 16
concdng wth the a s of the encosure and the remander of
the fud w re o e rrotatonay around t so as to fuf the
condton of no fnte sp at the cyndrc nterface between the
rotatona and rrotatona portons of the fud. The e presson
for ths moton n symbos s
T g r from r to r b
and T b from r b to r a.
r
16. In the stabe moton of mnmum energy the rotatona
porton of the fud s n the shape of a cyndrc she encosng
the rrotatona remander whch n ths case s at rest. The
symboca e presson for ths moton s
T 0 when r t / a2 - b2
and T r _ a b when r gt / a2 - b2 .
17. Let now the ud be g en n the confguraton 15 of
greatest energy and et the cyndrc boundary be a sheet of a
rea eastc sod such as sheet-meta wth the nd of derecton
from perfectness of eastcty whch rea eastc sods present
that s to say et ts shape when at rest be a functon of the
stress apped to t but et there be a resstance to change of
shape dependng on the eocty of the change. Let the unstressed shape be truy crcuar and et t be capabe of sght
deformatons from the crcuar fgure n cross secton but et t
aways reman truy cyndrca. Let now the cyndrc boundary
be sghty deformed and eft to tsef but hed so as to pre ent
t from beng carred round by the fud. The centra orte
coumn s set nto braton n such a manner that onger and
shorter wa es tra e round t wth ess and greater anguar
eocty . These wa es cause correspondng wa es of corrugaton to tra e round the cyndrc boundng sheet by whch
energy s consumed and moment of momentum ta en out of the
fud. Let ths process go on unt a certan uantty M of moment
of momentum has been stopped from the fud and now et the
canster run round freey n space and for smpcty suppose
See Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh for 1880 or Phosophca
Maga ne for 1880 o. . p. 155: bratons of a Coumnar orte
supra p. 152 .
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1880 MA IM M AND MINIM M ENERGY IN RTE M TI N 177
ts matera to be de od of nerta. The whoe moment of
momentum was ntay
7rb2 a2 -b2
t s now 7rrb2 a2- 2b2 - M
and contnues constanty of ths amount as ong as the boundary
s eft free n space. The consumpton of energy st goes on
and the way n whch t goes on s ths: the wa es of shorter
ength are ndefntey mutped and e ated t ther crests run
out nto fne amnae of ud and those of greater ength are
abated. Thus a certan porton of the rrotatonay re o ng
water becomes mnged wth the centra orte coumn. The
process goes on unt what may be caed a orte sponge s
formed a m ture homogeneous on a arge scae but consstng
of portons of rotatona and rrotatona fud more and more
fney m ed together as tme ad ances. The m ture s atogether
anaogous to the m ture of the whte and yeow of an egg
whpped together n the we- nown cunary operaton. Let b
be the radus of the cyndrc orte sponge and g ts mean
moecuar rotaton whch s the same n a sensby arge parts.
Note added May 1 1887.-I ha e had some dffcuty n now pro ng these
assertons 17 and 18 of 1880. Here s proof. Denotng for bre ty 1/27r of the
moment of momentum by u and 1/27r of the energy by e we ha e
ra ray Tr.rdr and e Tf2.rdr.
o o
The probem s to ma e e east possbe sub ect to the condtons: 1 that At has a
g en aue 2 that
1 d - and 0
and that when r a T Pb2/a ths ast condton beng the resutant of
aT dT 6
r dr rdr dr
whch e presses that the tota ortcty s e ua to that of unform wthn the
radus b. The confguratons descrbed n the ast three sentences of 17 and the
frst three of 18 ceary so e the probem when
M t 27r b2 a2 -b2 or t- gt - a2.
The fourth sentence of 18 so es t when
M 17rb a2 -b2 or boa2.
The second paragraph of 18 so es t when
M gt - 7r b2 a2-b2 or t b2a2.
. I .
12
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178
HYDR DYNAMICS
16
Then b beng as before the radus of the orgna orte coumn
we ha e
T r from r 0 to r b
and T- b 2/r from r b to r a
where - b/b
and b 2 -I b2 -
18. nce more hod the cyndrc case from gong round n
space and contnue hodng t unt some more moment of
momentum s stopped from the fud. Then ea e t to tsef
agan. The orte sponge w swe by the mngng wth t of
an addtona porton of rrotatona ud. Contnue ths
process unt the sponge occupes the whoe encosure.
After that contnue the process further and the resut w be
that each tme the contanng canster s aowed to go round freey
n space the fud w tend to a condton n whch a certan
porton of the orgna orte core gets ftered nto a poston ne t
to the boundary beyond a dstance from the a s whch we sha
denote by c and the fud wthn ths space tends to a more and
more neary unform m ture of orte wth rrotatona fud. Ths
centra orte sponge on repetton of the process of pre entng
the canster from gong round and agan ea ng t free to go
round becomes more and more neary rrotatona fud and the
outer bet of pure orte becomes thc er and thc er. The
mean resutant moton s now
b2 C2- a2
2 1-b 2 a r for r t c
a2 _ b2
T r- -- - for r gt c
and the moment of momentum s
-rr ta2b2 - a2 - b2 a2 - C2 .
The fna condton towards whch the whoe tends s a bet consttuted of the orgna orte core now ne t the boundary and
the fud whch orgnay re o ed rrotatonay round t now
paced at rest wthn t beng the condton 16 abo e of
absoute mnmum energy. egn once more wth the condton
15 abo e of absoute ma mum energy and ea e the fud
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1880 MA IM M AND MINIM M ENERGY IN RTE M TI N 179
to tsef whether wth the canster free to go round sometmes
or aways hed f ed pro ded ony t s utmatey hed from
gong round n space the utmate condton s aways the same
. the condton 16 of absoute mnmum energy. The encosng rotatona bet beng the actua substance of the orgna
orte s e ua n ts sectona area to rrb2 and therefore c2 a2- b2.
The moment of momentum s now -7r b4 beng e ua to the
moment of momentum of the porton of the orgna confguraton
consstng of the then centra orte .
19. It s dffcut to foow e en n magnaton the ery fne
-nfntey fne-corrugaton and drawng-out of the rotatona
fud and ts ntermngng wth the rrotatona fud and ts
utmate re-separaton from the rrotatona fud whch the
dynamcs of 17 18 has forced on our consderaton. Ths
dffcuty s ob ated and we substtute for the orte sponge
a much easer and n some respects more nterestng concepton
orte spndrft f ute arbtrary and merey to hep us to
understand the mnmum-energy-transformaton of orte coumn
nto orte she we attrbute to the rotatona porton of the
fud a Lapacan mutua attracton between ts parts nsensbe
at sensbe dstances and between t and the pane ends of the
contanng esse of such reat e amounts as to cause the nterface between rotatona and rrotatona fud to meet the end
panes at rght anges. Let the amount of ths Lapacan
attracton be e ceedngy sma-so sma for e ampe that the
wor re ured to stretch the surface of the prmt e orte
coumn to a mon mon tmes ts area s sma n comparson
wth the energy of the g en fud moton. E erythng w go
on as descrbed n 17 18 f nstead of run out nto fne
amnae of ud 17 ne 29 we substtute brea off nto
mons of detached fne orte coumns and nstead of sponge
passm we substtute spndrft.
20. The souton of mnmum energy for g en ortcty
and g en moment of momentum though ceary not un ue
but nfntey mutpe because magntudes and orders of
brea ng-off of the mons of consttuent coumns of the
So caed to dstngush t from the Newtonan attracton because I bee e
t was Lapace who frst thoroughy formuated attracton nsensbe at sensbe
dstances and founded on t a perfect mathematca theory of capary attracton.
12-2
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180
HYDR DYNAMICS
16
spndrft may be nfntey ared s fuy determnate as to the
e act poston of each coumn reat ey to the others and the
coud of spndrft re o es as f ts consttuent coumns were
rgdy connected. The scousy eastc contanng esse each
tme t s eft to tsef as descrbed n 17 18 fes round wth
the same anguar eocty as the spndrft coud wthn and so
the whoe moton goes on staby wthout oss of energy unt the
contanng esse s agan stopped or otherwse tampered wth.
21. It mght be magned that the Lapacan attracton woud
cause our sender orte coumns to brea nto detached drops as
t does n the we- nown case of a fne crcuar et of water
shootng ertcay downwards from a crcuar tube and woud
do for a crcuar coumn of water g en at rest n a regon undsturbed by gra ty but t coud not because the energy of the
rrotatona crcuaton of the fud round the orte coumn must
be nfnte before the coumn coud brea n any pace. The
Lapacan attracton mght howe er ma e the cyndrc form
unstabe but we are e cuded from a such consderatons at
present by our mtaton 12 to two-dmensona moton.
22. Annu now the Lapacan attracton and return to our
purey adynamc system of ncompressbe fud acted on ony
by pressure at ts boundng surface and by mutua pressure
between ts parts but by no apped force through ts nteror.
or any g en moment of momentum between the e treme possbe
aues 7rb2 a2-b2 and 7rtb4 there s ceary besdes the 17 18
souton mnmum energy another determnate crcuar souton
. the confguraton of crcuar moton of whch the energy s
greater than that of any other crcuar moton of same ortcty
and same moment of momentum. Ths souton ceary s found
by d dng the orte nto two parts-one a crcuar centra
coumn and the other a crcuar cyndrc she nng the contanng esse the rato of one part to the other beng determned
by the condton that the tota moment of momentum ha e the
prescrbed aue. ut ths souton as sad abo e 14 and footnote may be pro ed to be unstabe.
I hope to return to ths case among other ustratons of
nstabty of fud moton-a sub ect demandng serous consderaton and n estgaton not ony by purey scentfc coercon
but because of ts arge practca mportance.
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1880 MA IM M AND MINIM M ENERGY IN RTE M TI N 181
2 . or the present I concude wth the compete souton
or practca reasaton of the souton ony found wthn the
ast few days and after 10-18 of the present artce were
aready n type of a probem on whch I frst commenced tras
n 1868: to ma e the energy an absoute ma mum n twodmensona moton wth g en moment of momentum and g en
ortcty n a cyndrc canster of g en shape. The souton s
n ts terms essentay un ue absoute ma mum meanng
the greatest of ma mums. ut the same n estgaton ncudes
the more e tens e probem: To fnd of the sets of soutons
ndcated n 12 dfferent confguratons of the moton ha ng
the same moment of momentum. or each of these the energy
s a ma mum but not the greatest ma mum for the g en moment
of momentum. The most nterestng feature of the practca
reasaton to whch I ha e now attaned s the contnuous transton from any one steady or perodc souton through a seres of
steady or perodc soutons to any other steady or perodc souton
produced by a smpe mode of operaton easy understood and
aways under perfect contro. The operatng nstrument s merey
a strrer a thn round coumn or rod ftted perpendcuary between
the two end pates and mo abe at peasure to any poston parae
to tsef wthn the encosure. It s shown mar ed S n fgs.
6 7 8 9: representng the souton of our probem for the case
of a crcuar encosure wth a sma part of ts whoe oume
occuped by orte fud to whch e gency of tme mts the
present communcaton.
24. Commence wth the orte nng unformy the encosng
cynder and the strrer n the centre of the st water wthn
the orte . The eocty of the water n the orte ncreases
from ero at the nsde to Sb2/a at the outsde n contact wth the
boundary accordng to the notaton of 15 and 16. Now mo e
the strrer ery sowy from ts centra poston and carry t round
wth any unform anguar eocty t b/a and gt I b/a. A dmpe
as shown n fg. 6 w be produced runnng round a tte n
ad ance of the strrer but utmatey fang bac to be more and
more neary abreast of t f the strrer s carred unformy. If
now the strrer s graduay sowed t the dmpe gets agan n
ad ance of t as n fg. 6 and s then carred round n a smar
reat e staton or aways a tte behnd the radus through the
mdde of the dmpe .the anguar eocty of the dmpe w
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HYDR DYNAMICS
16
decrease graduay and ts depth and ts conca e cur ature w
ncrease t when the anguar eocty s r b/a the dmpe
reaches the bottom that s the encosng wa wth ts conca ty
a rght ange as shown n fg. 7 and the anguar eocty of propagaton becomes b/a.
25. The prmt ey endess orte bet now becomes d ded
at the rght ange and the two ac ured ends become rounded
. St water.
g. 6. g. 7.
g. 6. Dotted crce wth arrowheads refers to the eocty of the strrer and of
the dmpe not to the eocty of the fud.
g. 7. Arrowheads n the orte refer to eocty of fud. Arrowheads n the rrotatona fud refer to the strrer and dmpe. Arrowheads n a b c refer to
moton of rrotatona fud reat ey to the dmpe.
g. 8. g. 9.
g. 8. Arrowheads refer to moton of the strrer and of the orte as a whoe.
g. 9. Arrowheads on dotted crce refer to orbta moton of c the centre of the
orte . Arrowheads on fu fne cur es refer to absoute eocty of fud.
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1880 AN E PERIMENTAL ILL STRATI N MINIM M ENERGY 18
pro ded the strrer be carred round aways a tte rearward
or consderaby rearward of abreast the mdde of the gap. gs.
8 and 9 show the resut of contnung the process t utmatey
the orte becomes centra and crcuar wth ony the nfntesma
dsturbance due to the presence of the strrer wth whch we need
not troube ourse es at present .
26. Suppose now at any stage of the process after the formaton of the gap the strrer to be carred forward to a staton
somewhat n ad ance of abreast the mdde of the gap or
somewhat rearward of the rear of the orte nstead of somewhat n ad ance of the front as shown n fg. 8 . The eocty
of propagaton w be augmented by rearward pu the
moment of momentum w be dmnshed: the orte tran w
be eongated t ts front reaches round to ts rear each beng
then sharpened to 45 and brought nto absoute contact wth the
encosng wa: the front and rear unte n a dmpe graduay
becomng ess and the process may be contnued t we end as
we began wth the orte nng the nsde of the wa unformy
and the strrer at rest n the mdde of the centra st-water.
N AN E PERIMENTAL ILL STRATI N MINIM M ENERGY.
rom Nature II. No . 18 1880 pp. 69-70 rtsh Assocaton Report
Swansea 1880 Aug. 0 pp. 491-2.
THIS ustraton conssts of a ud gyrostat of e acty the
same constructon as that descrbed and represented by the
anne ed drawng reprnted from Nature ebruary 1 1877
pp. 297 298 wth the dfference that the fgure of the she s
proate nstead of obate. The e perment was n fact conducted
wth the actua apparatus whch was e hbted to the rtsh
Assocaton at Gasgow n 1876 atered by the substtuton of a
she ha ng ts e uatora dameter about -9 of ts a a dameter
for the she wth a a dameter 29 of e uatora dameter whch
was used when the apparatus was shown as a successfu gyrostat.
The obate and proate shes were each of them made from the
two hemspheres of sheet copper whch pumbers soder together
to ma e ther gobuar foaters. y a tte hammerng t s easy
to ater the hemspheres to the proper shapes to ma e ether the
proate or the obate fgure.
Supra p. 129.
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184
HYDR DYNAMICS
16
Theory had ponted out that the rotaton of a ud n a rgd
she of o a fgure beng a confguraton of ma mum energy for
g en ortcty woud be unstabe f the contanng esse s eft
to tsef supported on mperfecty eastc supports athough t
------------ /CHS --- -------
woud be stabe f the esse were hed absoutey f ed or borne
by perfecty eastc supports or eft to tsef n space unacted on
by e terna force and t was to ustrate ths theory that the
o a she was made and fed wth water and paced n the
apparatus. The resut of the frst tra was teray startng
athough t ought not to ha e been so as t was merey a
reasaton of what had been antcpated by theory. The framewor was hed as frmy as possbe by one person wth hs two
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1880 AN E PERIMENTAL ILL STRATI N MINIM M ENERGY 185
hands eepng t as steady as he coud. The spnnng by
means of a fne cord passng round a sma puey of -nch
dameter on the a s of the o a she and round a arge fy-whee
of feet dameter turned at the rate of about one round per
second was contnued for se era mnutes. Ths n the case of
the obate she as was nown from pre ous e perments woud
ha e g en ampy suffcent rotaton to the contaned water to
cause the apparatus to act wth great frmness e a sod
gyrostat. In the frst e perment wth the o a she the she
was seen to be rotatng wth great eocty durng the ast mnute
of the spnnng but the moment t was reeased from the cord
and when hodng the framewor n my hands I commenced
carryng t towards the hor onta gass tabe to test ts gyrostatc
uaty the framewor whch I hed n my hands ga e a oent
uncontroabe urch and n a few seconds the she stopped
turnng. I saw that one of the p ots had become bent o er by
yedng of the copper she n the neghbourhood of the stff
p ot-carryng ds sodered to t showng that the ud had
e erted a ery strong coupe aganst ts contanng she n a
pane through the a s the effort to resst whch by my hands
had bent the p ot. The she was reftted wth more strongy
attached p ots and the e perment has been repeated se era
tmes. In e ery case a decded uneasness of the framewor s
perce ed by the person hodng t n hs hands durng the
spnnng and as soon as the cord s cut and the person hodng
t carres t towards the e permenta tabe the framewor
begns as t were to wrgge round n hs hands and by the tme
the framewor s paced on the tabe the rotaton s neary a
gone. Its utter faure as a gyrostat s precsey what was e pected from the theory and presents a truy wonderfu contrast
from what s obser ed wth the apparatus and operatons n e ery
respect smar e cept n ha ng an obate nstead of a proate
she to contan the ud.
Instead of usng a ong cord frst wound on a bobbn and fnay wound up
on the crcumference of the arge whee as descrbed n Nature ebruary 1 1877
p. 297 I ha e snce found t much more con enent to use an endess cord tte
more than haf round the crcumference of the arge whee and ess than haf round
the crcumference of the puey of the gyrostat and to eep t tght enough to
e ert whate er tangenta force on the puey s desred by the person hodng the
framewor n hs hand. After contnung the spnnng by turnng the fy-whee for
as ong a tme as s udged proper the endess cord s cut wth a par of scssors
and the gyrostat reeased.
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186
17
17. N A DIST R ING IN INITY IN L RD RAYLEIGH S S L TI N
R A ES IN A PLANE RTE STRAT M.
rom Nature III. 1880 pp. 45-46 rtsh Assocaton Report Swansea
t 4 gt 1880 pp. 492- .
4 L L RD RAYLEIGH S souton n o es a formua e u aent to
/ d2T
d_ - 2 dy2
dy2 d 0.
here denotes the ma mum aue of the y-component of
eocty m denotes a constant such that 27r/m s the wa eength T denotes the transatona eocty of the orte stratum when undsturbed whch s n the drecton and s a functon of y n denotes the bratona speed or a constant such
that 2r/n s the perod.
Now a orte stratum s stabe f on one sde t s bounded
by a f ed pane and f the ortcty or aue of I dT/dy
dmnshes as we tra e deay from ths pane e cept n paces
f any where t s constant.
To fuf ths condton suppose a f ed boundng pane to
contan and be perpendcuar to y and et dT/dy ha e ts
greatest aue when y 0 and decrease contnuousy or by one
or more abrupt changes from ths aue to ero at y a and
at a greater aues of y.
It s easy pro ed that the wa e- eocty whate er be the
wa e-ength s ntermedate between the greatest and east
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1880
A ES IN A PLANE RTE STRAT M
187
aues of T. Hence for a certan aue of y between 0 and a
the transatona eocty s e ua to the wa e- eocty or
T n/m. Hence for ths aue of y the second term wthn the
brac et n Lord Rayegh s formua s nfnte uness for the
same aue of y d2T/dy2 anshes.
e e ade entrey the consderaton of ths nfnty f we ta e
ony the case of a ayer of constant ortcty dT/dy constant
from y 0 to y a as for ths case the formua s smpy
d2
dy
but the nterpretaton of the nfnty whch occurs n the more
comprehens e formua suggests an e amnaton of the streamnes by whch ts nterpretaton becomes ob ous and whch
pro es that e en n the case of constant ortcty the moton has
a startngy pecuar character at the pace where the transatona
eocty s e ua to the wa e- eocty. Ths pecuarty s represented by the anne ed dagram whch s most easy understood
f we magne the transatona eoctes at y 0 and y a to
be n opposte drectons and of such magntude that the wa e eocty s ero so that we ha e the case of standng wa es.
or ths case the stream-nes are as represented n the anne ed
dagram n whch the regon of transatona eocty greater
than wa e-propagatona eocty s separated from the regon
of transatona eocty ess than wa e-propagatona eocty by
a cat s-eye border pattern of eptc whrs.
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188
18
18. N THE A ERAGE PRESS RE D E T IMP LSE RTE RINGS N A S LID.
rom Nature o. I . 1881 p. 47 read at Roy. Soc. Edn.
Apr 17 1881.
HEN a orte -rng s approachng a pane arge n comparson
to the dmensons of the rng the tota pressure o er the surface
s n. hen a rng approaches such a surface t begns to
e pand so that f we consder a fnte porton of the surface the
tota pressure upon t due to the rng w ha e a fnte aue
when the rng s cose enough. In a cosed cynder any orte rng approachng the pane end w e pand out aong the surface
osng n speed as t so does unt t reaches the cyndrca
boundary aong whch t w craw bac on reboundng to the
other end of the cynder. As t approaches t w therefore
e ert upon the pane surface a defnte outward pressure whose
tme-ntegra s e ua to the orgna momentum of the orte
and a precsey e ua pressure as t ea es the surface. Hence n
the case of myrads of orte -rngs bombardng such a pane
surface though no nd dua orte -rng ea es the surface
mmedatey after coson for e ery orte -rng that gets entanged n the condensed ayer of drawn-out orte -rngs another
w get free so that n the statstcs of orte -mpacts the pressure
e erted by a gas composed of orte -atoms s e acty the same as
s g en by the ordnary netc theory whch regards the atoms
as hard eastc partces.
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1882
189
19. N THE IG RES E ILI RI M A R TATING
MASS L ID.
rom the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh o. I. 1882 p. 610
reprnted n Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy Ed. 2 188 778 .
a THE obate spherod of re outon s pro ed n Thomson
and Tat s Natura Phosophy frst edton 776 and the Tabe
of 772 to be stabe f the condton of beng an epsod of
re outon be mposed. It s ob ousy not stabe for ery great
eccentrctes wthout ths doube condton of beng both a fgure
of re outon and epsoda.
b If the condton of beng a fgure of re outon s mposed
wthout the condton of beng an epsod there s for arge
enough moment of momentum an annuar fgure of e ubrum
whch s stabe and an epsoda fgure whch s unstabe. It s
probabe that for moment of momentum greater than one defnte
mt and ess than another there s ust one annuar fgure of
e ubrum consstng of a snge rng.
c or suffcenty arge moment of momentum t s certan
that the ud may be n e ubrum n the shape of two three
four or more separate rngs wth ts mass dstrbuted among them
n arbtrary portons a rotatng wth one anguar eocty e
parts of a rgd body. It does not seem probabe that the netc
e ubrum n any such case can be stabe.
d The condton of beng a fgure of e ubrum beng st
mposed the snge-rng fgure when annuar e ubrum s
possbe at a s probaby stabe. It s certany stabe for ery
arge aues of the moment of momentum.
e n the other hand et the condton of beng epsoda
be mposed but not the condton of beng a fgure of re outon.
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190
HYDR DYNAMICS
19
It s pro ed n Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy that
whate er be the moment of momentum there s one and ony one
re outona fgure of e ubrum.
I now fnd that
1 The e ubrum n the re outona fgure s stabe or
unstabe accordng as f --- s t or gt 1- 9457.
2 hen the moment of momentum s ess than that whch
ma es f 1- 9457 or eccentrcty -81266 for the re outona
fgure ths fgure s not ony stabe but un ue.
hen the moment of momentum s greater than that
whch ma es f 1 9457 for the re outona fgure there s
besdes the unstabe re outona fgure the acoban fgure wth
three une ua a es whch s aways stabe f the condton of beng
epsoda s mposed. ut as w be seen n f beow the
acoban fgure wthout the constrant to epsoda fgure s n
some cases certany unstabe though t seems probabe that n
other cases t s stabe wthout any constrant.
f Referrng to Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy 778
and choosng the case of a a great mutpe of b we see ob ousy
that the e cess of b abo e c must n ths case be ery sma n
comparson wth c. Thus we ha e a ery sender epsod ong n
the drecton of a and appro matey a proate fgure of re outon
reat ey to ths ong a-a s whch re o ng wth proper anguar
eocty round ts shortest a s c s a fgure of e ubrum. The
moton so consttuted whch wthout any constrant s n rtue
of 778 a confguraton of mnmum energy or of ma mum
energy for the g en moment of momentum s a confguraton
of mnmum energy for g en moment of momentum sub ect to
the condton that the shape s constranedy an epsod. rom
ths proposton whch s easy erfed n the ght of 778 of
Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy t foows that wth the
epsoda constrant the e ubrum s stabe. The re outona
epsod of e ubrum wth the same moment of momentum
Proof of these resuts 1 2 and w be found n the forthcomng new
edton of Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy o. I. Part II. The proofs were
not these g en. The genera probem has been anay ed n a comprehens e
manner on the bass of Lord e n s methods by H. Poncard n a cassca
paper Acta Math. nI. 1885. Cf. Lamb s Hydrodyna cs Ch. nI.
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1882 IG RES E ILI RI M R TATING L ID
191
s a ery fat obate spherod for t the energy s a mnma
because ceary t s the smaest energy that a re outona
epsod wth the same moment of momentum can ha e but t
s greater than the energy of the acoban fgure wth the same
moment of momentum.
g If the condton of beng epsoda s remo ed and the
ud eft perfecty free t s cear that the sender acoban
epsod of f s not stabe because a de aton from epsoda
fgure n the way of thnnng t n the mdde and thc enng t
towards ts ends or of thc enng t n the mdde and thnnng t
towards ts ends woud wth the same moment of momentum g e
ess netc energy. th so great a moment of momentum as to
g e an e ceedngy sender acoban epsod t s cear that
another possbe fgure of e ubrum s two detached appro matey spherca masses rotatng as f parts of a sod round an
a s through ther centre of nerta and that ths fgure s stabe.
It s aso cear that there may be an nfnte number of such stabe
fgures wth dfferent proportons of the ud n the two
detached masses. th the same moment of momentum there
are aso confguratons of e ubrum wth the ud n d ers
proportons n more than two detached appro matey spherca
masses.
h No confguraton n more than two detached masses
has secuar stabty accordng to the defnton of Ic beow
and t s doubtfu whether any of them e en f undsturbed by
scous nfuences coud ha e true netc stabty at a e ents
uness approachng to the case of the three matera ponts
pro ed stabe by Gascheau see Routh s Rgd Dynamcs 475
p. 81 .
The transton from the stabe netc e ubrum of a
ud mass n two e ua or une ua portons so far asunder
that each s appro matey spherca but dsturbed to sghty
proate fgures found by the we- nown n estgaton of e ubrum tdes g en n Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy 804
and to the more and more proate fgures whch woud resut from
subtracton of energy wthout change of moment of momentum
carred so far that the proate fgures now not e en appro matey
epsoda cease to be stabe s pecuary nterestng. e ha e
a most nterestng gap between the unstabe acoban epsod
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192 HYDR DYNAMICS 19
when too sender for stabty and the case of smaest moment
of momentum consstent wth stabty n two e ua detached
portons. The consderaton of how to f up ths gap wth
ntermedate fgures s a most attract e ueston towards
answerng whch I at present offer no contrbuton.
hen the energy wth g en moment of momentum s
ether a mnmum or a ma mum the netc e ubrum s
ceary stabe f the ud s perfecty n scd. It seems
probabe that t s essentay unstabe when the energy s a
mnma but I do not now that ths proposton has been e er
pro ed.
If there be any scosty howe er sght n the ud or
f there be any mperfecty eastc sod howe er sma foatng
on t or sun wthn t the e ubrum n any case of energy
ether a mnma or a ma mum cannot be secuary stabe
and the ony secuary stabe confguratons are those n whch
the energy s a mnmum wth g en moment of momentum.
It s not nown for certan whether wth g en moment of
momentum there can be more than one secuary stabe confguraton
of e ubrum of a scous fud n one contnuous mass but t
seems to me probabe that there s ony one.
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1885 19
20. N THE M TI N A LI ID ITHIN AN ELLIPS IDAL
H LL .
rom the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh o. III.
1885 pp. 114 70- 78.
I HA E ony recenty notced the propostons regardng fud
moton wthn an epsoda hoow whch form the sub ect of the
present communcaton and whch though ob ous enough and
remar aby nterestng do not seem to ha e been pre ousy dsco ered.
Premnary.
I sha use the e presson homogeneous rotaton or homogeneous
moecuar rotaton to desgnate the condton of a fud n respect to
rotaton when throughout t the amounts of ts moecuar rotaton
are the same and the a a nes parae. Ths desgnaton ceary
ncudes the case of a rotatng sod: but t s appcabe of course
to the more compe case of a fud n whch rrotatona moton
s supermposed upon homogeneous rotaton as of a sod. To
ustrate the compe moton thus sgnfed consder the foowng
three e ampes of whch 1 and 2 are ncuded n : 1 Let a ud ept n the shape of a fgure of re outon
by a rgd contanng esse be g en n a state of homogeneous
rotaton round the a s of the fgure. Let an mpus e rotaton
round a ne perpendcuar to ths a s be g en to the contanng
esse. The nstantaneous moton of the ud at the nstant
when the mpuse s competed conssts of an rrotatona moton
supermposed on the g en homogeneous rotatona moton. The
moecuar rotaton of the ud does not generay reman homo
. I .
1
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194
HYDR DYNAMICS
20
geneous after the frst nstant. ut I fnd t does contnue
homogeneous howe er the contanng esse be mo ed pro ded
the shape be epsoda that s to say for the present mted
case an epsod of re outon whether proate or obate. The
possbe ncdent of the contanng esse beng brought agan to
rest n any poston after any moton round any successon of
dameters perpendcuar to the a s of re outon s of course
ncuded.
2 G en a rgd sod wth a hoow space of any shape not
a fgure of re outon wthn t fu of ud: sod and ud
a rotatng homogeneousy. Let the g en rotaton of the sod
be mpus ey brought to rest or to any other rotaton whether
rotaton wth changed anguar eocty round the same a s or
rotaton round another a s. The nstantaneous moton of the
ud at the nstant of the competon of the mpuse w be
the resutant of the g en homogeneous rotaton wth an rrotatona moton supermposed upon t ths rrotatona moton of
the ud beng the same as the moton whch woud be generated
from rest by g ng to the sod whether mpus ey or graduay
an anguar eocty the same as that whch compounded wth
the frst g en anguar eocty produced the second anguar
eocty to whch we supposed the frst anguar eocty of the
sod to be suddeny changed.
In ths second e ampe as n the frst the moecuar rotaton
does not generay contnue to be homogeneous n the atered
condton n whch the sod and ud do not rotate as f a
sod but t does contnue to be homogeneous f the shape of the
hoow s epsoda.
G en a spherca she fu of homogeneousy rotatng
ud or a hoow of any shape n a rotatng sod fu of ud
rotatng homogeneousy wth the sod. y mpus e pressure at
the boundary of the ud supposed now to be perfecty yedng
generate any prescrbed norma components of eocty n a parts
of the boundary. The effect w be to generate throughout the
ud an rrotatona moton the same as woud ha e been
generated had the fud been g en at rest. The resutant
Rotaton of the contanng esse round the a s of fgure has no effect on the
ud and need not be ncuded to compcate our consderatons.
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1885 M TI N ITHIN AN ELLIPS IDAL H LL
195
moton throughout w be the resutant of ths rrotatona moton
compounded wth the g en rotatona moton. The rrotatona
moton n the case of the spherca hoow s of course easy
cacuated by the we- nown spherca harmonc anayss for fud
moton. e consder here ony the nstantaneous moton whch
e sts at the nstant when the mpuse s competed. The nfntey
more dffcut probem of wor ng out the conse uences accordng
to any prescrbed condtons as to force or as to changng shape
for the boundary we do not foow at present. It w be fuy
foowed up for the case n whch the boundary of the ud s
spherca or epsoda to begn wth and s constraned to be
aways e acty epsoda. It w be pro ed that n ths case the
moecuar rotaton of the fud remans aways homogeneous.
e sha see n fact that the geometrca stran s essentay
homogeneous throughout a ud contaned wthn a changng
epsoda boundary pro ded that the moton of the fud be
ether whoy rrotatona or be at any one nstant homogeneousy
rotatona. The homogeneousness of the geometrca stran beng
estabshed t foows from Hemho s fundamenta prncpes of
orte moton that the moecuar rotaton must contnue homogeneous ts magntude when there s any stretchng or contracton
n the a a drecton aryng n ersey as the ength of a ne of
the substance n ths drecton and the a a drecton aryng so
as to eep aways aong the same substanta ne.
If there s the sghtest de aton from e actness n the epsoda fgure the homogeneousness of the rotaton of the ud s
not mantaned and there s no mt to the amount of de aton
from homogeneousness whch may super ene n conse uence of
motons whch may be g en to the boundary whether n the
way of change of shape or of moton wthout change of shape.
Confnng our attenton for the present to moton of the boundary
wthout change of shape we fnd t nterestng to remar that we
may go on ndefntey ncreasng or ndefntey dmnshng the
energy of the fud moton by propery arranged acton n the way
of mo ng the contanng esse. To contnuay ncrease the
energy I bee e the foowng rue may be correct athough I do
not yet see a perfect proof of t. Suppose the contanng esse
to be g en at rest and the ud wthn t to ha e perfecty
homogeneous rotaton wthn the not e acty epsoda hoow
watch t for a tte tme-t may begn to mo e or t may not.
1 -2
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196 HYDR DYNAMICS 20
If t does not begn to mo e of tsef g e t a ery sght moton
of rotaton round any a s. Generay t w begn to mo e of
tsef but t w not do so f the nteror fud moton fufs a
defnte condton of netc e ubrum and therefore f you do
not see the contanng case begnnng to mo e of tsef you must
set t n moton. hen you see t n moton act upon t wth
a coupe n any drecton to do some post e wor upon t
and then suddeny stop t. Left to tsef now t w certany
begn to mo e of tsef. hen you see t mo ng agan agan do
some wor upon t graduay and stop ts moton suddeny. Go
on ncessanty actng accordng to ths rue. The post e wor
done graduay w e ceed the wor undone suddeny each tme
or at a e ents on the aggregate of a arge number of tmes of
repetton of the operaton. Thus on the whoe you w ncrease
the energy of the fud moton wthout contnuay g ng netc
energy to the contanng esse as mght be the case f you
contnued aways to appy a coupe n such a drecton as to do
post e wor . Thus by gong on ong enough operatng n the
manner descrbed we can present the contanng esse at rest wth
the ud mo ng nsde t wth any amount of netc energy
we pease.
A smper rue suffces for dmnshng the nterna energy.
Smpy pace the contanng esse on fe be mperfecty eastc
supports and ea e t to tsef or ea e t to tsef mmersed n a
scous fud. atch t for a whe t you see t mo ng or f
you do not see t begnnng to mo e of tsef g e t a sght
moton then ea e t entrey to tsef. It w ne er come to rest
uness for an nstant and the nterna energy w dmnsh
asymptotcay towards ero.
I now proceed to pro e the propostons regardng fud motof
n an epsoda hoow referred to abo e.
Irrotatona moton of ud n a rgd epsoda she.
G en the moton of the boundary: re ured the moton of the
contaned ud.
Let w p a be the component anguar eoctes of the she
and et p be the eocty potenta of the correspondng determ
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1885 M TI N ITHIN AN ELLIPS IDAL H LL
197
nate moton of the nterna fud. The component near eoctes of a pont y of the she are
p - ay a - sy - p ............... 1
and the component near eoctes of y are
do do df 2
d dy ..................... 2.
d dy d
If y be any pont of the nner surface of the she the
norma component of eocty 1 must be e ua to the norma
component of eocty 2 or n symbos
p - ay a - - - p y
a2 b2 2
d p db py do p
d a 2 dy b2 d c2
2 y2 2
where 1
the a es of coordnates beng ta en as f ed n space and concdent
wth the a es of the epsod at the nstant consdered a b c
beng the three sem-a es of the epsod and p beng the
perpendcuar from the centre to the pane touchng the epsod
at y . To satsfy ths assume
b Ay C y.................. 4
and determne A C to fuf the frst of e uatons . e fnd
that s now satsfed by
b2 _ C2 C2 - a2 a2 _ b2
b cY Pc a a2 b2 yt...... 5 .
It s mportant to remar that ths e presson for 0 satsfes the
frst of e uatons ndependenty of the second from whch we
nfer that wth the same anguar eocty of rotaton the moton
of any porton of the contaned ud s ndependent of the
magntude of the epsoda body and s determnate from the
m. Thomson n the s a of a L ud n Moton Camnb. and Dub.
Math. ourna 1849 or Thomson and Tat sNatura Phosophy 12 and 17
e ampe .
t Ths souton s g en n Lamb s ud Moton ed. . 102. It had aso
been g en by errers etram er nes and Ma we. The subse uent anayss
of the paths of the partces had been g en substantay probaby by errers n
Cambrdge E amnaton Papers.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
20
ratos aone of the three sem-a es. rom 4 we fnd for the
eocty components:c2-a2 a - b2
cP a2 2 a2 b2Y
p C - a Y
a2_ b2 b c2
a2 b b2 2. C2. 6
b2 - c2 C2 - a2
w T b2 C2 C2 a2
whch s the e pct souton of the probem so far as concerns
merey the absoute eocty at any pont of the fud whch s
generay consdered far enough n the souton of a hydrodynamca
probem. ut t woud be nterestng n e ery case and t s easy
n ths case to compete t up to the determnaton of the poston
of e ery partce of the ud at any tme and we may therefore
go on to do so. Reat ey to the a es of the epsod et p
be the coordnates at tme t of any partcuar partce of the
ud. The component eoctes d /dt dp/dt d /dt of the
partce reat ey to the epsod are e ua to the dfferences
between the components u w of the absoute eocty of
and the correspondng components of the absoute eocty of an
dea pont y rgdy connected wth the epsod and
concdent wth I at the tme t. These ast components are
p0-a o o - r p -p ............... 7 .
Hence and from 6 at the nstant I concde wth
y we ha e
- a2 y -/
dt
d b a - y
at y...... 8
d 2 1 -ap
2we 2p 2o
where a b2 c 2 a2 a
These are near dfferenta e uatons of the frst order for determnng n terms of t. Denotng d/dt by 8 we may wrte
them as foows
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1885 M TI N ITHIN AN ELLIPS IDAL H LL 199
a - -P /S 0
a2-y
y - p-a 0 o..................... 9
- P ap - 0
peratng now on ths n the usua manner we fnd - / 0............... 10
8
b2 -a
C
whence by e pandng the determnant and remo ng the superfuous factor 8 we ha e
2 2 2 2..................
asb2c2 a2b2 C2
//a2 182 72
whch g es 8 t abc 7
a2. b2 o 2. 12
where denotes - 1.
And from the second and thrd of 9 we ha e
2 a- p ya
whch g es
8 8
a_-y rya
82 8 and ............... 14 .
b2c 2 b2C2
In rtue of 12 we may ta e as the souton for any one of the
coordnates for e ampe as foows A cos cot
where w 2abc L -b2 c- 2 a2 .2 I
b2 c2 c2 a a.4
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200 HYDR DYNAMICS 20
and from ths 14 g es
a/c cos wt sn aot
e2
A 1 -2 -a b22
............ 6 .
ya cos ct - o sn ot
- A2
b2c2
These e uatons g e e pcty the poston of any chosen partce
at any tme and of course t woud be easy to fnd from them what
the path s but t s easer to do ths from the unntegrated
e uatons 8 . Mutpyng the frst of these by a/a2 the second by /b2 and the thrd by y/c2 and addng we fnd
ad 1 d1 2 d
2 dt b dt 2 dt................. 1
whch pro es that the orbt es n the pane
2 b 2 .................. 18
where H denotes a constant.
Agan mutpyng the frst of e uatons 8 by /a2 the second
by p/b2 and the thrd by //c2 and addng we fnd
d p dp d 19
a dt 2dt c2 dt
and ntegratng ths we ha e
y .ct 2 ..................... 20
where denotes a constant.
Ths pro es that the orbt es on the epsod 20 and we
concude that the orbt s the epse n whch ths epsod s cut
by the pane 18 .
Gong bac now to the e pct fuy ntegrated souton 15
and 16 we see that a partce of the fud descrbes reat ey
to the mo ng sod n whch the fud s contaned the epse
specfed by 18 and 20 accordng to the aw of a snge partce
descrbng an epse under the nfuence of a force towards a f ed
centre aryng n smpe proporton to dstance from the centre.
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1885 M TI N ITHIN AN ELLIPS IDAL H LL
201
Now the perod of re outon of the contanng she round ts
a s of rotaton r p a s 2 r/e where
_ 2 p2 -2
whch s easy seen to be ess than 2 r/o the aue of o beng
g en by 15 abo e . Hence consderng the she and contaned
ud at any nstant and agan at the ater nstant when the she
s agan n the same poston after a snge compete re outon
round the a s of ts rotaton we see that reat ey to the she
the ud w ha e performed ess than a compete perod of ts
retrograde re outon by the dfference 2 r/ - 27r/e or by the
fracton 1 - o/e of the perod of the fud reat ey to the she.
In the e treme case of a b c the epsod a sphere o e and
the retrograde moton of the fud reat ey to the she s one
compete re outon n the perod of the forward re outon of the
she: that s to say the fud s perfecty eft behnd and remans
unmo ed whe the she turns. In the other e treme case of any
one or any two of the uanttes a b c beng nfntey sma co s
nfntey sma: that s to say the fud ma es an nfntey sma
fracton of ts retrograde re outon durng the tme of one turn of
the she n the drecton whch we are cang forward. It must
not from ths be nferred that the fud mo es ery neary as f
sod wth the she. n the contrary t e perences arge dstorton e en n the frst compete turn of the she and argey
ncreasng to a ma mum n the course of the frst uarter perod
of the ud reat ey to the she.
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202
21
21. N THE STA ILITY AND SMALL SCILLATI N A PER ECT
LI ID LL NEARLY STRAIGHT C RELESS RTICES.
E tract from a Letter to Professor G. . t Gerad. rom the Proceedngs
of the Roya Irsh Academy read No ember 0 1889.
I HA E ute confrmed one thng I was gong to wrte to you
n contnuaton wth my etter of ctober 26 . that rotatona
orte cores must be absoutey dscarded and we must ha e
nothng but rrotatona re outon and acuous cores. So not to
spea of my tte pece of coreess orte wor bratons of a
Coumnar orte Proc. R.S.E. March 1 1880 Hc s Paper n
the Steady Moton and sma bratons of a Hoow orte
Transactons Roy. Socety 1884 w be the begnnng of the
orte Theory of ether and matter f t s e er to be a theory.
Steady moton wth crossng nes of orte coumn s mpossbe
wth rotatona cores but s possbe wth acuous cores and purey
rrotatona crcuatons around them. The accompanyng dagram
fg. 1 heps to e pan by an ustraton. It shows the shape
of an nfntey ong cyndrca acuous orte coumn as dsturbed
by a rgd tore hed f ed n a pane perpendcuar to the a s
of the coumn and ha ng rrotatona crcuaton through tsef.
The coumn represents acuum the space on each sde ud
and the two bac crces secton of the tore. The cur es representng the boundary of the orte are cacuated to g e unform
resutant fud eocty o er the whoe surface of the hoow core.
Ths eocty s the resutant of the eoctes due to the crcuaton
around the acuous core and to crcuaton through the tore. The
former s rgorousy n n erse proporton to dstance from the a s
of the acuous coumn. The atter s appro matey parae to
ths a s and n n erse proporton to the cube of the dstance
r crcuar rng of crcuar cross secton e an anchor rng.
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1889 STA ILITY AND SCILLATI N A RTE SP NGE 20
from the crcuar a s of the tore. The e uaton of the cur e s
easy wrtten down. It s cacuated for the case n whch the
eocty at the centre of the tore were there no acuty due to
crcuaton through the tore s e ua to /8/ of the eocty at
the boundary of the acuous coumn at great enough dstances on
ether sde to be undsturbed by the crcuaton through the tore.
Ths ma es the ma mum dameter of the acuous core three
tmes the undsturbed dameter. If the eocty-component due
to the dsturbance s sma n comparson wth the surface- eocty
of the orte coumn the sweng w of course be but a sma
fracton of the radus of the undsturbed coumn. Try to get a
correspondng probem of steady moton wth rotatona core and
you w see why I now ab ure rotatona moton and defnt ey
adopt acuum for a cores.
g. 2.
g. 1.
0/0
0
o 0
Now consder a unform dstrbuton throughout space of
acuous orte coumns represented by secton perpendcuar to
the ength n fg. 2 rngs and dscs each representng acuum
but wth opposte crcuatons around them. ut nstead of the
proportons of the dagram et the dstance from each coumn to
ts three nearest neghbours be enormousy great n comparson
wth the dameters of the coumns. I thn I can now pro e
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204
HYDR DYNAMICS
21
that ths arrangement of ortces s stabe but ts uas-rgdty
reat ey to two-dmensona moton wthout change of oume
of the cores s e ceedngy sma and the correspondng amnar
wa e-moton e ceedngy suggsh n comparson wth the tense
uas-rgdty and correspondng wa e- eocty whch we shoud
fnd by consderng amnar moton n panes parae to the pane
of the dagram.
Now magne a ery great number of panes n a drectonsas many wthn an ange of 1 of any one pane as wthn 1 of
any other. And et there be a dstrbuton of straght orte
acuous cores as represented n fg. 2 perpendcuar to e ery
one of these panes. The cores beng thn enough they may be
paced aong straght nes no one of whch ntersects any other.
The mutua nfuence of the ortces w produce dsturbances
from the straght nes n whch we supposed them g en and
sght swengs and de atons from e acty crcuar fgure n
ther cross sectons and there w be suggsh motons of the
cores uness they are a paced so as to fuf a defnte condton
g ng steady moton. E en f ths defnte condton s not e acty
fufed the tense uas-rgdty and correspondng eocty of
amnar wa es of the medum thus netcay consttuted w
certany dffer but tte from what they woud be f the ortces
were arranged so as to g e absoutey steady moton for the
e ubrum condton of the medum.
I ha e been. an ousy consderng the effect of free orte
rngs wth acuous cores among the orte coumns of ths tense
orte ether as suggested for cored ortces at the end of your
communcaton of Apr 26 1889 to Nature. It w be an
e ceedngy nterestng dynamca ueston though t seems to
promse at present but tte towards e panng un ersa
gra taton or any other property of matter so you may magne
I do not see much hope for chemstry and eectro-magnetsm.
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1894
205
22. T ARDS THE E ICIENCY SAILS INDMILLS SCRE PR PELLERS IN ATER AND AIR AND AER PLANES.
rom Nature o. L. 1894 p. 425.
THE dscusson of ths day wee on fyng machnes n the
rtsh Assocaton was not for want of tme carred so far as
to pro e from the numerca resuts of obser aton put before
the meetng by Mr Ma m that the resstance of the ar aganst
a thn stff pane caused to mo e at s ty mes an hour through
t n a drecton ncned to the pane at a sope of about one
n eght was found to be about ffty-three tmes as great as the
estmate g en by the od theoretca formua and somethng e f e or ten tmes that cacuated from a formua wrtten
on the bac -board by Lord Rayegh as from a pre ous communcaton to the rtsh Assocaton at ts Gasgow meetng n
1876.
I had aways fet that there was no adty e en for rough
or probabe estmates n any of the theoretca n estgatons
htherto pubshed: but how wdy they a fa short of the truth
I dd not now unt I ha e had opportunty n the ast few days
procu negots to e amne some of the obser atona resuts whch
Ma m ga e us n the ntroducton to hs paper. n the other
hand I ha e ne er doubted but that the true theory was to be
found n what I was taught con ersatonay by am roude
twenty years ago whch though I do not now of ts ha ng
been anywhere pubshed htherto s ceary and tersey e pressed
n the foowng sentence whch I uote from a type-wrtten copy
ndy g en me by Mr Ma m of hs paper of ast wee : The ad antages arsng from dr ng the aeropanes on to
new ar the nerta of whch has not been dsturbed s ceary
shown n these e perments.
Substtute 4-8 tmes see footnote p. 219 nfra.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
22
oundng on ths prncpe I ha e at ast I bee e succeeded
n cacuatng wth some approach to accuracy the force re ured
to eep a ong narrow rectanguar pane mo ng through the ar
wth a g en constant eocty n a drecton perpendcuar to
ts ength 1 and ncned at any sma ange to ts breadth a.
In a paper whch I hope to be abe to communcate to the
Phosophca Maga ne n tme for pubcaton n ts ne t ctober
number I ntend to g e the n estgaton ncudng consderaton
of s n-resstance and proof that t s of comparat ey sma
mportance when s not much more than 1/10 or 1/20 of a radan
and the pane s of some practcay smooth rea sod matera.
In the meantme here s the resut wth s n-resstance negected:The resutant force perpendcuar therefore to the pane s
r 2 sn cos a whch s r cos /sn tmes or for the case of
sn 1/ 2 one hundred tmes the od mscaed theoretca
resut.
In Nature the numerca factor was 2 nstead of 1.
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1894 207
2 . N THE RESISTANCE A L ID T A PLANE EPT M ING
NI RMLY IN A DIRECTI N INCLINED T IT AT A SMALL ANGLE.
rom the Phosophca Maga ne o. II. 1894 pp. 409 41 .
1. LET be the eocty ts ncnaton to the pane and
a ts components n and perpendcuar to the pane. e ha e
u cos sn.
2. Suppose now the mo ng body to be not an dea nfntey
thn pane but a dsc of fnte thc ness ery sma n comparson
wth ts east dameter and ha ng ts edges e erywhere smoothy
rounded. If the fud s n scd and ncompressbe and the
boundary contanng t perfecty unyedng the moton produced
n the fud from rest by any moton g en to the dsc s determnatey the un ue moton of whch the energy s ess than that
of any other moton possbe to the fud wth the g en moton
of the dsc. e suppose the dsc to be ery thn and therefore
the profe-cur ature at e ery pont of ts edge to be ery great:
there s no mt to the thnness at whch the proposton coud
cease to be true so t st hods n the dea case of an nfntey
thn dsc when the fud and ts boundary fuf the dea condtons of the enuncaton.
. ut n nature e ery fud has some degree of scous
resstance to change of shape and any scosty howe er sma
e en wth deay perfect ncompressbty of the fud and un-
yedngness of the boundary woud pre ent the nfntey great
eoctes at the edge of the dsc whch the un ue mnmumenergy souton g es when the dsc s nfntey thn and woud
orgnate so great a dsturbance n the moton of the fud that
the resstance to the moton of the dsc woud probaby be ery
neary the same whate er the actua aue of the scosty f not
too great n comparson wth the eocty of the dsc mutped
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208
HYDR DYNAMICS
2
by the east radus of cur ature of the boundary of ts area. No
approach howe er has htherto been made towards a compete
mathematca souton of any case of ths probem or ndeed of the
moton of a body of any shape through a scous fud e cept when
as n Sto es s orgna soutons for the gobe and crcuar cynder
the moton s so sow that ts confguraton s the same as t woud
be f t were nfntey sow and when therefore the eocty of
the fud at e ery pont s e ua to and n the same drecton as
the nfntesma statc dspacement of an eastc sod when a
rgd body mbedded n t s hed n a poston nfntesmay dspaced from ts poston of e ubrum n the manner transatonay
and rotatonay correspondng to the transatona and rotatona
eocty g en to the rgd body n the fud.
4. It has occurred to me guded by the teachng of am
roude regardng the contnued communcaton of momentum to
a fud by the appcaton of force to eep a sod mo ng wth
unform transatona eocty through t that an appro mate
determnaton of the resstance whch s the sub ect of the present
communcaton may probaby be found by the foowng method
wth resut e pressed n 9 whch I enture to g e as a guess
and not as a satsfactory mathematca n estgaton.
5. Consderng a dsc of fnte thc ness howe er sma mo ng
n an n scd ncompressbe ud wthn an unyedng boundary
and for a moment thn ng ony of the u-component of the moton
accordng to the notaton of 1 et E and E denote the front and
the rear parts of the edge respect ey. Imagne now nstead of
the rea moton of the un aryng sod dsc through the fud that
the dsc grows a o er E by rgdfcaton and accreton of the
fud n front of t and mets away from E by uefacton of the
sod. In an nfntesma tme t the e tent of the accreton n
front of E w be uat. Now f the -component of the moton of
the dsc s mantaned wthout dmnuton durng ths accreton
a force e ua to rI -I /t must be apped from wthout
perpendcuar to the dsc I denotng the mpus e force whch
woud be re ured to g e the -component eocty to the unaugmented dsc and I that re ured to g e the same eocty to
the augmented dsc. The pont of appcaton of the force
The e uatons for the steady nfntey sow moton of a scous fud are
dentca wth those for the e ubrum of an eastc sod. See Mathematca and
Physca Papers Sr . Thomson o. II. Art. c . 17 18.
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1894 N THE RESISTANCE A L ID T A PLANE
209
I - I /t must be that of the resutant of mpuses I and -I
apped at the hydrauc centres of nerta of the augmented dsc
and the unaugmented dsc respect ey.
6. Sudden cessaton of the rgdty by uefacton of any
porton fnte or nfntey sma of matter of the dsc at E
re ures no nstantaneous appcaton of force to pre ent change
of the -moton of the resdua sod. The contnued gradua
uefacton whch we are supposng performed ea es a Hemhot
orte sheet of fnte sp growng out n the ud behnd E
the e outons and contortons of whch are not easy foowed n
magnaton. Ths sheet s n the form of a poc et of whch the
p remans aways attached to the sod dsc. The space encosed
between t and the dsc s fed by the ud whch was sod.
It grows aways onger and onger by gan of ud from the
metng sod at E n front of t and probaby aso by ts rear
e tendng farther and farther far away n the wa e of the dsc.
7. Suppose now that after ha ng been performed durng a
certan tme T the dea processes of 5 6 are dscontnued and
the resutng sod dsc e ua and smar to the orgna dsc but
carred n the u-drecton through a space e ua to uT s eft wth
smpy ts -moton through the fud mantaned. The poc et of
uefed sod w be eft farther and farther behnd the dsc. Its
mouth st aways stopped by the sod w shrn from ts orgna
area whch was the whoe of E and w become aways smaer and
smaer but not nfntey sma n any fnte tme. The nec of
the poc et n the wa e of the dsc w become narrower and
narrower and the whoe poc et w be drawn out onger and
onger behnd but through a tme the fud whch was sod
w reman separated by a surface of fnte sp or Hemhot
orte sheet from the surroundng fud e cept o er the e er
dmnshng area of the dsc whch stops the mouth of the poc et.
The moton of the fud s rrotatona outsde the poc et and
rotatona wthn t. To eep the sod dsc mo ng wth ts
-moton constant and wth no other moton whether rotatona
or transatona t s necessary to appy force to t. ut ths force
becomes ess and ess and appro mates to ero as the orte I ca the hydrauc centre of nerta of a massess rgd dsc mmersed n
ud the pont at whch t must be struc perpendcuary by an mpuse to g e
t a smpe transatona moton.
. I . 14
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210
HYDR DYNAMICS
2
tra becomes fner and fner and the moton of the fud n the
neghbourhood of the dsc appro mates more and more neary to
perfect agreement wth the un ue rrotatona moton due to
-moton of the sod through the fud.
8. So far we ha e n 5 6 7 been on sure ground and
e ery statement s rgorousy true not ony for a dsc of any
shape of boundary and of any thc ness howe er sma but
aso for a sod of any shape deat wth accordng to 5
pro ded ony that the fud s n scd and ncompressbe and
ts boundary unyedng. My hypothess or guess 4 whch
forms the sub ect of the present paper s that defaut from
nfntey perfect fufment of a these three condtons woud
for an nfntey thn dsc ept mo ng wth unform transatona
moton u 1 re ure the contnued appcaton to t of force
determned n magntude and poston by 5 pro ded be ery
sma n comparson wth u.
9. The resut s wor ed out wth great ease for the case of a
rectanguar dsc of whch the ength 1 s ery great n comparson
wth the breadth a. or ths case by the we- nown hydro netcs of an epsod or eptc cynder mo ng transatonay
n an n scd ncompressbe fud of unt densty we ha e
I 7ra2I
and st usng the notaton of 5
I -r- a ut 2 I .
Hence 7rau
and the dstance of the pont of appcaton of ths force from the
mdde ne of the rectange s 4a.
Comparson of ths hypothetca resut wth obser aton n
respect both to the magntude of the force and ts pont of
appcaton w I hope form the sub ect of a future communcaton.
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211
24. N THE M TI N A HETER GENE S LI ID C MMENCING
R M REST ITH A GI EN M TI N ITS NDARY.
rom the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednbwrgh o. I.
1896 pp. 119-122.
I SE the word ud for bre ty to denote an ncompressbe
fud scd or n scd but n scd uness the contrary s e pressy
stated. A fnte porton of ud scd or n scd beng g en
at rest wthn a boundng esse of any shape whether smpy or
mutpy contnuous et any moton be suddeny produced n
some part of the boundary or throughout the boundary sub ect
ony to the enforced condton of unchangng oume. E ery
partce of the ud w nstantaneousy commence mo ng wth
the determnate eocty and n the determnate drecton such
that the netc energy of the whoe s ess than that of any other
moton whch the ud coud ha e wth the g en moton of ts
boundary . Ths proposton s aso true for an ncompressbe
eastc sod manfesty and for the dea ether of Proc.
R.S.E. March 7 1890 and Art. cI . o. III. of my Coected
Mathematca and Physca Papers . The truth of the proposton
for the case of a scous ud s ery mportant n practca
hydraucs. As an e ampe of ts appcaton to n scd and
scous fud and to eastc sod consder an eastc ey standng
n an open rgd moud and e ua bu s of water and of an n scd
Cambrdge and Dubn Mathematca ourna eb. 1849. Ths s ony a
partcuar case of a genera netc theorem for any matera system whate er
communcated to the Roya Socety Ednburgh Apr 6 186 wthout proof
Proceedngs 1862-6 p. 114 and pro ed n Thomson and Tat s Natura
Phosophy 17 wth se era e ampes. Mutua forces between the contanng esse and the ud or eastc sod such as are caed nto pay by
scosty eastcty hes ty or resstance to sdng between sod and sod
cannot modfy the concuson and do not enter nto the e uatons used n the
demonstraton.
14-2
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212
HYDR DYNAMICS
24
ud n two esses e ua and smar to t. G e e ua sudden
motons to the three contanng esses: the nstantaneous motons
of the three contaned substances w be the same. Ta e as a
partcuar case a fgure of re outon wth ts a s ertca for the
contanng esse and et the g en moton be rotaton round ths
a s suddeny commenced and afterwards mantaned wth unform
anguar eocty. The nta netc energy w be ero for each
of the three substances. The n scd ud w reman for e er
at rest the water w ac ure moton accordng to the ourer
aw of dffuson of whch we now somethng for ths case by
obser aton of the resut of g ng an appro matey unform
anguar moton round the ertca a s to a cup of tea ntay at
rest. The ey w ac ure amnar wa e moton proceedng
nwards from the boundary. ut n the present communcaton
we confne our attenton to the case of n scd ud.
The now we- nown souton of the mnmum probem thus
presented when the boundng surface s smpy contnuous s
smpy:-that the nta moton of the ud s rrotatona.
That the nta moton must be rrotatonat s ndeed ob ous
when we consder that the mpus e pressure by whch any
porton of the ud s set n moton s e erywhere perpendcuar
to the nterface between t and the contguous matter around t
and therefore the nta moment of momentum round any
dameter of e ery spherca porton arge or sma s ero. ut
that rrotatonaty of the moton of e ery spherca porton of the
ud suffces to determne the moton wthn a smpy contnuous
boundary ha ng any stated moton s not ob ous wthout mathematca n estgaton.
hether the boundary s smpy contnuous or mutpy contnuous rrotatonaty suffces to determne the moton produced
as we now suppose t to be produced from rest by a g en moton
of the boundary.
Now n a homogeneous ud acted on by no body force or
ony by such force gra ty for e ampe as coud not mo e t
when ts boundary s f ed the moton started from rest by any
mo ement of the boundary remans aways rrotatona as we
Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy 12.
t That s to say moton such that the moment of momentum of e ery spherca
porton arge or sma s ero round e ery dameter.
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1896 N THE M TI N A HETER GENE S LI ID
21
now from eementary hydro netcs. Hence f at any tme the
boundary s suddeny or graduay brought to rest the moton of
e ery partce of the ud s brought to rest at the same nstant.
ut t s not so wth a heterogeneous ud. f the foowng
concusons Nos. 1 2 need no proof. To pro e No. 4
remar that as ong as there s any moton of the heterogeneous
ud wthn the mperfecty eastc esse the ud must be
osng energy and the energy cannot become nfntey sma wth
any fnte spherca porton of the ud homogeneous.
1 The nta moton of a heterogeneous ud s rrotatona
ony at the frst nstant after beng ute suddeny started from
rest by moton of ts boundary. hate er moton be subse uenty
g en to the boundary the moton of the ud s ne er agan
rrotatona. Hence
2 If the boundary be suddeny brought to rest at any tme
the ud uness homogeneous throughout s not thereby brought
to rest and t woud go on for e er wth undmnshed energy
f the ud were perfecty n scd and the boundary absoutey
f ed. The utmate condton of the ud f there s no post e
surface tenson n the nterfaces between heterogeneous portons
s an nfntey fne m ture of the heterogeneous parts . And
f there were no gra ty or other body force actng on the ud
the densty woud utmatey become unform throughout. Ta e
for e ampe a cor ed botte haf fu of water or other ud wth
ar abo e t g en at rest. Mo e the botte and brng t to rest
agan: the ud w reman sha ng for some tme. An ordnary
non-scentfc person w scarcey than us for ths resut of our
mathematca theory. ut when we te hm that f ar and the
ud were both perfecty fud that s to say perfecty free from
scosty the we- nown sha ng of the ud surface woud
after a tte tme g e rse to spherues tossed up from the man
body of the ud and that the sha ng of the ud eft to
tsef n the botte supposed perfecty rgd w end n spndrft
of spherues whch woud be nfntey fne f the capary tenson
of the nterface between ud and ar were nfntey sma he
Popuar Lectures and Addresses by Lord e n o. . pp. 19 20 and 5 54.
See aso Phosophca Maga ne 1887 second haf-year: n the formaton of
coreess ortces by the moton of a sod through an n scd ncompressbe fud
n the stabty of steady and of perodc fud moton n ma mum and
mnmum energy n orte moton. Spra pp. 149 172 and nfra
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214
HYDR DYNAMICS
24
may be ncreduous uness he tends to ha e fath n a assertons
made n the name of scence.
If the boundary s an encosng esse of any rea matera
and therefore nether perfecty rgd nor perfecty eastc and f
t s ad on a tabe and eft to tsef under the nfuence of gra ty
the ud supposed perfecty n scd w ose energy contnuay
by generaton of heat n the contanng esse and w come
asymptotcay to rest n the confguraton of stabe e ubrum
wth surfaces of e ua densty hor onta and ncreasng densty
downwards.
4 th other condtons as n but no gra ty the
utmate confguraton of rest w be nfntey fne m ture
probaby I thn of e ua densty throughout . Consder for
e ampe two homogeneous uds of dfferent denstes fng the
cosed esse or a snge homogeneous ud not fng t. As an
ustraton ta e a botte haf fu of water and sha e t oenty.
bser e how you get the whoe botte fu of a m ture of fne
bubbes of ar neary homogeneous throughout. Thn what the
resut woud be f there were no gra ty and f the water and ar
were n scd and the botte sha en as genty as you pease and
f there were perfect acuum n pace of the ar or f for ar
were substtuted any ud of densty dfferent from that of
water.
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215
25. N THE D CTRINE DISC NTIN ITY L ID M TI N IN
C NNECTI N ITH THE RESISTANCE AGAINST A S LID M ING
THR GH A L ID .
rom Nature o. L. 1894 pp. 524 549 57 597.
I.
1. THE doctrne that dscontnuty that s to say fnte
dfference of eocty on two sdes of a surface n a fud woud
be produced f an n scd ncompressbe fud were caused to
fow past a sharp edge of a rgd sod wth no acant space between
fud and sod was I bee e frst g en by Sto es n 1847t.
It s nconsstent wth the now we- nown dynamca theorem
that an ncompressbe n scd fud ntay at rest and set n
moton by pressure apped to ts boundary ac ures the un ue
dstrbuton of moton throughout ts mass of whch the netc
energy s ess than that of any other moton of the fud wth the
same moton of ts boundary.
2. The reason assgned for the formaton of a surface of
fnte sp between fud and fud was the nfntey great eocty
of the fud at the edge and the correspondng negat e-nfnte
pressure mped by the un ue souton uness the fud s aowed
to separate tsef from contact wth the sod. Ths an n scd
ncompressbe fud certany woud do uness the pressure of the
fud were nfntey great e erywhere e cept at the edge. In
nature the tendency to ery great negat e pressure arsng from
These communcatons formed the sub ect of a proonged payfu contro ersy
between Lord e n and hs ntmate frend Sr George Sto es n a seres of etters
whch ha e been preser ed.
t Coected Papers o. . pp. 10 11.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
25
greatness of eocty of a fud fowng round a corner s aways
ob ated by each one of three defacatons from our dea: I scosty of the fud pre entng the e ceedng greatness of the eocty.
II Compressbty of the fud.
III Yedngness of the outer boundary of the fud.
. Defacaton I s n many practca cases argey operat e
when ar s the fud but II s aso argey operat e n some
ery nterestng cases such as the whstng of a strong wnd
bowng round a sharp corner or through a chn the bowng
aganst the sharp edge n the enmbouchure of an organ-ppe and
n the mouthpece of a fageoet or of a sma whste and the
bowng across the end of a tube or a hoe n the sde of a tube
to cause a ey or a fute to sound.
4. Defacaton III s argey operat e and II but tte
n many practca cases of most common occurrence n the fow of
water. It s probabe that much of the foam seen near the sdes
and n the wa e of a screw steamer gong at a hgh speed through
gassy-cam water s due to acuum behnd edges and roughnesses causng dsso ed ar to be e tracted from the water. A
stff crcuar dsc of 10-nch dameter and 1/10 of an nch thc
n ts mdde shaped truy to the fgure of an obate epsod of
re outon woud cause a acuum to be formed a round ts edge
f mo ed at e en so sma a eocty as I foot per second under
water of any depth ess than 6 feet f water were n scd: and
at greater depths the moton woud on the same supposton be
whoy contnuous wth no acuum and woud be e acty n
accordance wth the un ue mnmum energy soutont.
Snge word to denote space acated by water.
t rom the eementary hydro netcs of the moton of an epsod through an
n scd ncompressbe fud orgnated by Green who frst ga e the souton for
the case of transatona moton of the epsod we now that f 0 denotes the
ange between the norma to the surface at any pont and the a s of an obate
epsod of re outon of whch the e uatora and poar sema es are a b the
eocty of the fud fowng o er ths pont of the surface s
a2 -- 2 sn 0
b a sn1 b
/ a2- 2 a
f the eocty of the fud at great dstances from the sod s and n parae
nes and the sod s hed f ed n the fud wth ts a s parae to these nes.
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1894 THE D CTRINE INITE SLIP IN L ID M TI N 217
he the eocty of the fud across the e uator s 6 7 feet
per second the eocty across each of the two parae crces
whose rad are 4 218 nches the radus of the e uator beng
5 nches s ony 1 foot per second.
5. The e ceedngy rapd change of shape of the fud
fowng across the e uatora one between these crces wth
eocty at the surface augmentng from 1 foot per second to 6 7
feet per second n ad ancng o er a dstance of ess than 85 of
an nch of the surface from one of the sma crces to the e uator
and dmnshng agan from 6 7 to 1 from the e uator to the other
parae n a sma fracton of a second of tme woud f the fud
s water or any other rea ud g e rse through scosty to
forces greaty dmnshng the ma mum eocty and causng
through fud pressure the moton of the water to dffer greaty
from that of the mnmum-energy souton not ony near the
e uator or n ts wa e or o er the rear sde of the dsc but o er
a the front sde aso though no doubt much more on the rear
sde and n the wa e than on the front sde and n the fud
before t.
The scosty woud aso at ess depths than 6 feet ha e
great effect n eepng down the ma mum eocty and t s
possbe that e en at 10 or 20 feet a greater eocty than 1 foot
per second mght be re ured to ma e acuum round the e uator
of our dsc of 10 nches dameter and the 1/2000 of an nch radus
of cur ature whch ts eptc merdona secton g es t. ut t
seems ute certan that there must be much formng of acuum
and conse uent e tracton of ar and rsng of bubbes to the
surface from the somewhat sharp corners and roughnesses of
ron n the hu of an ordnary ron sang shp or steamer gong
through the water at twe e nots that s 20 ft. per second .
II.
6. In e ery case n whch acuum s formed at an edge of a
sod mo ng n an n scd ncompressbe fud under pressure
constant at a nfntey great dstances from the sod a successon
Ta ng a b n ths formua we reduce t to 200/7r. sn 0 appro matey wthn
1 per cent. and ta ng sn 0 1 and foot per second we fnd 6 -7 feet per
second for the eocty across the e uator. Hence the gra tatona head correspondng to the negat e-pressure s 6 -72 -12 /64-4 or ery appro matey
6 feet whch pro es the statement n the te t.
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218 HYDR DYNAMICS 25
of fnte nd dua ortces s sent from the edge nto the ud
and the moton s essentay unsteady. Each nd dua orte
has a fnte endess acuum for ts core nstead of the rotatonay
mo ng rng of fud of the Hemhot orte rng. ut t shoud
be notced that t woud not be rngs of acuum but bubbes that
woud n many cases be frst detached from the sod that by the
tumutuous coapse of bubbes they become rngs and that the
case n whch the coapse of a bubbe n our dea fud coud be
competed to an annument of oume s of necessty nfntey
rare and that the case n whch when a bubbe becomes a rng
by the meetng of two ponts of coapsng boundary there s
e acty no crcuaton through the aperture s nfntey rare .
7. In the case of our crcuar dsc t woud be crcuar
orte rngs that f the water were n scd woud be shed off
from ts edge when the depth s ess than 6 feet. If the depth
s ery tte ess than 6 feet these rngs woud be e ceedngy
fne and woud foow one another at e ceedngy short nter as
of tme. Thus ute cose to the edge there woud be somethng
somewhat e to Sto es rft but wth a rapd successon of
acuum roers as t were and no sppng between the portons
of the fud on ts two sdes.
8. At greater depths than 6 feet f the water had
absoutey no scosty the moton woud be contnuous and
rrotatona as descrbed n 4 te t and foot-note: but any
degree of scosty howe er sght woud f the edge were
nfntey sharp nstead of ha ng a radus of cur ature of
1/2000 of an nch as has our supposed dsc g e rse to a state
of moton n ts neghbourhood somewhat e to Sto es rft a
The whoe sub ect of the moton of an ncompressbe n scd fud wth acuum
on the other sde of the whoe or any part of ts boundary s of surpassng nterest.
Consder for e ampe an open f ed basn wth water poured nto t and eft not
ute at rest under the nfuence of gra ty swngng sghty from sde to sde et
us suppose for e ampe the water perfecty n scd and apouress but may be
ether cohesona or cohesoness there beng perfect acuum o er a ts free
surface. ery soon t w certany throw up a drop somewhere: and before
ery ong t w become co ered wth spn-drft and w thus ustrate Ma we s
mportant aegaton whch I bee e to be true though t has been much doubted
that any conser at e system must sooner or ater pass through e ery possbe
confguraton.
scosty s resstance to change of shape n proporton to the speed of the
change.
Sto es Mathematca and Physca Papers o. I. p. 10.
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1894 THE D CTRINE INITE SLIP IN L ID M TI N 219
surface of dscontnuty e tendng some way nto the fud but
wth the dfference that there s no sp of fud on fud. A tra
of rotatonay mo ng ud a Hemhot orte sheet of
e ceedngy sma thc ness s thus eft n the wa e of the
crcuar edge whch whe becomng thc er as ts gets farther
from the edge becomes roed up n a wdy tumutuous manner
g ng the appearance of an rreguar crowd of detached crcuar
rng- ortces. Ths crowd foows the dsc at an e er dmnshng
speed and wdens outward farther and farther and nward
encroaches more and more on the comparat ey undsturbed
mdde of the wa e as t s eft farther and farther behnd the dsc.
9. hether as n 7 for an dea n scd ncompressbe
fud or as n 8 for a natura ud such as water the wa e
that s to say the fud on the rear sde of the pane of the dsc
as far as t s sensby affected by the moton of the dsc must be
as descrbed n the ast sentence of 8. The rear of the wa e s
aways mo ng forwards that s to say foowng the dsc but
at a contnuay dmnshng speed. Hence f the dsc has been
set n moton from rest some fnte tme T ago the whoe wa e
must be ncuded between the pane from whch the dsc started
and the pane n whch the dsc s now at the tme when we are
thn ng of t. These two panes are at the fnte dstance T
asunder. In other words the wa e e tends to some dstance ess
than T rearwards from the dsc.
10. The sheddng off of orte rngs from the edge of the
dsc to foow n ts wa e at ess speed than ts own essentay
g es a contrbuton to negat e pressure on the rear sde of the
dsc e ua to d/dt. c where c denotes the sum of the crcuatons of a the coreess rng- ortces or of a the rotatonay
mo ng ud whch ha e or has eft the edge snce the begnnng
of the moton. Ths wth the commony assumed eoctes of the
fud on the two sdes of the rgd pane seems nsuffcent to
account for the e cess of obser ed pressure abo e that cacuated
for a ong bade by Lord Rayegh s formuat- referred to n my
etter to Nature Towards the Effcency of Sas amp c. and ea es
some correcton to be made on those assumed eoctes. ut the
Cf. 17 nfra.
t In nes 9 and 10 of the prnted etter Nature Aug. 0 1894 p. 426 for
somethng e f e or ten substtute 4 8. I unfortunatey had not Lord
Rayegh s formua by me at the tme the etter was wrtten.
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220
HYDR DYNAMICS
25
wor ng out of ths nterestng pece of mathematca hydro netcs
must be deferred for a contnuaton of the present artce n whch
supposed dscontnuty of fud moton e tendng far and wde
as taught by many wrters n many scentfc papers and te tboo s snce Sto es nfntesma rft started t n 1847 w be
consdered.
III.
11. The accompanyng dagram fg. 1 ustrates the
appcaton of the doctrne n ueston to a dsc ept mo ng
d -- -- ---
e..I...- ---.. A
/

C-1
M
.

a
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through water or ar wth a constant eocty perpendcuar to
ts own pane. The assumpton to whch I ob ect as beng nconsstent wth hydrodynamcs and ery far from any appro maton to the truth for an n scd ncompressbe fud n any
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1894 THE D CTRINE INITE SLIP IN L ID M TI N 221
crcumstances and uttery at arance wth obser aton of dscs
or bades as oar bades caused to mo e through water s that
startng from the edge as represented by the two contnuous
cur es n the dagram and e tendng ndefntey rearwards there
s a surface of dscontnuty on the outsde of whch the water
fows reat ey to the dsc wth eocty and on the nsde
of whch there s a rearess mass of dead water foowng cose
after the dsc.
12. The supposed constancy of the eocty on the outsde
of the supposed surface of dscontnuty entas for the nsde a
constant pressure and therefore uescence reat ey to the dsc
and rearessness of the dead water. How coud such a state of
moton be produced and what s t n respect to rear are
uestons whch I may suggest to the teachers of the doctrne
but whch happy not gong n for an e amnaton n hydro netcs I need not try to answer.
1 . ut now supposng the moton of the dsc to ha e
been started some fnte tme t ago and consderng the
conse uent necessty 9 for fnteness of ts wa e et ab bd be
nes suffcenty far behnd the rear and beyond one sde of the
dsturbed water to pass ony through water not sensby dsturbed.
e thus ha e a rea fnte case of moton to dea wth nstead
of the ne pcaby nfnte one of 11. Let us try f t s possbe
that for some fnte dstance from the edge and from the dsc on
each sde the moton coud be e en appro matey f not rgorousy
that descrbed n 11 and ndcated by the dagram.
14. Let be the eocty at any pont n the a s Aa at
dstance y from the dsc rearwards. Draw ed perpendcuar to the
stream nes of the fud reat ey to the dsc supposed at rest.
The fow t n the ne ed s 0 db db ba 0
rAa
a A - dy Ae by hypothess.
Ths s a technca e presson of practca hydraucs adopted by the Engsh
teachers of the doctrne of fnte sp between two parts of a homogeneous fud to
desgnate water at rest reat ey to the dsc.
t orte Moton Thomson Trans. R. S. E. 1869.
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222
HYDR DYNAMICS
25
Hence for the crcuaton n the cosed poygon edbaAe
we ha e
rAa
db - dy.
o
Smary for the crcuaton n the same crcut at a tme
ater by any nter a T when the ne ba has mo ed to the poston
b a and ed to e d we ha e
/Aa
db - dy
where denotes for the ater tme t r the eocty n Aa at
dstance y from A. Hence the crcuaton n edbaAet gans n tme
7 an amount e ua to
/Aa
- - dy
whch s the same as
dy.
Ths by the genera theorem of crcuaton must be e ua to
the gan of crcuaton n tme T of a the orte -sheet n ts
growth from the edge accordng to the statement of 11. Hence
wth the notaton of 10
- - - dy.
15. Remar ng now that the fud has ony contnuous
rrotatona moton through a fnte space a round each of the
nes ed db ba aA and a round Ae e cept the space occuped
by the dsc and the fud beyond ts front sde we ha e for the
eocty-potenta of ths moton reat ey to the dsc
y y t
where b denotes the eocty-potenta of the moton reat e to
the nfntey dstant fud a round: and we ha e aong Aa
-d 0 y 0 t .
d
th ths the e uaton of 14 becomes
- I 0 0 0 t r - 0 0 0 t .
Remar that the crcuaton n abb a s ero and therefore the crcuaton n
edb a Ae s e ua to that n edbaAe.
Ths re ures that there s a smooth stream ne from the neghbourhood of
e to e whch s outsde a the orte moton for ony then s the crcuaton n
edd e nu.
orte Moton Trans. R. S. E. 1869.
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1894 THE D CTRINE INITE SLIP IN L ID M TI N 22
Hence by ta ng T nfntey sma
dt d 0 o o t .
16. Now n the tme from t to t T there has been accordng
to the supposton stated n 11 a growth of orte -sheet from
e at the rate I beng the mean between the eoctes of the
fud on ts two sdes and the crcuaton per ength 1 of the
sheet thus growng s I . Hence the orte -crcuaton of the
growng sheet augments n tme T by T : and therefore
by 15
d
t 0 0 0 t 2.
17. Now f II denotes the pressure of the fud at great
dstances where ts eocty reat e to the dsc s and p the
pressure at any pont of the rear sde of the dsc beng the same
as the pressure at A we ha e by eementary hydro netcs
p n 2-dt- o o t
because the eocty of the fud at e ery pont of the rear sde
of the dsc s ero accordng to the assumpton of dead water.
Hence by 16
p H
whch beng the same as the pressure on the rear sde g en by
the unmtgated assumpton of an endess e er broadenng wa e
of dead water pro es that our substtuton 1 of a fnte
confguraton of moton conce aby possbe as the conse uence
of settng the dsc n moton at some fnte tme t ago nstead
of the nconce abe confguraton descrbed n 11 does not ater
the pressure on the rear sde of the dsc.
18. Hence were the moton of the fud for some fnte
dstance from the dsc on both ts sdes the same or ery
appro matey the same as that descrbed n 11 the force that
must be apped to eep t mo ng unformy woud be the same
or ery appro matey the same as that cacuated by Lord
Rayegh from the moton of the fud supposed to be whoy as
descrbed n 11.
Hemhot ssenschaftche Abhandungen o. . foot of p. 151.
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HYDR DYNAMICS
25
19. ut what reason ha e we for supposng the eocty
of the fud at the edge on the front sde of the dsc to be
e acty or e en appro matey e ua to the undsturbed eocty
of the fud at great dstances from the dsc None that I can
see. It seems to me ndeed probabe that t s n reaty much
greater than when we consder that wth n scd ncompressbe fud n an unyedng outer boundary the eocty n
the case consdered n 4 s e ua to at e en so far from the
edge as 85 of an nch and ncreases from to 6 7 between
that dstance from the edge and the edge wth ts 1/2000 of an
nch radus of cur ature.
20. And what of the dead water n contact wth the
whoe rear sde of the dsc whch the doctrne of dscontnuty
assumes Loo at the reaty and you w see the water n the
rear e ceedngy ey e erywhere e cept at the ery centre of
the dsc. You w see t eddyng round from the edge and
returnng outwards ery cose aong the rear surface often I bee e
wth much greater eocty than but wth no steadness on
the contrary wth a turbuent unsteadness uttery un e the
steady reguar moton generay assumed n the doctrne of dscontnuty.
21. e may I thn safey concude that on the front sde
the opposng pressure s ess than that cacuated by Rayegh.
That ths dmnuton of resstance s partay compensated or s
o er-compensated by dmnuton of pressure on the rear s more
than we are abe to say from theory aone n a probem of moton
so compe and so far beyond our powers of cacuaton: but we
are entted to say so I bee e by e perment. Rayegh s
n estgaton of the resstance e perenced by an nfntey thn
rgd pane bade bounded by two parae straght edges when
caused to mo e through an n scd ncompressbe fud wth
constant eocty n a drecton perpendcuar to the edges and
ncned at an ange to the pane g es a force cuttng the pane
perpendcuary at a dstance from ts mdde e ua to
cos
4 4 t sn
of ts breadth and g es for the amount of ths force n gra taton
measure
27r sn
4 r sn
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1894 THE D CTRINE INITE SLIP IN L ID M TI N 225
where A denotes the area of one sde of the bade and P the
weght of a coumn of the fud of unt cross-sectona area and of
heght e ua to the heght from whch a body must fa to ac ure
a eocty e ua to .
22. The assumpton 11 on whch ths n estgaton s
founded admts no eocty of fud moton reat ey to the dsc
greater anywhere than . It g es eocty reachng ths aue
ony at the edges of the bade and at the supposed surface of
dscontnuty and n the fud at nfnte dstances a round e cept
n the nfntey broad wa e of dead water where the eocty
s ero. It ma es the pressure e ua to I a through the dead
water and ma es t ncrease through the mo ng fud from II
at an nfnte dstance and at the surface of dscontnuty to a
ma mum aue II P attaned at the water-shed ne of the
dsc. If the fud s ar and f be e en so great as 120 feet
per second 1/10 of the eocty of sound P woud be ony
7/1000 of II. The correspondng augmentaton of densty coud
cause no ery serous change of the moton from that assumed:
and therefore n Rayegh s n estgaton ar may be regarded as
an ncompressbe fud f the eocty of the dsc s anythng ess
than 120 feet per second.
e may therefore test hs formua for the resstance by
comparson wth resuts of carefu e perments made by Dnest
on the resstance of ar to dscs and bades mo ed through t at
eoctes of from 40 to 70 statute mes per hour 59 to 10 feet
per second .
2 . Dnes fnds for norma ncdence the resstance aganst
a foot-s uare pate mo ng through ar at m rtsh statute mes
per hour to be e ua to 0029nm2 of a pound weght.
Ths f we ta e the specfc gra ty of the ar as 1/800 g es
accordng to our notaton of 21
2-157 PA
as the resstance to a s uare pate of area A. At the foot of
p. 255 Proc. R. S. une 1890 Dnes says that he fnds the
resstance to a ong narrow bade to be more than 20 per cent.
greater than to a s uare pate. or a bade we may therefore ta e
2-59 PA
r I /1 4 gH where H s the heght of the homogeneous atmosphere.
t Proc. R. S. une 1890.
. I . 15
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226
HYDR DYNAMICS
25
as the resstance accordng to Dnes e perments. Ths s 2 94
tmes the resstance cacuated from Rayegh s formua 21
abo e whch s
88 PA
for norma ncdence.
24. or ncdences more and more ob ue the dscrepancy
s greater and greater. Thus from cur es g en by Dnes p. 256
showng hs own and Rayegh s resuts I fnd the norma resstance
to a bade mo ed through ar n a drecton ncned 0 to ts
pane to be 52 tmes that g en by Rayegh s formua. And by
drawng a tangent to Dnes cur e at the pont n whch t cuts
the ne of ero pressure I fnd that for ery sma aues of t
g es
6- 9 sn PA.
Ths s rather more than four tmes the aue of the force g en
by Rayegh s formua for ery sma aues of whch s
7r sn . PA.
It s somewhat more than doube that g en by my con ectura
formua Nature August 0 p. 426 and Ph. Mag. ctober
1894 for ery sma aues of whch s
7r sn cos . PA.
My formua s howe er merey con ectura and I was ncned
to thn that t may consderaby under-estmate the force . That
t does so to some degree s perhaps made probabe by ts somewhat
cose agreement wth Dnes because the bade n hs e perments
was nches broad and of an nch thc n the mdde wth
edges feathered off. An nfntey thn bade woud probaby
ha e shown greater resstances at a anges and especay at
those of sma ncnaton to the wnd.
The numbers abo e ha e here been doubed n addton to other sght
modfcaton. Ths throws out the appro mate agreement whch was found by
Lord e n.
In repy to a re uest for nformaton regardng the resuts of recent n estgaton
at the Natona Physca Laboratory Dr T. E. Stanton wrtes ct. 7 1909 as
foows and sends the dagram anne ed. The aue of Dnes coeffcent uoted
by Lord e n agrees remar aby we wth our resuts here when account s ta en
of the araton n the s e of the pate as you w see from the encosed dagram.
I fnd that the ncrease n tota resstance per unt area wth s e s entrey due to
the ncreased sucton effect at the bac of the pate as the dmensons ncrease.
As regards the pressures on ong narrow pates and on ncned pates our
resuts are n practca agreement wth those of Dnes and on our n estgatng the
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1894 THE D CTRINE INITE SLIP IN L ID M TI N 227
I .
25. Another decs e demonstraton that the doctrne of
dscontnuty s ery far from an appro maton to the truth s
afforded n an e ceedngy nterestng and nstruct e manner by
Dnes obser atons of the pressures on the two sdes of a dsc
hed at rght anges to a reat e wnd of 60 statute mes per hour
88 ft. per sec. produced by carryng t round at the end of the
re o ng arm of hs machne. The obser atons were descrbed
n a communcaton to the Roya Meteoroogca Socety n May
1890. In hs paper of une of the same year n the Roya Socety
Proceedngs aready referred to he states the resuts whch are
that at the mdde of the front sde an augmentaton of pressure
and at the mdde of the rear sde a dmnuton of pressure
measured respect ey by 1 82 and 89 nches of water were found.
These correspond to heads of ar of densty 1/800 of that of water
e ua respect ey to 1211 and 59 feet. The former s n amost
e act accordance wth rgorous mathematca theory for an n scd
ncompressbe fud whch g es 882/64 4 or 1201 feet for the
dstrbuton of pressure we found that the e cess n the tota resstance o er that
g en by Lord Rayegh s formua was as n the case of norma mpngement due
to the sucton effect of the eddes on the eeward sde.
Ar-resstance of s uare pates.

-00 2- -
0027
1 11 1 1. I
II I I I I
I I
0 1 5 10
Length of sde n feet.
Means of obser atons made by M. Effe on fang pates.. at N.P.L. n a current of ar. n the wnd. by Mr Dnes on whrng tabe.
15-2
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228 HYDR DYNAMICS 25
depth correspondng to the pressure at the water-shed pont or
ponts of a sod of any shape mo ng through t at the rate of
88 feet per second. The atter shows that there s a sucton
at the centre of the rear sde ery neary e ua to haf the augmentaton of pressure on the front nstead of there beng nether
sucton nor augmented pressure as taught n the doctrne of dscontnuty
turbe
/e d L ou t ot/
g. 2.
L
dead water
L
g. .
dead water A/
g. 4.
L M
aa w er I dead water/////////////////////
L M
g. 5.
26. The accompanyng dagrams 2 4 5 represent se era
ustratons of the doctrne of dscontnuty n the moton of an
n scd fud ess attract e to wrters on mathematca hydro
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1894 THE D CTRINE INITE SLIP IN L ID M TI N 229
netcs than that represented n g. 1 whether as ts stands or
ared to sut ob ue ncdence because each s nstanty soube
wthout mathematca anayss and they do not e t n the
two-dmensona case consttute ustratons of the beautfu
mathematca method for fndng surfaces of constant fud eocty
n proongaton of g en surfaces aong whch the eocty s not
constant orgnated by Hemhot de eoped n a mathematcay
most nterestng manner by rchhoff t and ady apped to the
theory of the ena contracta by Rayegh .
27. A cyndrc et not necessary of crcuar cross-secton
ssung from a tube wth sharp edge nto a ery arge oume of
fud of the same densty as that of the et s represented n g. 2.
Ths case was carefuy consdered by Hemhot both for the
dea n scd ncompressbe fud and for rea water or rea ar.
He ga e good reason for bee ng that wth rea water or rea
ar and at dstances from the mouth as great as se era tmes the
dameter of the tube or the east dameter f t s not of crcuar
cross-secton the surroundng fud s neary at rest and the et
s but tte dsturbed from the nd of moton t had n passng
out of the tube: and therefore that the effu s neary the same
as other crcumstances the same t woud be f the atmosphere
nto whch the et s dscharged were nerta-ess. Ths concuson
whch s of great mportance n practca hydraucs has been
confrmed by carefu e perments made eght years ago n the
physca aboratory of the n ersty of Gasgow by two young
offcers of the Amercan Na y Mr Capps and the ate Mr Hewes.
I bee e t has been tested and confrmed by other e permenters.
28. The ery smpest appcaton of the doctrne of dscontnuty to the theory of the resstance of fuds to sods mo ng
through them s represented n g. and the resut s no
resstance at a Surey ths case re urng no cacuaton mght
ha e been a warnng of the e treme wrongness of the doctrne n
connecton wth resstance of fuds aganst sods mo ng through
them. The nuty of the resstance n the case represented by
g. accordng to the assumpton of a wa e of dead water
ssenschaftche Abhandungen o. I. pp. 15 -156.
t oresungen fber Mathematsche Phys o. I.
Notes on Hydrodynamcs Ph. Mag. 1876 second haf-year.
ss. Abh. o. . pp. 152-15 .
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2 0 HYDR DYNAMICS 25
ha ng the same pressure 1I as the dstant and near water fowng
unformy n parae nes foows mmedatey from an easy
pro ed theorem whch I stated n the combned meetng of Sectons
A and G rt. Assoc. n ford ast August to the effect that the
ongtudna component of the pressure on each of the ends E E n
gs. 4 5 whate er ther shapes and whether bow or stern
pro ded ony that t ends tangentay n a cyndrc md-body
ong n comparson wth the greatest trans erse dameter of the
sod s e ua to HTA where A s the area of the cross-secton of
the cyndrc part of the sod.
29. gs. 4 and 5 represent two aretes of a case whoy
free from the nconce abe endessness of g. 1 and carefuy
chosen as thoroughy defensbe by hoders of the doctrne of dscontnuty f t has any defensbty at a. I enture to ea e t
wth them for ther consderaton.
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1875
2 1
THE RY THE TIDES .
26. N AN ALLEGED ERR R IN LAPLACE S THE RY
THE TIDES.
rom the Phosophca Maga ne o. L. 1875 pp. 227-242.
1. AIRY n hs artce on Tdes and a es n the Encycopeda Metropotana g es a erson of Lapace s theory of the
tdes whch has the undoubtedy great mert of beng freed from
certan napproprate appcatons of Lapace s coeffcents or as
they are now more commony caed Spherca harmoncs by
whch ts ustrous author attempted not ute successfuy to
desgn a method for ta ng nto account the ateraton of gra ty
due to the tda dsturbance of the surface of the sea the souton
of hs dynamca e uatons.
It s the repetton of ths attempt for each of the three
speces of oscatons Mecan ue Ceeste L . I . arts. 5 7 9
and the preparaton for t n the course of wor ng out the
fundamenta dfferenta e uatons art. by the asserton that
a b c a are to be ratona functons of p and /1 2 2 that
throws a coud o er neary the whoe chapter L . I . chap. of
The practca sde of tda theory was underta en by a Commttee of the
rtsh Assocaton whch pubshed arous reports .A. Reports 1868 70 71
72 76 78 on the practca methods of harmonc anayss of tdes and the resuts
for arous parts of the ocean. ne of the onger of these rt. Assoc. Report 1872
pp. 55- 95 was drawn up by Mr E. Roberts under the drecton of the Commttee : the ne t rt. Assoc. Report 1876 pp. 275- 07 was drawn up by
Sr . Thomson. Subse uenty the drecton of ths wor was ta en o er many
by Sr George Darwn cf. Thomson amp Tat s Nat. Ph. ed. 2 and Sr George
Darwn s Coected Scentfc Papers o. II. whch ncude further .A. Reports
1881 etc. and hs boo on The Tdes.
Snce the papers here reprnted drew attenton afresh to the Lapacan theory
t has been ery much mpro ed and de eoped by arous wrters ncudng Darwn
Poncare Lamb and n partcuar by S. S. Hough n two memors n Ph. Trans.
o. 189 1897 p. 201 and o. 191 A 1898 p. 1 9: cf. Lamb s Hydrodynamcs
ed. 2 or .
In Popuar Lectures and Addresses o. III. Na gaton 1891 a rtsh Assocaton ecture Southampton 1882 on The Tdes s reprnted pp. 1 9-190 wth
Appendces A C D E of whch C are papers rt. Assoc. Dubn 1878 on
the Infuence of the Strats of Do er on the Tdes n the rtsh Channe and the
North Sea and n the Tdes of the Southern Hemsphere and of the Medterranean the atter n con uncton wth Capt. E ans whe D s a S etch of Proposed Pan of Procedure n Tda bser aton and Anayss from rt. Assoc.
Report Norwch 1868.
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2 2
THE RY THE TIDES
26
the Mecan ue Ceeste de oted to the dynamca theory of the
tdes and fuy ustfes the foowng statement wth whch Ary
Tdes and a es art. 66 ntroduces hs own erson of
Lapace s theory: It woud be useess to offer ths theory n the same shape n
whch Lapace has g en t for the part of the Me can ue Ceeste
whch contans the Theory of Tdes s perhaps on the whoe more
obscure than any other part of the same e tent n that wor . e
sha g e the theory n a form e u aent to Lapace s and ndeed
so neary reated to t that a person famar wth the atter w
perce e the paraesm of the success e steps. The resuts at
whch we sha arr e are the same as those of Lapace.
2. The ony good thng ost n Ary s treatse through the
omsson of the spherca harmonc anayss s Lapace s compete
souton for the case of no rotaton and e ua depth of the sea
a round the earth. hen the earth s rotaton s ta en nto
account or when the sea s of une ua depth the dfferenta
e uaton to be so ed ta es a form atogether unsuted for the
ntroducton of spherca harmoncs and Ary s n estgaton s
substantay the same as Lapace s e cept n the udcous omsson
of the unsuccessfu attempts referred to abo e.
. In g ng Lapace s souton for the sem-durna tde wth
the change of gra ty due to the change of fgure of the water
not ta en nto account Ary ponts out what he bee ed to be
an error so serous that after correctng t t was needess to
obser e that Lapace s numerca cacuatons of the heghts of
tdes n certan attudes and hs nferences as to the attude
where there s no tde amp c. fa to the ground. hen I frst
read Ary s treatse ten years ago on board the Great Eastern
I coud not assent to hs correcton of Lapace but on the
contrary satsfed mysef that Lapace was ute rght. Not
ha ng the Mecan ue Ceeste at hand I set the sub ect asde
for a tme ntendng to return to t for the second oume of
Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy wth the frst oume
of whch I was then occuped.
4. My attenton has recenty been recaed to t by readng
n a oume of Tda Researches consttutng an append
contrbuted by . erre to the nted States Coast-Sur ey
Yet S. S. Hough subse uenty succeeded n ntroducng harmonc anayss
appropratey. G. H. D.
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1875 N AN ALLEGED ERR R IN LAPLACE S THE RY
2
Report for 1874 the foowng passage referrng to Lapace s
souton for the semdurna tdes: The resuts show that the form whch the surface of the
sea assumes n ths case dffers ery much from that of a proate
spherod wth ts onger a s n the drecton of the dsturbng
body and that for certan depths of the ocean the tdes at the
e uator are n erted ow water ta ng pace under the attractng
body. or great depths howe er the tdes were found to be
drect n a attudes and e en n the cases n whch they are
n erted at the e uator they were found to be drect toward the
poes and conse uenty there s a attude n such cases where
there are no tdes. Lapace howe er faed to nterpret correcty
n ths case hs own souton so that the numerca resuts whch
he has g en for dfferent assumed depths of the ocean are
erroneous but st the genera resuts ust stated are ready
seen from the souton. Ha ng faed to see the ndetermnate
character of the probem he adopted a snguar and unwarranted
prncpe for determnng the aue of a constant whch s entrey
arbtrary n the case of no frcton but whch anshes n the
case of frcton howe er sma. Ths o ersght of Lapace and
the ndetermnateness of ths constant were subse uenty ponted
out by Ary. The snguar and unwarranted prncpe thus
referred to s n fact an e ustey subte method by whch t
seems Lapace had determned a constant whch s not arbtrary
n any case and whch cannot be more than nfntesmay
modfed by nfntesma frcton. erre further e tends to
Lapace s ntegraton for the durna tde the ob ecton of
ndetermnateness whch Ary had rased ony aganst hs
ntegraton for the semdurna and he foows Ary n an
ntegraton not g en by Lapace for the ong-perod tde
n whch a fase appearance of determnateness strangey nconsstent wth the ndetermnateness asserted of the soutons for
the semdurna and the durna s produced by the nad ertent
omsson of a constant the true aue of whch s to be determned by a proper appcaton of Lapace s method. th these
resuts before me I cannot wat two or three years more for the
second oume of Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy to
defend Lapace s process but must spea out on the sub ect
See an artce n the ne t ctober Number of the Ph. Mag. entted Note
on the scatons of the rst Speces n Lapace s Theory of the Tdes. Infra.
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2 4
THE RY THE TIDES
26
wthout deay and therefore I offer the present artce for
pubcaton n the Phosophca Maga ne regrettng that I dd
not do so ten years earer.
5. To Ary s statement of hs case aganst Lapace uoted n
f beow I premse by way of e panaton:I. The tde-generatng force for the case n ueston the
semdurna tde s such that the e ubrum tde-heght s
represented by the formua
H sn2 0 cos 25 or H 2 cos 20............... 1
where H s a constant 0 s the coattude of the pace or the
cosne of the attude and h the hour-ange of the dsturbng
body whch may be con enenty supposed to consst of moon
and ant-moon two ha es of the moon s mass paced opposte
to one another at dstances e ua to the moon s mean dstance
from the earth n a ne ept aways n a f ed drecton through
the earth s centre and n the pane of the e uator.
II. Instead of H sn2 0 or H 2 n the e ubrum formua
put a so that t becomes a cos 20. Ths e presses the actua tdeheght f a be a functon of the attude fufng o er the whoe
surface the dfferenta e uaton Mec. Ce. L . I . art. 10
d2a da 2
1- 2 - - 2 4- 2 m a -8 2... 2
/ d 2 d a H . 8H 2
where m denotes the rato of centrfuga force to gra ty at the
earth s e uator ts aue beng actuay about m-a r the earth s
radus and y the depth of the sea n the present case assumed
to be unform a o er the earth s surface and but a sma fracton
of the radus.
III. Remar that the perod of the dsturbance thus n estgated s rgorousy haf the perod of the earth s rotaton-that
s to say haf the sderea day. Ths supposton s no doubt
ute a cose enough appro maton for the soar sem-durna
tde but t s certany not practcay cose enough for the
unar sem-durna tde ts perod e ceedng as t does the hafsderea day by about -8 of ts aue.
I . Remar aso that f the earth s rotaton s nfntey
sow m s nfntey sma and the dfferenta e uaton s
satsfed by
a H 2
that s to say agreement wth the e ubrum tde.
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1875 N AN ALLEGED ERR R IN LAPLACE S THE RY
2 5
. Lasty Lapace and Ary assume
a 2 4 4 ... 2 2 2 2 2 2 amp c...
as a souton of the dfferenta e uaton 2 . Then by e uatng
the coeffcent of 2 n the eft-hand member to - 8H ts coeffcent
n the rght and by e uatng to ero the coeffcent of c2 4 for a
aues of from 0 to oo they fnd
-2.4 -8H........................ 4
and 2 2 6 2 4- 2 2 2 2 -- 0... 5
7
for a post e ntegra aues of the case of 0 ustfes
the omsson of 0 n . The frst of these e uatons of
condton g es 2 H. The second f for bre ty we put
nr/y e g es
2 2 2 2- ............ 6
f-2 6 L 2-
and so determnes success ey 0 ... amp c. a n terms
of 2 4. Thus the dfferenta e uaton 2 s satsfed by
wth 2 g en by 4 4 arbtrary and the other coeffcents
g en by 6 .
6. n ths and Lapace s process for competng the souton
Ary art. 111 remar s: The ndetermnateness of 4 s a crcumstance that admts of
ery easy nterpretaton. It s one of the arbtrary constants n
a compete souton of the e uaton. It shows that we may g e
to 4 any aue that we pease e en f H 0 and then
pro ded that we accompany our arbtrary 4 wth the correspondng aues of 6 8 amp c. we sha ha e a seres whch
e presses a aue of at that w satsfy the e uaton when there
s no e terna dsturbng force whate er and whch therefore may
be added mutped by any number to the e presson determned
as correspondng to a g en force. In the ne t secton we sha
fnd se era nstances e acty smar to ths. Yet ths ob ous
ew of the nterpretaton of ths crcumstance appears to ha e
escaped Lapace and he has actuay persuaded hmsef to adopt
G n Ary s notaton L/4r g n Lapace s.
t ga n Ary s notaton aa n Lapace s.
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2 6
THE RY THE TIDES
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the foowng process. Puttng the genera e uaton among the
coeffcents nto the form
2 2 2bm/1
2 2 2 - 2c 2 6 2 4/ 2
he has unwarrantaby conce ed that ths must appy when 1
for the determnaton of 4 and thus appyng the same e uaton
to each uotent of terms whch occurs n the denomnator of the
fracton he fnds
4 2bm/ 2.12 6.1 2bm/ 2. 2 6.2 2bm/
2 2.12 .1- 2.22 .2- 2. 2 . -n an nfnte contnued fracton. And upon ths he founds some
numerca cacuatons adapted to dfferent suppostons of the
depth of the sea. e state as a thng upon whch no person
after e amnaton can ha e any doubt that ths operaton s
entrey unfounded.
7. A carefu e amnaton at the tme when I frst read ths
ed me to the opposte concuson and showed me that Lapace
was perfecty rght. If 2/ 2 anshes when s nfntey
great then 4/ 2 cannot but be e ua to the contnued fracton.
hat then must be the case f 4 has any other aue than that
determned by Lapace 2 2/2 cannot then con erge to ero
for greater and greater aues of . ut uness 2 2/f2 s
nfntey sma when s nfntey great the second term of the
second member of 6 s nfntey sma n comparson wth the
frst and therefore utmatey
2
2 4 - 6 2 2
2 1
or 2 2 2 4 2
-2 2
when s nfntey great. Now ths s precsey the degree of
utmate con ergence of the coeffcents of 2 2 2 amp c. n the
e panson of 1 - 2 2. Hence when s nfntey neary e ua
to unty a s fnte and so aso s 1 - 2 da/d or da/d . Now
ceary at the e uator or when 1 we must ha e da/d 0
because of the symmetry of the dsturbance n the northern and
southern hemspheres n the case proposed for souton by Lapace
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1875 N AN ALLEGED ERR R IN LAPLACE S THE RY 2 7
and Ary. Hence n ths case - S2/ must con erge to ero
and therefore 4 must ha e the aue g en to t by Lapace .
8. Loo now to the degree of con ergence obtaned by
Lapace s e auaton of 4 and erfy that t secures da/d 0
when 0 r-. Put
2 2/ 2 R ........................ 7 .
y ths we ha e
2 4 R . R -. 2
and 6 reso ed for R g es
R /2 .............. 8 .
e h / 2/c 6- R
Hence uness the ratos con erge to unty 8 g es
2e
R 2 when s great............ 9 .
Now Lapace s determnaton of 4 by hs contnued fracton
mpes the determnaton of the ratos by ta ng R 0 for
some ery great aue of and cacuatng
R R - -R -2
by success e appcatons of 8 wth - 1 - 2 ... substtuted
for . Hence t g es to the seres a degree of con ergency
appro matey the same as that of the e panson of e e- n
powers of and such that da/d d2a/d 2 d a/d a ... amp c. are a
fnte for e ery fnte aue of . Hence da/d beng e ua to
/ 1 - 2 da/d s ero when 1.
9. Thus t appears that Lapace s process smpy determnes
4 to fuf the condton that da/d 0 at the e uator. And the
assumed form of souton has the re uste con ergency to
ero when 0 for the poes. Lapace s resut s therefore the
souton of the determnate probem of fndng the tda moton
n an ocean co erng the whoe earth contnuousy from poe to
poe. hate er other moton the sea coud ha e n rtue of any
nta dsturbance cannot e cept for certan crtca depths ha e
the same perod as that of the assumed tde-generatng force.
10. If the sea be precsey of such a depth that some one of
the possbe free bratons n whch the heght of the surface at
any nstant s e pressbe by the formua cos 2- where r
Sr G. Ary s remar s n repy Ph. Mag. ct. 1875 referred specay to
ths pont.
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THE RY THE TIDES
26
denotes ongtude and some functon of the attude ha ng the
same aue for e ua north and south attudes has ts perod
e ua to that of the tde-generatng nfuence t s easy seen
that the souton of the dfferenta e uaton 2 g es an nfntey
great aue to a. It s ony when the depth has one of these
crtca aues that the arbtrary soutons ntroduced by Ary and
adopted by erre are appcabe to an ocean co erng the whoe
earth contnuousy.
11. Yet Lapace hmsef fe nto the same error of magnng
that the genera ntegraton of the dfferenta e uaton 2 wth
the proper arbtrary constants ncudes oscatons dependng
on the prmt e state of the sea as the foowng passage L . I .
chap. I. art. 4 shows: L ntegraton de e uaton 4 dans e cas genera ou n n est
pas nu et o a mer a une profondeur arabe surpasse es
forces de anayse mas pour determner es oscatons de
ocean n est pas necessare de ntegrer generaement
sufft d y satsfare car est car ue a parte des oscatons
u depend de 6tat prmtf de a mer a du bent6t dsparatre
par es resstances de tout genre ue es eau de a mer eprou ent dans eurs mou emens en sorte ue sans acton du soe
et de a une a mer serat depus ongtemps par enue a un etat
permanent d e ubre: acton de ces deu astres en ecarte
sans cesse et nous sufft de connatre es oscatons u en
dependent.
Lapace howe er dd not suffer hmsef to be ed nto wrong
acton by ths msconcepton and he seems to ha e entrey forgotten t when he goes drect to the rght resut wthout note or
comment by the truy snguar process referred to abo e.
12. n the other hand Ary after ha ng n the passage
uoted n 6 abo e aowed the same msconcepton to fatay
nfuence hs practca deang wth the souton coses wth a
perfecty correct statement whch s suffcent to show the groundessness of hs ob ecton to Lapace s resut and the untenabty
of what he substtutes for t. Ths passage has not ony the
mert of nconsstency wth the artce whch precedes t but t
aso consttutes a ery decded ad ance n the theory beyond
A genera e uaton of whch e uaton 2 of our numberng abo e s a
partcuar case.
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1875 N AN ALLEGED ERR R IN LAPLACE S THE RY
2 9
any thng that Lapace ether dd or suggested and for both
reasons I am gad to uote t. Ary Tdes and a es art.
11 . If usng the more compete aues of a that we ha e
ust found we proceed to form the aues of a b and u we fnd
that ta w contan a seres of terms mutped by the ndetermnate 4. e may determne 4 so that for a g en aue of
0 u sha 0 that s to say so that n a g en attude the
water sha ha e no north-and-south moton. e mght therefore suppose an east-and-west barrer foowng a parae of
attude to be erected n the sea and the n estgaton woud st
appy. Thus then we ha e a compete souton for a sea whch
s bounded by a shore whose course s east and west.
1 . Now n fact Lapace s process by the contnued fracton
s a partcuar case of the determnaton of 4 thus suggested by
Ary though one for whch Ary s method fas through noncon ergence that s to say the case n whch the proposed eastand-west barrer concdes wth the e uator. or as we ha e
seen 8 Lapace s determnaton ma es da/d 0 when 0 7
and therefore ma es the north-and-south moton ero at the
e uator as s ob ous from symmetry or as we see from the
genera e presson Lapace L . I . art. or Ary arts. 85
95
1 da 2 cos 0 H 0
u 4 dsn d 0 a-4 sn 0 cos 0 cos 2... 10
4m sn2 0d0 sn 0
for the southward component of the dspacement of the water
by the semdurna tde.
14. y 7 abo e we see that Lapace s souton wth 4
eft arbtrary s con ergent for a aues of t 1. Therefore
t s contnuousy con ergent for a aues of 0 t Tr. Hence
Ary s artce 11 wth the formuae whch he g es n hs
artce 112 or e uatons and 4 5 and 10 of 5 and 1
abo e consttute a compete and con ergent numerca souton
of the probem of fndng the sem-durna tde n a poar basn
or ocean contnuous and e uay deep from ether poe to a shore
yng aong any crce of attude on the near sde of the e uator.
Lapace s resut as we ha e seen does the same for a hemspherca sea from poe to e uator. ut for a sea e tendng from
ether poe to a coast concdng wth a crce of attude beyond
Ths denotes the merdona component of the dspacement of the water n
any part of the sea.
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240
THE RY THE TIDES
26
the e uator another form of souton st howe er wth but
one arbtrary constant must be sought because Lapace s
form of 5 abo e ceasng to con erge when or the
sne of the poar dstance 0 ncreases up to unty fas to pro de
for the contnuous araton of 0 from ero to any aue e ceedng
27r. And further the method suggested by Ary when e tended
to a compete souton of the dfferenta e uaton wth ts two
arbtrary constantst competey so es the probem of fndng the
semdurna tde n a ona sea of e ua depth between coasts
concdng wth any two paraes of attude.
15. Returnng to Lapace s souton for the whoe earth
co ered wth water we fnd n the Mecan ue Ceeste the numerca
resuts referred to by Ary but not uoted because of the supposed
error n the process by whch they were obtaned . They are of
e ceedngy great nterest when we now them to be correct
and n the crcumstances I may be permtted to uote them
here. They are obtaned by wor ng out numercay the process
ndcated n 5 and 6 abo e for three dfferent depths of the sea
1/2890 1/722 5 1/ 61-25 of the earth s radus. The aues of e
or mr/y correspondng to these depths are 10 2-5 1-25 respect ey and Lapace fnds for the souton 5 n the three
cases as foows: e 10 a H 1-0000. 2 20-1862. 4 10-1164. 6
- 1 -1047. 8 - 15-4488. 10 - 7 4581. 12
- 21975. 14 - 04501. 16 - 0-0687. 8
- 0-0082. 20 - 00008. 22 - 0-0001. 24
e 2-5 a H 1-0000. 2 6-1960. 4 -2474. 6
0-72 8. 8 0-0919. 0-0076. 12
00004. 4
e 1-25 a H 1-0000. 2 0-7504. 4 0-1566. 6
0-01574. 8 0-0009. .
It s to be found by usng Lapace s frst dfferenta e uaton the one from
whch he der es 2 of 5 abo e by puttng 1 - /u2 2 L . . art 10
d2 a
1 - /2 2 -2 1 /2 -2e 1 - E/2 2 a -- 8H 1 _- /2
and satsfyng t by the assumpton
a -Ao A/ - A 22 amp c.
whch howe er s a compete souton wth two arbtrary constants to be reduced
to one by the proper condton to ma e u 0 at one poe say when 1 .
t The genera souton ndcated n the precedng footnote suffces for ths
purpose.
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1875 N AN ALLEGED ERR R IN LAPLACE S THE RY
241
y puttng 0 n each case we fnd a 0 showng that there
s no rse and fa at the poes. Puttng 1 we fnd n the three
cases
a - 74 4. H... depth 1/2890 of radus
a 11 267.... 1/722 5
a 1-924. H.. 1/ 61-25 .
The negat e sgn n the frst case shows that the tde s n erted
at the e uator or there s ow water when the dsturbng body
s on the merdan and hgh water when t s rsng or settng.
or sma aues of that s to say for poar regons the sgn s
post e and therefore the tdes are drect for ths as ceary for
e ery other depth because n e ery case the frst term s H 2 .
In the partcuar case n ueston depth 1/2890 as we see from
the formua g en abo e the aue of a ncreases from ero to a
post e ma mum and then decreases to the negat e aue stated
abo e as s ncreased from 0 to 1 and the ntermedate aue
of whch ma es t 0 s roughy -95 or the cosne of 18 . Hence
Lapace concudes the tdes are n erted n the whoe one between
the paraes of 18 north and south attude whe throughout
the regons north and south of these attudes the tdes are drect.
The formuae g en abo e for the second and thrd of the depths
chosen by Lapace show that n these cases the tdes are e erywhere drect and ncrease contnuousy from poes to e uator.
The resuts of the summaton for the e uatora tde n the
three cases g en abo e are ery nterestng as showng how much
greater t s n each case than H the e ubrum heght . pon
ths Lapace remar s that for st greater depths the aue of a
dmnshes but ths dmnuton has a mt namey the e ubrum aue whch t soon appro matey reaches. To fnd what
s meant by soon bent6t ta e the case of e or depth
1/72-25 of the radus. or a rough appro maton to R ta e
R 0 and use formua 9 8 wth . Thus we ha e
R 1/54.
Then by success e appcatons of 8 wth 2 and 1 we
fnd
R2 0 67 and R -104.
Hence n ths case we ha e roughy
a H 2 104. 4 104. 0 67. 6 104. -0 67. 0185 8
H 2 104. 4 -00 82. 6 -000071 8
. I . 16
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242
THE RY THE TIDES
26
whch shows that when the depth s about a se enteth of the
radus the actua amount of e uatora tde e ceeds the e ubrum
amount by neary ee en per cent.
16. rom the frst and second of Lapace s numerca formuae
for a g en abo e 15 we may nfer that when e s ncreased
from 2 5 contnuousy to 10 the aue of a for any aue of
must ncrease contnuousy to o then suddeny become - o
and ncrease contnuousy from that t t has the aue g en by
the formua for e 10. hen e has a aue e ceedng by howe er
sma a dfference the aue whch ma es a oc the aue of a
for ery sma aues of s post e and dmnshes through 0 to
ery arge negat e aues as s ncreased to 1 that s to say
there are nodes concdng wth two ery sma crces of attude
one round each poe drect tdes wthn these crces and ery
great n erted tdes round the rest of the earth. As e s ncreased
contnuousy from ths frst crtca aue the noda crces e pand
unt as seen abo e when e 10 they concde appro matey
wth 18 North and South attude. rom the greatness of the
coeffcent of 4 n Lapace s resut for ths case we may udge that
e cannot be ncreased much abo e 10 wthout reachng a second
crtca aue for whch the coeffcent of 4 after ncreasng to
o suddeny becomes -oo. It s probabe that the noda
crces do not get much nearer the e uator than 18 North and
South before ths crtca aue s reached. hen e s ncreased
abo e t a second par of noda crces commence at the two
poes spreadng outwards and gettng nearer to the former par
of noda crces whch themse es are gettng nearer and nearer
to the e uator. Then there are drect tdes n the e uatora
bet n erted tdes n the ones between the noda paraes of
attude n each hemsphere and drect tdes n the north and
south poar areas beyond. Ths s the state of thngs for any
aue of e greater than the second crtca aue ust consdered
and ess than a thrd. hen e s ncreased through ths thrd
crtca aue a thrd par of noda crces grows out from the
poes and there are n erted tdes at the e uator drect tdes
n the one between the noda crces of the frst and second par
n erted tdes n the ones between the second and thrd noda
crces of each hemsphere and st as n e ery case drect tdes
n the areas round the poes a fourth crtca aue of e ntroduces
a fourth par of noda crces and so on.
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1875 N AN ALLEGED ERR R IN LAPLACE S THE RY
24
17. The crtca aues of e whch we ha e ust been consderng are of course those correspondng to depths for whch free
bratons of the se era types descrbed are symperodc wth the
dsturbng force and the free oscatons wthout dsturbng force
are n these cases e pressed by the formua of 5 wth 0
-that s to say by
a 4 6 6 s 8 amp c.
where 6 amp c. are to be found by g ng an arbtrary aue
to any one of them and determnng the ratos R1 R2 amp c. by
success e appcatons of Lapace s formua
R / 2 R ... 8 of
wth dmnshng aues of commencng wth a aue correspondng to the hghest rato to-be used n cacuatng coeffcents
n the seres. If we thus fnd R -a the ne t appcaton of
the formua g es R oo whch s the test that the aue of e
used n the cacuaton corresponds to a depth for whch the perod
of one of the free oscatons s e acty haf the earth s perod of
rotaton.
18. The cacuaton of the ratos R R R s an e ceedngy
curous and nterestng sub ect of pure mathematcs or arthmetc.
rst remar the rapd e tncton of the error resutng from
ta ng 0 or any other than ts true aue for R n the frst
appcaton of the formua 8 . Supposng to be so arge that
e/ s a sma fracton we now that ths s somewhat
appro matey the aue of R and that e/ 1 4 s st
more appro matey the aue of R . Hence we see at once
how sma the error s f we ta e 0 nstead of R . If we ta e
co for R the formua g es 0 for R and then rapd con ergence to the true aues of R - R -2 amp c. If we ta e R
2/
e acty e ua to 2 6 we get R oo R _ 0 and then rapd
con ergence to the true aues for R amp c. ut f we ta e for
R a aue ess than 2 by a certan ery sma dfference
2 / 6
we fnd for R a aue ess than 2 by a correspondng ery
2 - 1
sma dfference and then for R a aue ess than - by a
16-2
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244 THE RY THE TIDES 26
correspondng sma dfference and so on. Any aue of R
e cept precsey the one partcuar aue ast ndcated w
pro ded be arge enough ead to the desred aues of the
ower ratos after the two three four or more success e appcatons of the formua re ured to dsspate the effects of the
nta error. It s a curous and nstruct e arthmetca e ercse
to cacuate R R -1 and so on down to R and then by success e
re erse appcatons of the formua to cacuate R2 R ... R - R .
If the cacuaton has been rgorous of course the nta aue of
R w be that found at the end of the process but f the cacuaton has been appro mate say wth aways the same number
of sgnfcant fgures retaned n each step the aue found for
2 -I1
R w be not the nta aue but 2 or more appro matey
2 e
2 4 _ - 1 A 2 And f we choose for RI any other aue
2 4 - 1 2
than precsey that obtaned by an nfntey accurate appcaton
of Lapace s process then wor up by success e re erse appcatons of the formua we fnd for R a aue appro matey e ua
to 2 Lapace has not warned us of ths on the contrary
to 2 L
hs nstructons teray foowed woud ead us smpy to cacuate
by hs contnued fracton and then to cacuate 6 s amp c.
success ey from 2 and 4 by success e appcatons of the
Compare wth the cacuaton of the formua
1
2a - _
where a denotes any numerca uantty gt 1. Ta e any aue at random for r0
and cacuate r 2 r ... by success e appcatons of the formua. or arger
and arger aues of r w be found more and more neary e ua to the smaer
root of the e uaton
2 - 2a 1 .
Now cacuate bac wards to r0 by the re ersed formua
r_ 2a- 1/r
and nstead of fndng the nta aue of ro agan the resut uness the cacuaton
has been rgorousy accurate n e ery step w be appro matey the greater root
of the uadratc or appro matey e ua to 1/r. Thus for e ampe ta e the
e uaton
2- 6 1 0
of whch the roots are
17157 and 5-828427.
To fnd success e appro matons to the smaer root ta e
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1875 N AN ALLEGED ERR R IN LAPLACE S THE RY
245
formua 6 of 5. Ths e cept wth nfntey rgorous arthmetc
w brng out for ery arge aues of not the true rapdy
dmnshng aues of the coeffcents 2 2 2 amp c. but suggshy
2 1
con ergng aues correspondng to the rato R 2 - 4. ut
ths dsspaton of accuracy s a oded and at the same tme the
abour of the process s much dmnshed by usng for the ratos
the aues aready found for them n the success e steps n the
cacuaton of the contnued fracton for R.
19. The aw of araton of R1 R2 amp c. consdered as functons
of e 8 s of fundamenta mportance. Some of the remar abe
characterstcs whch t presents ha e been aready notced 15
-17 . Remar now that as e whch s essentay post e n
the actua probem s ncreased from 0 to oo each of the ratos
R1R R12 ...R R ... ncreases from ero each one more rapdy
than the ne t n ascendng order unt RI becomes oo and
suddeny changes to - oo and agan goes on ncreasng t t
agan reaches oo and suddeny - o and so on. ut before R
becomes oo the second tme R2 becomes oo -oo and agan
ncreases towards oo. The same hods for each of the other
ratos that s to say as e ncreases contnuousy each one of the
o-0 0 r o 6 5-8284
1 1
-1 1667 r 6 - 5.8284
6 - 0 6 2
2 - 1714 2 6- 1- 58277
7 62 -- 7 -- 1
1 1
r .1716 6 580
6 - 2 4
1 1
46 1716 r 4 6 - - 5067
1 1
r5 1716 56 -r-1072
r6 6 1716 6 - 2029
6 - r 7
1 1
r7 1716 r 76 1725
6-7r6 7 8
1 _
- r- 1716 r 8 1716.
6 - r7
If the arthmetc at each step had been rgorous we shoud ha e found r7 r7 6 r6 and so on Instead of comng bac on the aue 0 assumed for ro we fnd
-o 5.8284 the greater root of the e uaton
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THE RY THE TIDES
26
ratos s aways ncreasng e cept when ts aue reaches oo and
passes suddeny to - o. The order n whch the aues of the
dfferent ratos pass through cc s a sub ect of great nterest and
mportance whch re ures carefu e amnaton. I hope to return
to t and meantme ony remar that the formua 8 for cacuatng
R from R shows: 1 That no two consecut e ratos can be smutaneousy
negat e.
2 he R ncreases from - oo to 0 R ncreases from 0
to a aue somewhat but ery sghty greater than e/ and
2
goes on ncreasng t t reaches oo when R 2 .
gt 2
hen R s gt 2 and therefore when R gt 1 R
s negat e.
rom 1 t foows that n the seres of coeffcents
2 4 6 ...
there cannot be two consecut e changes of sgn. rom 2 t
foows that each coeffcent s ess n absoute aue than ts
predecessor f of the same sgn e cept when the predecessor s
of opposte sgn to the coeffcent precedng t and of two coeffcents mmedatey foowng a change of sgn the second may
be ess than the frst but f so ony by a ery sma proporton of
the aue of ether but through neary the whoe range of aues
of e for whch there s a change of sgn from say to 1
2 s gt n absoute aue. or ustraton of ths see
Lapace s seres abo e for hs case of e 10 for whch he g es
2 1 4 20-1862 10-1164 8 -1 -1047
0 - 15-4488 12 - 74581 14 - 2-1975... amp c.
20. Lapace s brant n enton whch forms the sub ect of
ths artce s capabe of great e tenson as I hope to show n
a future communcaton. I ha e not htherto found any trace
of t n treatses on dfferenta e uatons but I can scarcey
thn t probabe that n some form or other t s not nown to
mathematcans who ha e occuped themse es wth ths sub ect.
nown or un nown t s of e ceedng aue and beauty as a
purey mathematca method. As to Lapace s Dynamca Theory
of Tdes n genera I ha e much peasure n concudng wth
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1875 N AN ALLEGED ERR R IN LAPLACE S THE RY
247
a warmy apprecat e statement by Ary whch I fnd n hs
Tdes and a es art. 117 .
If now puttng from our thoughts the detas of the n estgaton we consder ts genera pan and ob ects we must aow
t to be one of the most spendd wor s of the greatest mathematcan of the past age. To apprecate ths the reader must
consder frst the bodness of the wrter who ha ng a cear
understandng of the gross mperfecton of the methods of hs
predecessors had aso the courage deberatey to ta e up the
probem on grounds fundamentay correct howe er t mght be
mted by suppostons afterwards ntroduced secondy the
genera dffcuty of treatng the motons of fuds thrdy the
pecuar dffcuty of treatng the motons when the fuds co er
an area whch s not pane but con e and fourthy the sagacty
of perce ng that t was necessary to consder the earth as a
re o ng body and the s of correcty ntroducng ths consderaton. The ast pont aone n our opnon g es a greater
cam for reputaton than the boasted e panaton of the ong
ne uaty of upter and Saturn.
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248
27
27. N TE N THE SCILLATI NS THE IRST SPECIES IN
LAPLACE S THE RY THE TIDES.
rom the Phosophca Maga ne L. 1875 pp. 279-284.
LAPLACE S scatons of the rst Speces are smpe harmonc oscatons n whch the surface of the water s aways a
fgure of re outon round the a s of rotaton. The tde-generatng
nfuence n ths case s such that the e ubrum tde-heght
woud be cos at at tme t a denotng a constant caed the
speed n the rtsh-Assocaton Tda Commttee s Report for
1871 and a functon of the attude. beng supposed nown
the probem conssts n fndng a a functon of the attude such
that a cos at s the actua tde-heght at tme t and for the
case of the sea e uay deep e erywhere t s to be so ed by
fndng the proper souton of the dfferenta e uaton
d 1- 2 da d _ _
d -y/2_ f2 d - 4ea 4e............... 1
d 2 _L - f2 d/
where / denotes the sne of the attude and e and f are constants
defned by the e uatons
n2 r2 __ mr
f 2n e g 7
r beng the earth s radus
g the force of gra ty at ts surface
m the rato of gra ty to e uatora centrfuga force beng
e ua to 1/289
n the anguar eocty of the earth s rotaton
and y the depth of the sea supposed sma n comparson
wth r-not greater say than r/50.
The uc est of the scatons of the rst Speces s the
unar fortnghty decnatona and for t a s about 1/14 of n
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1875 LAPLACE S SCILLATI NS THE IRST SPECIES 249
whch ma es f 1/28. E en for ths and more decdedy for the
unar monthy eptc and soar sem-annua decnatona and
annua eptc a good appro maton to the resut mght be
obtaned by ta ng a 0. Lapace does not enter on the ntegraton of the e uaton but contents hmsef by pontng out that
an nfntesma degree of frcton w when 0 cause the
actua tde-heght to be the same as the e ubrum tde-heght
and that e en for the unar fortnghty the actua heght must be
sensby the same as the e ubrum heght f there s enough
of frcton to reduce n a fortnght a free oscaton to a sma
fracton of ts orgna amount. The resut of any tde-generatng
nfuence of suffcenty ong perod woud ob ousy be more and
more neary n e act agreement wth the e ubrum theory the
onger the perod were t not for the earth s rotaton. ut
because of the earth s rotaton a ong-perod tde does not
appro mate to agreement wth the e ubrum tde f the water
be perfecty frctoness and the souton of the beautfu orte
probem thus presented s what s amed at by Ary and
erret n ther ntegraton of the precedng e uaton for the
case a 0 n whch t s reduced to the comparat ey smpe
form
- - - d- - 4ea - 4e............... 2
do m2 d
Tdes and a es Encycopceda Metropotana art. 97 .
Tda Researches Append to nted States Coast-Sur ey Report 1874
151.
Note added rsto September 2 1875. - thout ths smpfcaton the
e uaton 1 s susceptbe of neary as smpe a souton as wth t. Assume
1 da
A2 f2 dd Y g
Ths g es a s s - f 2
and -1 - -2 da
and d 1 2 da _ M 1 - -1
d u A u -f d / 2
so that to determne the coeffcents we ha e the e uaton of condton
p2 4e2 f-._ 4e
- 1- - _ 4e0
f e .
Ths s a partcuar case of an amost e uaysmpe souton of Lapace s genera
e uaton of the Tdes whch has been communcated to the rtsh Assocaton at
ts meetng now concuded and w be pubshed nfra p. 254 aso n the No ember
Number of the Phosophca Maga ne.
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250
THE RY THE TIDES
27
whch substantay agrees wth Ary s e uaton of art. 97 wth
0 to ma e the depth constant as we now suppose t and wth
erre s 151 e uaton 288 but s smper n form party
through the use of Lapace s notaton p for cos 0 . or each of
the ong-perod tdes n the actua case of the earth under the
nfuence of the sun and moon the functon e s g en by the
formua
H 1 - 2 ........................
where H denotes the e ubrum aue of the tde-heght at the
e uator. Ary wth ths aue of fnds an ntegra of the
dfferenta e uaton by assumng
a 2 2 4PA4 ... amp c.
and determnng the coeffcents so as to satsfy t. ut ths
assumpton errs n ma ng the tde-heght at the e uator e ua
to the e ubrum heght. The correct assumpton for the partcuar probem proposed or for any case n whch n o es
ony e en powers of L s
a 2L2 4 4 ... amp c.
but the more genera assumpton
a o 2 ... amp c............. 4
s as easy deat wth and ncudes oscatons n whch the
e uator s a ne of nodes . th t we ha e
d 1 - /2 da - 4ea 4 1 4
arp_. p2 d -
- 2 1 2 - 4e
whch s to be e uated to 4e0. Thus for the case of
H 1 - p2
we fnd by puttng - 2 0 2 amp c.:2. - 1 . 2 0
4.1. 4-2.1. 2-4e 4eH............. 5
6. . 6- 4. . 4- 4e 2 - 12eH
and 4 1 4 - 2 1 - 4e 0... 6
for a e en post e aues of e cept 0 and 2.
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1875 LAPLACE S SCILLATI NS THE IRST SPECIES 251
The frst of e uatons 5 g es 0 and wth ths the
second and thrd g e
4 e o H e ............... 7
and f n 6 we put success ey 4 6 8 ... and use n
ths order the e uatons so found we can cacuate success ey
by means of them s o0 12 ... each n terms of and we
thus ha e a souton of 2 wth one arbtrary constant 0 whch
may be wrtten thus
a H.f e o. e ............... 8
where f g e denotes the functon of u and e e pressed by the
seres 4 wth the coeffcents cacuated for the case 0 and
H 1 and / e the functon smary found by ta ng H 0
and o 1.
The constant 0 as Ary has ponted out Tdes and a es
art. 11 wth reference to a correspondng ueston n the
souton for sem-durna tdes may be assgned so as to ma e the
north and south component moton of the water ero n a g en
attude. In the present case that s the case of symmetry round
the a s of rotaton we ha e Ary art. 95 or Lapace L . I .
chap. . art.
cos at da
northward dspacement of water 4 / 1t -da ... 9
and therefore to ma e the north and south moton ero we must
ha e
da /d 0........................ 10
whence by 8
o df e /d e
H d T / d - 11 .
H -- da / d/...............
If then we fnd o by ths e uaton for any g en aue of u we
ha e a souton of the determnate probem of fndng the moton
of the water under the g en tde-generatng nfuence when
nstead of co erng the whoe earth the sea co ers ony an e uatora bet between two e ua crcuar poar sands.
The souton thus obtaned s n a seres essentay con ergent
e cept n the e treme case of the poar sands anshng. or
ta ng the e uatons 6 n the order ndcated abo e and so
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252 THE RY THE TIDES 27
cacuatng 4 success ey from smaer to greater aues of
by the formua
2 4e
- 2............ 12
4 4 1 12
we ne taby fnd for greater and greater aues of
4 2
4 4 more and more neary the greater s ... 1
and ths whate er aue ero or other we g e to o uness we
g e t precsey the aue found by Lapace s method beow and
then perform each step of the cacuaton wth nfnte accuracy .
Hence whate er be the aue of e the seres e pressng the souton
con erges for e ery aue of A t 1. Thus the souton s thoroughy
satsfactory for the supposed case of two e ua poar sands of any
fnte magntude. ut the utmate con ergence s shown by 1
to be the same as that of the seres .2 .4 .22
... ...
1 2
whch s e ua to og 1- 2
Hence when 1 1 the seres for a becomes nfntey great and
d fortor t g es an nfntey great aue for da /da uness t
has been cacuated for precsey the partcuar aue of o sought.
Hence e uaton 11 fas to determne ths aue. Thus the
souton fas for the ery case for whch t was sought the case
proposed orgnay by Lapace and ta en by Ary and erre as
the sub ect of ther n estgaton-that s the case of the whoe
earth co ered wth water. Here Lapace s brant process referred
to n an artce n the precedng Number of the Phosophca
Maga ne comes to our ad mar eousy.
-1
Let NE........................ 14 .
e ha e by 6
I 4 I 2 2 4 1 ..... 1
rom ths e uaton apped to any moderatey great e en aue
of greater or ess great accordng to the degree of appro maton
re ured ta ng N 2 o cacuate N and then by success e
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1875 LAPLACE S SCILLATI NS THE IRST SPECIES 25
appcatons N2 N-4...N6 N4 success ey. E uatons 7
wth
4 - N4 6........................ 16
then g e
H 2N4H 2H
- 2N - 4 e 2N 2A7. 7
Thus fnay the souton s
2eH pN 4 6 A
2N4 2e N6 N6. N8
we amp Cdetermnd 18
w e N6 0 ....N
where N4 N N ... are functons of e determned by 15 .
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254 28
28. GENERAL INTEGRATI N LAPLACE S DI ERENTIAL
E ATI N THE TIDES.
rom the Phosophca Maga ne L. 1875 pp. 88-402.
1. LAPLACE consders the ocean as a rotatng mass of frctoness ncompressbe ud co erng a rotatng rgd spherod to a
depth e erywhere nfntey sma n proporton to the radus and
n estgates ts oscatons under the nfuence of perodc dsturbng forces wth the mtaton that the rse and fa s nowhere
more than an nfntey sma fracton of the depth the condton
that the mean anguar eocty of e ery part of the ud s the
same as that of the sod and the assumpton that the dstance
from summt to summt of the dsturbed water-surface s nowhere
ess than a arge mutpe of the depth. Ths ast assumpton s
though not e pcty stated by Lapace mped n and s rtuay
e u aent to hs assumptons Mecan ue Ceeste L re I. No. 6
that the ertca moton of the water s sma n comparson wth
ts hor onta moton and that the hor onta moton s sensby
the same for a depths.
2. Let now h be the ee aton of the water-surface abo e
mean e e and 4 and D sn 0 the southward and eastward hor onta component dspacements of the water at tme t and at the
pace whose north attude s Tr - 0 or north-poar dstance 0
and east ongtude p. The e uaton of contnuty M ec. d.
L . I. No. 6 or Ary Tdes and a es Encycopceda Metropotana art. 72 s
d ry y cos 0 d yr
d sn d ...............
or d 7y sn d yE . 1 bs
or .d d h ............ 1 6
sma dff d r
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1875 GENERAL INTEGRATI N LAPLACE S E ATI N
255
where y denotes the rato of the depth of the sea to the earth s
radus. And the dynamca e uatons Mec. Ce. L . I. No. 6 M
Ary 87 are
d2 2n sn 0 cos 0 d gd h-e
dt2 n dt r2 d
n d2d _ d g d h- e 2
sn2 0 2n sn 0 cos d 2
dt2 dt r2 dr
where r denotes the earth s radus n the anguar eocty of ts
rotaton g the force of gra ty at ts surface and e the e ubrum tde-heght at tme t and co-attude and ongtude 0
and 4 that s to say Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy
805 the heght at whch the water woud stand abo e the mean
e e f t were so paced at rest reat ey to the rotatng sod
that t woud reman at rest f the dsturbng force were ept
constanty what t s n reaty at tme t.
. Lapace remar s that the genera ntegraton of these
e uatons presents great dffcutes and he confnes hmsef to
a ery e tens e case that n whch y s a functon of attude
smpy and s the same n a ongtudes. In ths case the
compete ntegraton s to be effected by assumng
h H1 cos at sf
a cos at s .....................
b sn at s
pro ded the dsturbng force s such that
e E cos at sr ..................... 4
where H a b E are functons of the attude of whch E s g en
and H a b are to be found by ntegraton of the e uatons. th
ths assumpton 1 bs and 2 g e
d ya sn b
ds sn d syb H- 0................. 5
sn8d
2a a 2n sn cos.bgd H E
a2a 2n- sn0 cos.b . dE-Er d
cos9 gs H-E . 6
2 cos 0 g s H- E ......
02b 2na n- a s
sn r 0. sn2 0 I
Puttng n these
H -E ........................... 7
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256
THE RY THE TIDES
28
we fnd
du 2ns cos 6
- - u
_g d a- sn
raa2 - 4n2 cos2 0
2n cos 0 du. s...
g o- sn 0 d sn2 0
r r2 - 4n2 cos2 8
and then emnatng a b H from 5 by 7 and 8
/. 0d 2n
r sn 0 d- s- 2cos u
- g d ys d d -c
r tsn d o-2 - 4n2 cos2 0
/2n cos 0 du su
a sn 0 d sn2
0-a2 - 42 C S2 0
Ths s Lapace s dfferenta e uaton of the tdes Mecan ue
Ceeste L . I . No. e uaton 4 or Ary Tdes and
a es Encycopceda Metropotana art. 95 . It s a near
dfferenta e uaton of the second order the compete ntegraton
of whch g es u and thence by 8 a and b n terms of 0 wth
two arbtrary constants to be determned so as to fuf proper
termna condtons 11-17 beow . It s essentay n the
form n whch Ary ga e t beng that n whch t comes drect
from the formuae precedng t n the n estgaton. It orgnay
appeared n the Me can ue Ceeste mas ed somewhat by the addton
and subtracton of a certan term whch g es t a dfferent form
not seemng at frst sght better or smper but ths as t were
caprcous modfcaton suggests the foowng ery substanta
smpfcaton.
2ns 2ns
4. Put sn 0 u and sn 60 E ......... 10
then we ha e
2ns
g sn d
rLsn2 - 42 C S2 0
b - sn
2n sd t - 11
rs 0 a2 - 4n2 C S2 0 a2 sn2 0
If wth Lapace we put cos 0 /L and for bre ty
n2r7g m and o-/2n f............... 12
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1875 THE GENERAL INTEGRATI N LAPLACE S E ATI N 257
these e uatons 11 become
df
1 - 1 dp
a I sn 6 f p
4m f 2 - 2
1...... 1 .
1 dA S
b:- sn f fn s
yf2 /2 2sn2
4 1 / - 1f L f2 I
sng these nstead of 8 n the process by whch 9 was found
abo e and mutpyng the resutng e uaton by 4m sn sf 2
we fnd
2 2 d y d- d 2 - 1 2- do
1 - 2 2 dyd 2 S y 12d
/d/d 2 a L f 2 -fL2 d u
f- 4m -L 4m 1 -L2 4 ... 14 .
5. To ntegrate ths ta e frst the case of 0 free oscatons and assume
1- d o- p ... I amp c........ 15 .
f / - / da/
Ths g es
C 1f2 o f 2 f2 2- o ..
_ f _ - _ amp c.... 6
where C denotes a constant of ntegraton. Now et o denote a
symbo of operaton such that
_1 or generay w - 1 ... 17
beng any functon of . y ad of ths notaton we may
wrte 16 short thus
E 2_ f- 2 w .................. 18
understandng that when 0
f - _.......C 19
and that 0 for a negat e aues of ............ 20 .
. I . 17
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258
THE RY THE TIDES
28
Let now 7y denote a symbo of operaton obtaned by
puttng r for / n y whch be t remembered s a functon
of u . Then from 18 we ha e
ga- 27 4 m - 2 : / u -f 4m 1 - 2 I ... 21 .
Gong bac to 15 we ha e y /. 1 - t 2 d
7 _ - - p d Yo a w r - 2 ......... 22
f - d /
dd- d 1 1 -1 7 ......... 2
and
2 1 L 2 d f2_ 2 d
E 1 - w2 2 1 -17
/ 1 - 22 4 1 - y P
E 1 - 2 - 1 2 - w4 -1 y
P 1 - w2 2 1 2 2 - 4 w-17 w
1 - 2 1 M2 1 - 2 .-17
h 1 - 2 1 2 I - _2 7 w ... 24 .
Lasty usng 24 22 and 21 n 14 and e uatng to ero
the coeffcent of t we ha e
1 - 1 2 1 - 2
- L 4m 1- _ 2 f2 _- 2 ... 25 .
y g ng success ey n ths formua a ntegra aues from
- o to 0 and co and attendng to 19 and 20 we ha e a
successon of e uatons whch success ey determne 1 2
amp c. n terms of the arbtrares C and 0 and usng the aues
found n 16 we ha e the compete souton sought.
6. Lapace ta es y 1 1 - /2
where I and are constants so that the bottom and the undsturbed free surface of the water may be both eptc spherods
of re outon. th ths or any other ratona ntegra functon
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1875 THE GENERAL INTEGRATI N LAPLACE S E ATI N 259
of p for y there s no dffcuty n de eopng 7 beow the
frst member of 25 and wor ng out a practca souton of the
probem. Lapace s most nterestng and nstruct e resuts
howe er are confned to the case of an ocean of unform depth
for whch n hs notaton 0 or y constant . Ta ng ths
case frst puttng
4m/7 a........................... 26
and e pandng the frst member of 25 we ha e
2s 82 f _
f
1 -2 - 4 f I2_18 9- t / - -- _- 27 .
or a negat e aues of up to - 2 ths e uaton s an dentty
n rtue of 20 and for - 1 t becomes
0................... 28
and ea es o arbtrary. or 0 t becomes n rtue of 19
and 20
82 _ af2
1 -- - C 0.................... 29
for 1 n rtue of 20
2 -2 - 2 -s2 af o 0............ 0
and for 2 n rtue of 19
-4 f 2- s2-aIf 1-aC 0...... 1 .
Then drecty for 4 etc.
4 -6 2s - - 2
f
5 5 -8 -
2s s2 -of_ 0
2- 7 - /2 af
2 -...... 2
2s S2- _ C f 2 0
- 4f2 2 1 17-2
17-2
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260
THE RY THE TIDES
28
arr -o 2sf S2 _ af2 af 2
61 6 - y as
4- s 2 _ af 2
f 6f
71 7 -12 2s S2 f2 .......
2 - s -2 - 2 f 2
818 14 - 7 f2 6
6-
6- s- f2 af 5 a
and so on.
f these e uatons 29 1 the second of 2 the second
of and e ery second e uaton thenceforward determne
success ey 1 1 7 and so forth a n terms of the
arbtrary C and 0 the frst of 2 the frst and thrd of
determne success ey 2 6 amp c. n terms of the arbtrary .
7. Returnng now to the more genera supposton of the
depth aryng wth the attude we may assume wthout
practcay restrctng the probem further
0yo Y/ y2L2 .. 2 7n / 1............ 4
Yo Y1 ... Ya beng g en constants. Ths ma es
Y ry Y -I Y12 -2 .. 7Yn -... 5 .
sng ths n 25 and proceedng precsey as n 6 we fnd
12 1 4 5 amp c. each n terms of two arbtrares C and
0-uness y contans ony e en powers of 1. n whch case as
n that of unform depth 6 we fnd 1 5 ... n terms
of one arbtrary C aone and 2 14 ... n terms of the
other arbtrary aone. The -frst two of the e uatons by
whch ths s done those namey whch correspond to 29 and
0 beng found by puttng 0 and 1 n 25 are
4 0Y1o --- 0 .................. 6
Yo f Yo
and
- 2s - 2 m f 2 79 - y C
2 12 2 -2 s 2I
70 f of Yoo / f 2 0...... 7 .
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1875 THE GENERAL INTEGRATI N LAPLACE S E ATI N 261
8. In 5 6 7 we supposed 1 0 and so made for the tme
free oscatons our sub ect. Now suppose to be any g en
functon of /u. or the actua probem of tdes of any speces
t s a ratona ntegra functon of M/ or of and / - 2 f we
negect the nfuence produced by the change of attracton of the
water due to ts change of fgure. A proper way of ta ng nto
account ths nfuence by success e appro matons w be
e paned ater. Meantme wthout osng generaty I assume
cI I 2 ... cD amp c........ 8
where D 2 amp c. are g en constants ether fnte n number
or of such magntudes as to render the seres con ergent for aues
of wthn the mts used n each partcuar case. th ths for
1 the second member of 14 becomes
- 4mp - -2 ................. 9
and nstead of 25 we ha e
1- 2 1 2s 2 1- 2
-y 7 4m 1 - 2 /2- 2 2 1 - m - -2 ......... 40 .
The proper modfcaton accordng to ths formua must be made
n 27 and n each of the partcuar e uatons 29 0 1
2 6 7 when re ured.
9. efore consderng the condtons whch may be fufed
by proper determnaton of the two arbtrary constants C and 0
t s con enent to n estgate the con ergency of the seres 16
whch we ha e found for the compete souton. or ths purpose
put 40 ncudng 25 as the case for whch 4 0 nto the
form
1- 2 7 - 2 2 y 2 / 1
y - 4m 1 - _2 2. f2 _ - _ - 4m Dh - -_2 ...... 41 .
In a certan ery mportant cass of cases of whch the frst
e ampe nown to mathematcans s that so spenddy and
successfuy treated by Lapace n the process defended and contro erted n the two precedng Numbers of ths Maga ne terms
of the second member of ths e uaton are for nfntey great
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262 THE RY THE TIDES 28
aues of comparabe n magntude wth terms of the frst member
through - or beng nfntey great of the order 2. These
- 2
cases can ony occur when y s ether constant or e pressed n 4
by the frst two terms 70 7ey a. Reser ng them for consderaton
ater we see by 41 that e cept n those speca cases must
for ery great aues of fuf more and more neary the greater
s the e uaton
1 - 2 2 0.................. 42 .
Cang c the compete and rgorous souton of ths e uaton n
fnte dfferences we ha e
c 1 1 - c.... 4
where p p amp e. denote the roots of the e uaton y 0 and 1 1
1 1 amp c. constants. Hence for great aues of must
be appro matey e ua to 4 wth some partcuar aues for
the constants I amp c. ut for ery great aues of a the terms
of 4 e cept one eadng term or because of the e ua roots of
1 - 2 2 0 one eadng par of terms ansh n comparson wth
ths term or par of terms. Hence we must ha e for ery great
aues of
1 - or I - 1
or or - andso... 44 .
or or r - r and so on
Thus we see that f each of the roots p p amp c. s greater than
unty the seres 15 and 16 are necessary con ergent for a
aues of / from /u - 1 to / 1 and they are d ergent for
aues of beyond these mts uness condtons proper to ma e
I 0 0 1 0 0 are fufed. ut f one or more of the
roots p p amp c. s ess than unty and p the absoutey east of
them a then uncondtonay the seres 15 and 16 are necessary con ergent for a aues of / from -p to p and they are
d ergent for a aues of / beyond these mts uness a condton
proper to ma e 0 s fufed . hen 7y 0 has magnary
Mr . H. L. Russe as I am nformed by hmsef and Professor Cayey has
g en n perfecty genera terms ths crteron for the con ergency of the seres n
ascendng powers of for the ntegra of
d2 u du
0 2 - 0
n a paper communcated to the Roya Socety of whch certan e tracts ha e been
pubshed n the Proceedngs for 1870 1871 1872.
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1875 THE GENERAL INTEGRATI N LAPLACE S E ATI N 26
roots as a /- 1 the absoute magntude of ether of the par
s to be rec oned as a2 2 and wth ths understandng the
same statement as to con ergency and d ergency hods as for
rea roots. ut there s ths dstncton n the crcumstances of
the oss of con ergency n the two cases of transton through a
rea root and through the absoute aue of a par of magnary
roots. In the atter case there s no dscontnuty when pu s
contnuousy ncreased through the crtca aue / a2 /2 n
the former b and ts dfferenta coeffcents become nfnte and
magnary as s ncreased contnuousy up to and beyond any
rea root of y 0. The nterpretaton of the crcumstances when
magnary roots of 7 0 nfuence the souton s an e ceedngy
nterestng sub ect to whch I hope to return n a future communcaton. The remander of the present artce must be
confned to the case of y 0 ha ng two rea roots each ess
than unty.
10. Let p be any rea root of y 0 and put u p. Then
for nfntey sma aues of the dfferenta e uaton 14
becomes
a d d- b c d e ......... 4
where a b c d e f denote constants. The compete souton of
ths appro mate e uaton may be found by assumng
og Ho H H 2 amp c. 46
o 2 amp c.
and determnng H1 H amp c. n terms of H0 arbtrary by
e uatng coeffcents of og og 2 og amp c. to ero and
asty determnng 2 n terms of and H each arbtrary
and H H H amp c. pre ousy found. Ths shows the nd of
dscontnuty whch any compete souton of the e act e uaton
14 necessary presents when the aue of / passes through a
rea root of y 0 and how ths dscontnuty s a erted by an
assgnment of the two constants of ntegraton n the rgorous
souton proper to ma e Ho 0 n the appro mate souton 46 .
11. Return now to the ueston 9 of assgnng the two
constants of ntegraton so as to fuf any proper physca condtons of our probem. rst to wor out the genera souton
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264
THE RY THE TIDES
28
n ascendng powers of p use 40 and cacuate 1 2 amp c.
success ey wth C and o arbtrary. Thus we fnd
Ca o Do 2 ... 47
where as 2 amp c. are numbers cacuated by the
process supposng f s m r70 Y Y2 amp c. to ha e had any partcuar
numerca aues assgned to them and t o I gt 2 ... to denote
g en heghts. r f before we begn the arthmetca process
partcuar aues are assgned to 4 gt o D D2 amp c. so that we
may put
o noL 4 n1L D2 n2L amp c.......... 48
L denotng a g en ne and no n1 n2 amp c. g en numerca
uanttes the resut of the process of cacuaton of from 40
w ta e the form
aC L.................. 49
where a are cacuated numbers. Then we ha e by 15
and 16
f-1 db a u C / . o H . L
2 2d a
where a t ao ap a2I2 amp c.
/ 1g / 1 2 2 amp c.
2 amp c.
and - a . C t . o / . L
where a A I f2ao I/f2a2 /f 2 - ca amp c.
/8 /fo f2 amp ./S -o .
f2 o - f2 2 f2 2 - amp c... 50
1 51 .
It remans to determne the constants of ntegraton so as to
fuf prescrbed condtons renderng the probem determnate.
Ths we sha actuay do for two typca cases:-frst the sea
bounded north and south by two ertca cffs secondy by two
sopng beaches wth gradua deepenng from each to a snge
ma mum depth aong an ntermedate parae of attude.
12. rst et the ocean be a bet of water between ertca
cffs n two g en attudes ether both n the same hemsphere
or one north and the other south. The condtons of ths case
are that there s no north and south moton of the water at ether
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1875 THE GENERAL INTEGRATI N LAPLACE S E ATI N 265
of the boundng paraes of attude and they are to be fufed
4 1 by puttng
d /d 0........................... 52
for each of the termna aues of A that s to say the snes of
the boundng attudes . If each of these s ess n absoute aue
than the east root of y 0 each of the seres n 50 and 51 s
con ergent through the whoe range of aues of fu correspondng
to the supposed ocean.
Cang then / the snes of the two boundng attudes
to be rec oned negat e for south attude f ether or both be
south we ha e by usng 52 n 50
a / . C . o L .........
and a / . C 1 / . o . L 0
whch g e
c /a / . I/ -/ . L LA
- f. a -a s 0 a / ......
a Pu - a . A u LI
81 . t a -/ . a /
th these aues for C and o 50 and 51 g e 1f_ - d
g - _ 2 dg
and d for e ery aue of A through the range of the supposed
ocean and then the foowng formuae whch t s con enent to
reca from 1 7 10 8 and 48 abo e g e h the
heght of the free surface 4 the southward dspacement and
n _- 2 the eastward dspacement of the water at tme t
attude sn- u and ongtude r:
1 1 db
4m 1 - 2 ps/- - f22 df cos Ct sr
1 _IfS 1 do
4m - 2 ns/o- f /2da f2 - s 2 ......... 55
where f denotes 2n/ar and m/r the rato of e uatora centrfuga
force to gra ty.
Ths fuy determned souton e presses the moton of the
supposed ona ocean due to a dsturbng nfuence of whch the
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266
THE RY THE TIDES
28
e ubrum tde-heght s E cos at sf E beng e pressed by
the formua
E 1 - I2 4s/ no n n2pY amp c. ...... 56
where no n n2 amp c. are any g en numbers.
1 . If L 0 e uaton 54 g es e cept n a certan crtca
case to be consdered presenty C 0 and o 0 and therefore
the souton e presses determnatey that there s no moton that
s to say there cannot be any free oscaton of the assumed
type and perod e cept n the crtca case auded to.
Ths crtca case s the case n whch the denomnator of the
e pressons for C and 0 anshes or
a / _
a ad ...................
Then 54 g es nfnte aues to C and o uness L s ero and
f L s ero 5 g es
C _ _/ /
---- a . -...// . 58
o a a
thus determnng the rato of C to o but ea ng the magntude
of ether ndetermnate.
14. The probem of fndng a the fundamenta modes of
free oscaton of our supposed ona sea s so ed by g ng to s
the aues of 0 1 2 amp c. and for each aue of s treatng 57 as
a transcendenta e uaton for the determnaton of or. After the
manner of ourer and Sturm and Lou e t may be pro ed
that ths transcendenta e uaton cannot ha e magnary roots
and has necessary an nfnte number of rea roots more and
more neary e u-dfferent when ta en n order of magntude
from the smaest post e to arger and arger post e or from
the smaest negat e to arger and arger negat e. In the case
of s 0 the post e and negat e roots are e ua une ua n a
other cases s 1 s 2 amp c. .
15. or the con ergency of the seres n 50 and 51 t s
necessary and suffcent 9 that there be no root rea or
magnary of y 0 whose absoute magntude s ess than that
Ths e uaton defnes perfecty the confguraton of the assumed moton and
specfes aso that ts perod s 2wr/a or ts speed a-.
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1875 THE GENERAL INTEGRATI N LAPLACE S E ATI N 267
of the absoutey greater of the two uanttes A and p . ut
t s ony when wth agebrac sgns ta en nto account there
s a rea root actuay between pu and u that s to say when 7
becomes ero for some aue of p on the drect range from tp to
At that any of the s functons a / p a / /u
used n the processes 5 54 57 58 and n the fna
souton 51 50 55 s dscontnuous. hy some or a of
these functons shoud be dscontnuous n ths case s ob ous:
the sea s depth beng ero aong any parae of attude mts
the physca probem to the sde on whch the depth s post e
or case of e ua roots of 7y 0 separates the probem nto two
ndependent ones to fnd the motons of the water on the two
sdes of a reef ust awash. An magnary root of 7 0 ha ng
ts absoute magntude R between t and or a rea root of
contrary sgn to the absoutey greater of p and A and of
absoute magntude R between them renders the seres for a p
At amp c. n ascendng powers of A d ergent for the porton of our
range of attude whch es beyond sn- R. St the souton of
the probem s fuy g en by 55 n terms of s functons a u / tu amp c. each contnuous throughout the range but cacuabe by
the seres n ascendng powers of p set forth n our precedng
formua ony for the part of the range of attude whch es
between - sn- R and sn-1 R. The mode of deang wth the
case of magnary roots so as to obtan con enent formuae for the
numerca cacuaton of a t amp c. s an nterestng and mportant
sub ect to whch I hope to return. eng 9 at present mted
to the case of rea roots t s enough to remar that n ths case
for each of the s functons a /u 8 /u amp c. a seres contnuousy
con ergent throughout the range from // to /u may be found
thus:-Let p and p be consecut e rea roots of 0 and et
p A / p be n order of agebrac magntude. Let a be any
uantty such that agebracay
a gt I / p and a t A p ............ 59 .
Then puttng
a........................... 60
n 4 14 and wor ng precsey as n 5 but wth nstead
of n the second member of 15 and the proper correspondng
modfcaton of 16 amp c. we obtan a souton n ascendng powers
of or / - a whch s necessary con ergent throughout the
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268
THE RY THE TIDES
28
range of our probem. The degree of con ergence of the seres so
found for each of the s functons
a a a a
a a / a a
s for any aue of the same as that of the geometrca seres
- amp c.
c c
where c s the ess of the two uanttes a - p p- a.
16. or our second proposed case 11 et p p p p be
four consecut e roots of 1 - /2 y 0 et p p be each between
-1 and 1 and et y be post e for aues of /A between p
and p . Re ured to determne tdes and the free oscatons
of the one of water correspondng to these ntermedate aues
of p. Ta e any uantty a between p and p such that p - a
and p a are each ess than the ess of the two dfferences a- p
p - a. Put / a and so e n ascendng powers of as n
15. Let a P be the coeffcents of n the seres thus
found for a / p 8 n formuae correspondng to 50 but
wth for n the second members so that we ha e
I d C C o L... 61 .
f2 - 2 d/
Let now p be two aues of and put
apC G p o p 0........ 62
C - o L
If p and p- be each nfntey great the aues of C and
0 determned by these e uatons and used n 61 and 55 g e
the tdes due to the tde-generatng nfuence
L no n f/ n2/ 2 amp c. .
The perods of the fundamenta free oscatons of the supposed
one of water are determned by fndng a so as to ma e
ap/ p a / ....................... 6
and the oscatons are then e pressed by ta ng
o C - - C..................... 64
E cept n the case of p - a - p - a when we must ta e p or any
odd nteger but p - s best n ths case.
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1875 THE GENERAL INTEGRATI N LAPLACE S E ATI N 269
n 61 and 55 . y g ng moderatey great aues to p
and p - the rgorous souton may be satsfactory appro mated
to by easy methodca and not ery aborous arthmetc. The
proof s ob ous from 9 44 .
17. Correspondng n estgatons to fnd soutons for the
case of water o er one or both poes must be reser ed for a
future artce. They n o e hghy nterestng e tensons of
Lapace s admrabe process referred to n 9 of the present
artce and n se era paces of the ast two Numbers of the
Phosophca Maga ne.
Sr George Darwn has by re uest ndy supped the foowng note on
these papers on the tdes.
The procedure of Lapace n hs dscusson of tda oscatons s now
un ersay accepted as correct and the paper No. 26 on an aeged error n
Lapace s Theory s ac nowedged to ha e fnay setted the contro ersy
rased by the strctures of Ary and erre.
th regard to the paper No. 27 on the oscatons of the frst speces
now commony caed tdes of ong perod I ponted out Proc. Roy. Soc.
o. 41 1886 p. 7 or o. I of coected papers that Lapace s argument
was uncon ncng namey that frcton was ade uate to cause these tdes to
conform to the e ubrum theory. oowng Lord e n I found numerca
soutons accordng to Lapace s method other soutons ha e been found by
Lamb Hydrodynamcs 216 and by Hough see references on p. 2 1 . It
appeared from these soutons that on an ocean-co ered panet the e ubrum
theory mght be wdey n error.
Acceptng howe er Lapace s argument as to frcton I e auated Thomson
and Tat s Nat. Ph. 840 or my coected papers o. I the eastc yedng
of the sod earth as der ed from obser aton of the oceanc tdes of ong
perod. Dr . Schweydar etr. . Geophys o. 9 1907 p. 41 usng far
more e tens e data arr ed at a cosey smar resut. Snce the rgdty of
the earth der ed n ths way agrees admraby wth that found from obser atons wth the hor onta penduum we may fee confdent that Lapace
was n fact rght n supposng these oceanc tdes to conform to the e ubrum
aw. The resut cannot howe er be e paned by frcton and at ength
Lord Rayegh Ph. ag. o. 190 p. 1 6 showed that and barrers as
on the earth woud annu those modes of fud moton whch n the case of
the ocean-co ered panet cause so wde a d ergence from the e ubrum aw.
It woud appear then that Lapace was correct n fact as regards the earth
but wrong n hs reasonng.
urther references on the sub ect w be found n o. of the Ency opde der Mathematschen ssenschaften Art. ewegung der Hydrosphare.
The paper No. 28 on the genera ntegraton of Lapace s tda e uaton
now possesses ess nterest than the two precedng ones snce ts sub ect s to
a arge e tent co ered by the two memors of Hough see p. 2 1 who aso
succeeded n ntroducng the effects of the mutua attracton of the water.
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270 29
A ES N ATER.
29. N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER.
rom the Phosophca Maga ne . ctober 1886 pp. 5 - 57 ha ng
been read before Secton A of the rtsh Assocaton rmngham
Sept. 7 1886.
PART I.
THIS sub ect ncudes the beautfu wa e-group produced by a.
shp propeed unformy through pre ousy st water but the
present communcaton s mted to two dmensona moton.
Imagne frctoness water fowng n unform regme through
an nfntey ong cana wth ertca sdes and bottom hor onta
e cept where modfed by trans erse rdges or hoows or sopes
between portons of hor onta bottom at dfferent e es. Incuded
among such ne uates we may suppose bars abo e the bottom
f ed perpendcuary between the sdes. Let these ne uates
be a wthn a fnte porton A of the ength and et f denote
the dfference of e es of the bottom on the two sdes of ths
porton post e f the bottom beyond A s hgher than the
bottom beyond .
Now et the water be g en at an nfnte or ery great
dstance beyond A perpetuay fowng towards A wth any
prescrbed constant eocty u and fng up the cana to a
prescrbed constant depth a. It s re ured to fnd the moton
of the water towards A through A and beyond as dsturbed
by the ne uates between A and . Ths probem s essentay
I ha e snce found n a suffcenty practca form the souton for the wa egroup produced by the shp whch I hope to communcate to the Phosophca
Maga ne for pubcaton n the No ember number.
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-I
271
determnate and t has ony one souton f we confne t to
cases n whch the ertca component of the water s eocty s
e erywhere sma n comparson wth the eocty ac ured by a
fang body fang from a heght e ua to haf the depth. Let b
be the mean depth and the mean hor onta eocty at ery
great dstances beyond and to ha e w to denote wa e-energy
et w be such that
2 b b w.................. 1
s the whoe energy netc and potenta per unt of the cana s
breadth and per unt of ts ength. In cases n whch the water
fows away unruffed at great dstances from w s ero. ut
n genera the surface s ruffed and the water fows steady
between the pane bottom and a corrugated free surface as n the
we- nown appearance of water fowng n a m-ead or Hghand
burn or n the cear r uet on the east sde of Trurnpngton Street
Cambrdge or n the race of Portand or Isay o erfas. The
tran of dmnshng wa es whch we see n the wa e of each tte
rreguarty of the bottom woud of course e tend to nfnty f
the stream were nfntey ong and the water absoutey n scd
frctoness and a snge ne uaty or group of ne uates n
any part A of the stream woud g e rse to corrugaton n the
whoe of the fow after passng the ne uates more and more
neary unform and wth rdges and hoows more and more neary
perpendcuar to the sdes of the cana the farther we are from
the ast of the ne uates. bser aton wth a tte common
sense of the mathematca nd shows that at a dstance of two
or three wa e-engths from the ast of the rreguartes f the
breadth of the cana s sma n comparson wth the wa e-ength
or at a dstance of nne or ten breadths of the cana f the breadth
s arge n comparson wth the wa e-ength the condton of
unform corrugatons wth straght rdges perpendcuar to the
sdes of the cana woud be fary we appro mated to e en
though the rreguarty were a snge pro ecton or hoow n the
mdde of the stream. ut the sub ect of the present communcaton s smper as t s mted to two-dmensona moton and
our ne uates are bars or rdges or hoows perpendcuar to
the sdes of the cana. Thus n our present case we see that the
condton of utmate unformty of the standng wa es n the
wa e of the rreguartes s cosey appro mated to at a dstance
of two or three wa e-engths from the ast of the ne uates.
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272
A ES N ATER
29
Let SA S denote two f ed ertca sectons of the cana at
nfntey great dstances beyond A and beyond and p the
mean fud pressures n these panes. It w smpfy consderatons
and formuas f we ta e S at a node or pace where the depth
s e ua to b the mean depth and we therefore ta e t so
athough ths s not necessary for the foowng nematca and
dynamca statements:I. The oumes of fud crossng SA and S n the same or
e ua tmes are e ua or n symbos
au b M........................... 2
where M denotes the oume of water passng per unt of tme.
II. The e cess post e or negat e of the wor done by
p on any oume of the water enterng across SA abo e the wor
done by on an e ua oume of the water passng away across
S s e ua to the e cess of the energy potenta and netc
of the water passng away abo e that of the water enterng.
Hence and by 1 ta ng the oume of water unty we ha e
p- - 2 gb ...... .
b 2 2g/f . .
Now cang the pressure at the free surface ero we ha e
I
p ga and 2gb ......... 4
w denotng a uantty dependng on wa e-dsturbance. Hence
and by 2
a2 b2 w - w
M 2 a-b 2 g a-b f ......... 5 .
a b I
Now put 2 ---2 D and M D............... 6 .
Thus D w denote a mean depth ntermedate between a and b
and appro matey e ua to ther arthmetc mean when ther
dfference s sma n comparson wth ether and w denote
a correspondng mean eocty of fow ntermedate between u
and and appro matey e ua to ther arthmetc mean when
ther dfference s sma n comparson wth ether .
th ths notaton 5 g es
b-a f w-w / 2
-/...........D 7 .
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-I
27
If b - a were e acty e ua to f and f there were no beruffement
of the water beyond the mean e e of the water woud be the
same n the enterng and ea ng water at great dstances on the
two sdes of A but ths s not generay the case and there s a
post e or negat e rse of e e g en by the formua
/ 12 M __ 2
y b -a-f f - - I...... 8 .
Y f gD gb / gD
Consder now the case of no corrugaton that s to say of
pane free surface and unform fow at great dstances beyond .
e ha e w - w 0 and therefore
y b f - // 9
or wth 2 repaced by M2/D2
Y b-a- f / .......... 10
a2b2
where as abo e D ............... 11 .
The emnaton of b and D between these three e uatons
g es y as a functon of f It s cear that the change of e e
of the bottom may be suffcenty gradua to ob ate any of the
corrugatona effect and when ths s the case the e uaton of
the free surface w be found from y n terms of f f beng a
g en functon of the hor onta coordnate .
If f s e erywhere sma n comparson wth a D s appro matey constant much more appro matey e ua to a b
and y s appro matey n constant proporton to f.
hen the fow s so gente that s sma n comparson wth
H2
/gD - s a sma proper fracton and y s appro matey e ua
to ths fracton of f
Generay n e ery case when t gD the upper surface of
the water rses when the bottom fas and the water fas when
the bottom rses.
n the other hand when gt IgD the water surface rses
con e o er e ery pro ecton of the bottom and fas conca e o er
hoows of the bottom and the rse and fa of the water are each
greater n amount than the rse and fa of the bottom so that
. I . 18
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A ES N ATER
29
the water s deeper o er ee atons of the bottom and s shaower
o er depressons of the bottom.
Returnng now to the sub ect of standng wa es or corrugatons of the surface of frctoness water fowng o er a hor onta
bottom of a cana wth ertca sdes I sha not at present enter
on the mathematca anayss by whch the effect of a g en set
of ne uates wthn a mted space A of the cana s ength n
producng such corrugatons n the water after passng such ne uates can be cacuated pro ded the sopes of the ne uates
and of the surface corrugatons are e erywhere ery sma fractons
of a radan. I hope before ong to communcate a paper to the
Phosophca Maga ne on ths sub ect for pubcaton. I sha
ony ust now ma e the foowng remar s:1. Any set of ne uates arge or sma must n genera
g e rse to statonary corrugatons arge or sma but perfecty
statonary howe er arge short of the mt that woud produce
nfnte con e cur ature accordng to Sto es s theory an obtuse
ange of 120 at any trans erse ne of the water surface.
2. ut n partcuar cases the water fowng away from the
ne uates may be perfecty smooth and hor onta. Ths s
ob ous because of the foowng reasons: If water s fowng o er a pane bottom wth nfntesma
corrugatons an ne uaty whch coud produce such corrugatons
may be paced on the bottom so as ether to doube those pre ousy
e stng corrugatons of the surface or to annu them.
The wa e-ength that s to say the ength from crest to
crest s a determnate functon of the mean depth of the water
and of the heght of the corrugatons abo e the bottom and of
the oume of water fowng per unt of tme. Ths functon s
determned graphcay n Sto es s theory of fnte wa es. It s
ndependent of the heght and s g en by the we- nown formua
when the heght s nfntesma.
rom No. t foows that as t s aways possbe to
dmnsh the heght of the corrugatons by propery ad usted
obstaces n the bottom t s aways possbe to annu them.
. The fundamenta prncpe n ths mode of consderng the
sub ect s that whate er dsturbance there may be n a perpetuay
sustaned stream the moton becomes utmatey steady a
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-I
275
agtatons beng carred away down stream. The e panaton of
ths w be more fuy de eoped n Part III. to be pubshed n
December.
In Part II. to be pubshed n the No ember number of the
Maga ne the ntegra hor onta component of fud pressure on
any number of ne uates n the bottom or bars w be found
from consderaton of the wor done n generatng statonary
wa es and the ob ous appcaton to the wor done by wa ema ng n towng a boat through a cana w be consdered.
The defnte n estgaton of the wa e-ma ng effect when the
ne uates n the bottom are geometrcay defned to whch
I ha e ust now referred w foow and I hope to ncude n
Part II. or at a e ents n Part III. to be pubshed n December
a compete n estgaton ustrated by drawngs of the beautfu
pattern of wa es produced by a shp propeed unformy through
cam deep water.
rom the Phosophca Maga ne r. No ember 1886 pp. 445-452.
PART II.
To fnd as promsed n Part I. the sum of hor onta pressures
on an ne uaty of the bottom or on a bar or on a seres of
ne uates or bars consder the hor onta components of momentum of dfferent portons of the water n the foowng manner.
ecause the moton s steady the momentum of the matter at
any nstant wthn any f ed oume of space S remans constant
and therefore the rate of de ery of momentum from S by water
fowng out on one sde abo e gan of momentum by water fowng
nto S on the other sde must be e ua to the tota amount of
hor onta force actng on the water whch at any nstant s
wthn S the drecton of ths force beng that of the fow when
the momentum of the ea ng water e ceeds that of the enterng
water. Now et S be the space bounded by the bottom the free
surface of the water and four ertca panes two of them caed
A A0 perpendcuar to the stream and two of them parae to
the stream and at unt dstance from one another. Let P and
o o be ertca nes on the two trans erse ends A and Ao of the
space S 0 beng ponts of the surface and A ponts of the
bottom. Let
D and P y
18-2
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A ES N ATER
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and et u be the hor onta component eocty at P. The rate
of de ery of momentum per unt of tme understood from S by
water fowng across A s e ua to
f u dy........................... 1
u2dy... 1
and the e cess of de ery of momentum from S across A abo e
recept of momentum across A0 s e ua to
2dy - 2dy..................... 2 .
hen ths s post e the water between A0 and A must e perence
on the whoe a pressure n the drecton from Ao towards A made
up of dfference of fud-pressures on the end sectons A0 and A
and pressures upon the water by f ed ne uates f there are
any between Ao and A. Hence f o denote the ntegra fudpressures on the dea panes A A0 and the sum of hor onta
pressures of the ne uates on the fud regarded as post e
when the drecton of the tota s from A towards Ao 2 must be
e ua to
o- - ....................... .
Hence we ha e
2dy - udy............ 4 .
Now the fud-pressure at P s e ua to gy 1 2 - 2 by the
eementary formua for pressure n steady moton the pressure at
the free surface beng ta en as ero and denotng the eocty
of the fud at and P respect ey.
Hence
gy 1 2 - 2 dy I gD 2 D - 2dy... 5 .
Hence
u2dy gD D - 2 dy........... 6
f be the ertca component eocty at P.
Ths and the correspondng e presson reat ey to A0 g e
by the sum of hor onta pressures on a ne uates between
A0 and A when the probem of the fud moton n the crcumstances s so far so ed as to g e D and u 2 - 2 for each of the
end sectons A0 A.
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-II
277
Suppose now Ao to be so far on the up-stream sde of the
ne uates that the moton of the water across t s sensby
unform and hor onta wth eocty whch we sha denote by
o so that for A0 6 becomes
2dy 2gD2 0Do............... 7 .
Hence and by 6 and 4
g g Do2- D2 2Do - 2 -D I- u2- dy... 8 .
Now by the aw of eocty at the free surface n steady
moton we ha e
2 2 g Do-D .................. 9
because the ponts o of the bottom beng on the same e e
D -D s the dfference of e es between the surface-ponts 0
and . Hence 8 becomes
g Do - D 0 Do - D - 2- 02 D
f 2 u2- dy... 10
where denotes a constant whch may ha e any aue. It s
con enent to ma e t the mean hor onta component eocty
across : we therefore ta e
D udy..................... 11 :
and because the uanttes fowng n across Ao and out across
A are e ua as the moton s steady we ha e
D oDo....................... 12 .
sng ths to emnate o from 10 we fnd
g- -D Do- D 2 2 2- 2 dy.. 1 .
To e auate Do- D when we now enough about the moton
and to see how ts aue s reated to other characterstc uanttes
et us oo bac to 9 and n t ta e
2 2 . 2........................ 14 .
Thus f be chosen at a pont of the water-surface where the
hor onta component eocty s rgorousy or appro matey
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A ES N ATER
29
e ua to then - s rgorousy or appro matey the ertca
component eocty at . sng now 14 n 9 wth D/Do
for 0 we fnd
I Do - D
Do-D-I2 D_ 2 1......... 15
whch used n 1 g es
o4 2D g Do 2 2
2- D f 2 2 - 2 dy
8 g Do / 2......... 16 .
Hence when the change of e e Do-D s but sma n comparson
wth D or Do we ha e
- 4/ g- 2 -2 u dy...... 17
where _ denotes appro mate e uaty. Gong bac to 16 et
be so chosen on the water-surface that
fu2dy 2D...................... 18
whch t s cear we can do because at a crest the frst member
s ess than the second and at a hoow greater. hen the
moton s nfntey neary smpe harmonc the stream-nes
cur es of snes the poston of thus chosen w be e acty
the mdde between crest and hoow. hen the moton s
anythng howe er great up to Sto es s hghest possbe wa e
the chosen pace of s a ess or more rough appro maton
to the md-e e pont of a wa e: t s aways rgorousy determnate. or bre ty we sha ca t that s to say a pont
defned by 18 a noda pont. Thus when s ta en as a noda
pont . 16 becomes smpfed to
T g n /go D 2 h f 2dy.. 19 .
Ths e presson s rgorous. In t A whch s g en rgorousy
by 14 s appro matey not rgorousy e ua to the ertca
component eocty at : and f we suppose D g en Do s found by
15 whch s a cubc e uaton n Do most easy so ed by success e
appro matons accordng to the process ob ousy ndcated by
the form n whch the e uaton appears n 15 . As a frst
appro maton ta e D for Do n the second member and so on.
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-II 279
To wor out the formua 19 for the case of nfntesma
dspacement we may ta e a at a great enough dstance from
ne uates to et the surface n ts neghbourhood be sensby
a cur e of snes and the moton smpe harmonc. The n estgaton s factated by aso ta ng at a node as n the dagrams.
If we ta e
h sn m ........................ 20
as the e uaton of the free surface the nown souton for smpe
harmonc wa es n water of depth D g es
erm D-y E-m D-y
u .1 mh- e- _ - snme

en D-y _ e-m D-y

mh eD_ e-D cos m ...... 21 .
E ED - C-mD
where EmD mD
Hence where 0 as n the noda secton P
em D-y _ e-m D-y
u and mth m _ -mD...... 22
e2mnD - - 2mD 4_ mD
aso dy 2mh2. 2
2 emD- E-mD 2
2 4gh mD - ........4D . 24 .
-2mD_ e_2mD....
Now gong bac to 19 we see that when approaches the
crtca eocty
/ D02
D Do D D
the frst term mght become mportant e en though the corrugatons at a great dstance down-stream from the ne uates
were nfntesma. Reser ng consderatons of ths case and
supposng for the present to be consderaby smaer than the
crtca aue we may negect the frst term n comparson wth
the second rememberng that n fact uanttes comparabe wth
the frst term are negected n the appro maton 24 to the
aue of the second and we ha e as our fna appro mate
resut
gh2 2m -2mD............... 25 .
4 L 2 eb - 6 2mD
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A ES. N ATER
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There s no dffcuty n understandng the permanent steadness of the moton whch we ha e now been consderng: to any
fnte dstance howe er great on ether the up-stream or downstream sde of the ne uates f the water n the fnte space
consdered s g en n ths state of moton and f water s admtted
on the one sde and carred away on the other sde conformaby.
ut t s ery nterestng and nstruct e to consder the ntaton
of such a state of thngs from an antecedent condton of unform
fow o er a pane bottom. Suppose as the prmary condton an
ne uaty whether ee aton or depresson to e st n the bottom
but to be carred aong wth the water so that the fow of the
water s e erywhere unform and n parae nes. If the ne uaty s an ee aton abo e the bottom our supposton s that
the whoe pro ectng pece mo ng wth the water sps aong
the bottom. If the ne uaty be a depresson n the bottom the
more aw ward supposton must be made of a pastcty of the
bottom and the form of the ne uaty carred aong whe the
bottom s ept rgdy pane before and after ths depresson.
Suppose now the ne uaty s graduay or suddeny brought
to rest what w be the resutng moton of the water The
ueston s dentca wth that of fndng the moton of water n a
cana when by an e terna force such as that of a towng-rope
a boat s graduay or suddeny set n moton through t or
rather t woud be dentca f the boat were a beam fng the
whoe breadth across the cana so that the moton of the water
sha be purey two-dmensona. I hope n a ater artce Part
III. or Part I . of the present seres to n estgate the formaton
of the processon of standng wa es n the wa e of the obstace
and ts gradua e tenson farther and farther down-stream from
the obstace the moton ha ng become sensby steady n ts
neghbourhood and becomng so to greater and greater dstances
down-stream by the competon of the growth of fresh wa es.
The dsturbance sent up-stream from the ntatng rreguarty
must aso be consdered. E uaton 15 shows that whether the
rreguarty be an ee aton as n our frst dagram fg. 1 or a
depresson as n fg. 2 a rsng of e e must tra e up-stream
at a eocty reat ey to the water whch we now must be
/gDo where D0 s ntermedate between Do and the smaer depth
whch we sha ca D n the undsturbed stream abo e. ut
howe er graduay the ntatng rreguarty may ha e been
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-II
281
nsttuted ths tra eng of an ee aton up-stream must de eop
a bore because the eocty of propagaton s as t were dfferent
n dfferent parts of the sope beng gD at the commencement
of the sope and rangng from ths through gDo to gD0 as the
depth rses from D to Do so that as t were the brow of the
pateau n ts ad ance up-stream o erta es the taus t the
sope becomes too steep for our appro maton. The ne tabe
bore and bro en water ne tabe wthout scdty of the
water or some surface-acton pre entng the e cess e steepness
woud modfy affars down-stream n a manner whch t s dffcut
to magne. It becomes therefore nterestng to see how t may
be a oded whether by surface-acton or by g ng some scosty
g. 1.
g. 1.
g. 2.
to the water. It s more nterestng to do ths by surface-acton
and to aow the water to be perfecty n scd so that our standng
wa es down-stream may be perfecty unmpared. And we may
do t ery smpy by co erng the free surface a o er up-stream
and down-stream wth an nfntey thn scousy eastc fe be
membrane stffened trans ersey after the manner of the sa
of a Chnese un by rgd massess bars wth ends tra eng up
and down n ertca gudes on the sdes of the cana. If we
suppose the moton of these ends to be ressted by forces proportona to ther eoctes and the membrane to e ercse post e
or negat e contracte tensona force n smpe proporton to
the eocty of the change of ts ength n each nfntey sma
part we ha e a mechanca arrangement by whch s rea ed the
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A ES N ATER
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mathematca condton of a surface norma pressure aryng
accordng to norma component eocty of the otherwse free
surface and n smpe proporton to ths norma eocty when
the sope s nfntesma. y ma ng the scous forces suffcenty
great we may ma e the progress of the rse of e e up-stream
as gradua as we pease and perfecty a od the bore. e may
aso ma e the progress of the processon of statonary wa es downstream as sow as we pease. The form of the water-surface o er
the ne uaty or ne uates and to any dstance from them
both up-stream and down-stream s not utmatey affected at a
by the scous co erng and t becomes as tme ad ances more
and more neary that of the mathematca souton for steady
moton whch I hope to g e wth graphc ustratons drawn
accordng to cacuaton from the souton n Part III.
rom the Phosophca Maga ne II. December 1886 pp. 517-5 0.
PART III.
As promsed n Part I. we may now consder the appcaton
of the prncpes de eoped n t and n Part II. to the ueston
of towng n a cana and we sha fnd amost surprsngy a
theoretca erfcaton and e panaton 49 years after date of
Scott Russe s brant E permenta Researches nto the Laws
of certan Hydrodynamca Phenomena that accompany the Moton
of oatng odes and ha e not pre ousy been reduced nto
Conformty wth the nown Laws of the Resstance of uds
whch had ed to the Scottsh system of fy-boat carryng
passengers on the Gasgow and Ardrossan Cana and between
Ednburgh and Gasgow on the orth and Cyde Cana at speeds
of from 8 to 12 or 1 mes an hourt by a horse or a par of
horses gaopng aong the ban . The practca method orgnated
from the accdent of a sprted horse whose duty t was to drag
a boat aong at a sow speed I suppose a wa ng speed ta ng
frght and runnng off drawng the boat after hm and so dsco erng that when the speed e ceeded 4/gD the resstance was
y ohn Scott Russe Es . M.A. .R.S.E. Read before the Roya Socety
of Ednburgh on Apr 4 18 7 and pubshed n the Transactons n 1840.
ne me an hour s Engsh and Amercan rec onng of eocty whch
when not at sea sgnfes 1-609 ometres per hour or -44704 metre per second.
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-III
28
ess than at ower speeds. Mr Scott Russe s descrpton of the
ncdent and of how Mr Houston too ad antage for hs Company
of hs horse s dsco ery s so nterestng that I uote t n e tenso: Cana na gaton furnshes at once the most nterestng ustratons of the nterference of the wa e and most mportant
opportuntes for the appcaton of ts prncpes to an mpro ed
system of practce. It s to the dmnshed anteror secton of
dspacement produced by rasng a esse wth a sudden mpuse
to the summt of the progress e wa e that a ery great mpro ement recenty ntroduced nto cana transport owes ts e stence.
As far as I am abe to earn the soated fact was dsco ered
accdentay on the Gasgow and Ardrossan Cana of sma
dmensons. A sprted horse n the boat of am Houston
Es . one of the propretors of the wor s too frght and ran off
draggng the boat wth t and t was then obser ed to Mr Houston s
astonshment that the foamng stern surge whch used to de astate
the ban s had ceased and the esse was carred on through water
comparat ey smooth wth a resstance ery greaty dmnshed.
Mr Houston had the tact to perce e the mercante aue of ths
fact to the Cana Company wth whch he was connected and
de oted hmsef to ntroducng on that cana esses mo ng wth
ths hgh eocty. The resut of ths mpro ement was so
auabe n a mercante pont of ew as to brng from the
con eyance of passengers at a hgh eocty a arge ncrease of
re enue to the Cana Propretors. The passengers and uggage
are con eyed n ght boats about s ty feet ong and s feet wde
made of thn sheet ron and drawn by a par of horses. The boat
starts at a sow eocty behnd the wa e and at a g en sgna
t s by a sudden er of the horses drawn up on the top of the
wa e where t mo es wth dmnshed resstance at the rate of 7
8 or 9 mes an hour .
The dmnshed anteror secton of dspacement produced by
rasng a esse wth a sudden mpuse to the summt of the
progress e wa e s no doubt a correct obser aton of an essenta
feature of the phenomenon but t s the annument of the foamng
stern surge whch at the ower speeds used to de astate the ban s
that g es the drect e panaton of the dmnshed resstance.
It s n fact easy to see that when the moton s steady no wa es
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edn. o. . 1840 p. 79.
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A ES N ATER
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can be eft astern of a boat towed through a cana at a speed
greater than gD the eocty of an nfntey ong wa e n the
cana and therefore the water beng supposed n scd the
resstance to towage must be n when the eocty e ceeds /gD.
Ths hods true aso ob ousy for towage n an nfnte e panse
of open water of depth D o er a pane bottom.
The formua 25 of Part II. for the whoe hor onta component
force upon an ne uaty or successon of ne uates on the
bottom aows us to cacuate the resstance on a boat of any
dmensons and any shape pro ded we now the heght of the
reguar wa es whch foow t steady at ts own speed n the
cana at a suffcenty great dstance behnd t to be sensby
unform across the breadth of the cana accordng to the prncpe
e paned on page 27 of Part I. The prncpe upon whch the
aues of the h of formua 25 Part II. may be cacuated are
party g en n the remander of the present artce and w be
more fuy de eoped n Part I .
To fnd the steady moton of water fowng n a rectanguar
channe o er a bottom wth geometrcay specfed ne uates t
s con enent after the manner of ourer to frst so e the
probem for the case n whch the profe of the bottom s a cur e
of snes de atng nfntesmay from a hor onta pane.
or con enence ta e aong the mean e e of the bottom
post e n the drecton of the mean eocty of the stream
and Y ertca post e upwards. Let
h H cos m ........................... 1
be the e uaton of the bottom and
y - D D cos m .................... 2
be the e uaton of the free surface f beng heght abo e ts
mean e e. Let p be the eocty potenta u the eocty
components and p the pressure at any pont y of the water
at tme t: so that we ha e
dt d- and d......................
and p C-gy- ............... 4 .
Now the de aton from unform hor onta eocty s nfntesma
and therefore and u- are nfntey sma. Hence 4 g es
p C gy - - u- ............... 5 .
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-III 285
must be a souton of the e uaton of contnuty
d 2 d2o 0
d 2 dy2
and the proper one for our present case ceary s
sn m emY e-my ............ 6
where because the moton s steady and are constants.
Ths n rtue of g es
- m cos m my e-my ........... 7
n sn m e - e-mY ........... 8 .
Hence as the aues of y at the bottom and at the surface are
nfntey neary 0 and D respect ey we fnd respect ey for the
ertca component eocty at the bottom and at the surface
m sn m - and m sn m emD - /-mD .
Hence to ma e the bottom-stream-nes and surface-stream-nes
agree respect ey wth the assumed forms 1 and 2 we ceary
ha e
m - -mH .................... 9
and m emD- e-mcD ms ............ 10
whence - He-nD
cnD - mD
I - H_ -..................
nD _ - mD
Now at the free surface the pressure s constant and hence by 5
we ha e
- gy - u - constant.............. 12 :
from whch by 2 7 and 11 we fnd
0 -g m 2 m e _ - - 2H
2H
whence .............. 1
EnmD c-mD r 2 e1 D - eD
whch s the souton of our probem for the case of the bottom a.
smpe harmonc cur e.
Suppose now the e uaton of the bottom to be
h /c cos m - c2 cos 2m C cos m amp c. mA/7r... 14
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A ES N ATER
29
the e uaton of the surface found by superposton of soutons
g en by 1 aowabe because the moton de ates nfntey
tte from hor onta unform moton throughout the water s
m 00 2/ cos m . mA/7r
y-D - - e -... 15 .
1 m D. -mD g mD _ -mD
m 2 e E
To nterpret the e uaton 14 by whch the bottom s defned
remar that by the we- nown summaton of ts second member
t s e u aent to
Ih AmA/7r 1 2 / nA/r. cos m -
h 1-22 cosm .C2 nA 1 -2 cos m 2
The seres 14 s con ergent for a aues of ess than unty .
Accordng to the method of ourer Cauchy and Posson the
e treme case of nfntey tte ess than unty w be made the
foundaton of our practca soutons. y 14 we see that
d h ........................ 17
-7r/m
and hence by the frst of e uatons 16 we see that
C/m mA/7r. 1- 2 __.
d / A............. 18 .
- 7rm 1 - 2 cos m 2......
Now when s nfntey tte short of unty the factor of d
n the frst-member of 18 s ero for a aues of dfferng
fntey from ero or 27r/m beng an nteger and t s nfntey
great when 0 or 27r/m. Hence we nfer from 17 and 18
that a ertca ongtudna secton of the bottom presents a reguar
row of smar ee atons and depressons abo e and beow ts mean
e e the ee atons beng confned to ery sma spaces on the
two sdes of each of the ponts 0 and 27r/m and the profearea of each ee aton beng A. The depths of the depressons
beow the a erage e e n the ntermedate spaces between the
ee atons are of course e tremey sma because of the e ceedng
shortness of the spaces o er whch are the ee atons. or our
compete anaytca souton not ony must A be nfntey sma
but the steepness of the sope up to the summt of h must e erywhere be an nfntey sma fracton of a radan and of course
therefore the nfntesma owerng of the bottom between the
The aue of h s potted n 4 of Deep ater Shp a es nfra.
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-III 287
rdges whch the adopton of a mean bottom-e e for our datum
ne has necessary ntroduced may be eft out of account n our
dynamca probem.
If the sope of the rdge s not an nfntey sma fracton of a
radan our souton w st hod pro ded ts heght s ery sma
n comparson wth the depth of the water o er t. ut the
effect e potency of the rdge woud then not be ts profe-area A
but somethng much greater of whch the amount woud be found
by ta ng a stream-ne o er t far enough abo e t to ha e nowhere
more than an nfntesma sope and fndng the profe-area of
such a stream-ne abo e ts own a erage e e consdered as the
rtua bottom. th these e panatons we sha spea of a rdge
for bre ty nstead of an rreguarty or obstace and ca ts
profe-area A smpy the magntude of the rdge ths beng
as we see by 15 the measure of ts potency n dsturbng the
surface. hen nstead of a rdge we ha e a hoow A s negat e
and when con enent we may of course ca a hoow a negat e
rdge.
It s cear that 15 con erges and does not depend for ts
con ergence on c beng ess than unty so that n t we may ta e
/c absoutey e ua to unty and we sha do so accordngy.
To fnd now the effect of a snge rdge remar that f I be the
ength from rdge to rdge
m 27r/.......................... 19 .
After the manner of ourer now suppose I nfntey arge whch
ma es m nfntey sma and put
m and rn d .................. 20
then wth c 1 15 becomes
0d 2A/7r. cos
d -- -1 2/. -s --.......... 21
w bhe
where b 2/g........................... 22 .
E uaton 21 w be shortened and for some nterpretatons
smpfed by ma ng D a when t becomes
f do- 2A/Dr. cos o- /D
d D........... 2 .
e- eE
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A ES N ATER
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The defnte ntegra 21 or 2 seemed rather ntractabe
and the uadratures re ured to e auate t for many and wdespread enough aues of to show the shape of the surface for any
one partcuar aue of D/b woud be ery aborous. ut I had
found a method of e auatng t from the perodc souton for an
endess successon of e udstant e ua rdges 15 whoy anaogous
to anaytca deductons from correspondng soutons for cases of
therma conducton and of sgnang through submarne cabes to
be found n o. II. pp. 49 and 56 of my coected Mathematca
and Physca Papers and towards appyng ths method to a.
partcuar case of the dsturbance due to a snge rdge I had fuy
wor ed out the perodc souton for the case represented by the
dagram of cur es fg. p. 295 when I found a drect and compete
anaytca souton for the snge-rdge probem n a form e ceedngy con enent for arthmetca computaton e cept for the case
of e ua to ero or from ero to a uarter or a haf of the depth.
The pre ous method happy g es the souton for sma aues
of and ndeed for aues up to two or three tmes the depth by
ery rapdy con ergng seres and thus between the two methods
we ha e a remar aby satsfactory souton of the whoe probem.
efore e panng the cur es and ther reaton to the probem
of the snge rdge I sha g e the new drect souton of ths
probem. It s founded on a we- nown anaytca method of
Cauchy s of whch e ampes are g en n the Eghteenth note
p. 284 to hs Memor on the Theory of a es .
rst brng the denomnator of 2 to the form of the product
of an nfnte number of uadratc factors as foows:-Let
1 1 - - - e- ....... 24 .
E pandng n powers of o- we ha e
- 1 _ Db 2 b
1.2 4 - 4 amp c.... 25 .
Hence when b s greater than D s post e for a rea aues
of a. ut when b has any post e aue ess than D whch
Memores de Academe Royae de Insttut de rance sa ans etrangers
tome I. 1827 .
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-III
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s aways post e for sma aues of a2 s negat e for arge aues
of o2 and therefore at east one post e aue of 72 ma es ero.
e sha see presenty that ony one post e aue of -2 does so.
e sha see that a the eros of when b s greater than D and
a but one when b s ess than D correspond to rea negat e
aues of -2. Ths ndeed s ob ous f for 2 we put - 02 whch
g es
. I _ D-1 Co 0 _ D sn 0 26
1- D- cos 0...........D
and whch shows that the eros of are g en by the roots of the
we- nown transcendenta e uaton
tan 0 b
6........... 27 .
0 D
hen b s greater than D ths e uaton has a ts roots rea
and n the frst thrd ffth amp c. uadrants. hen b s ess than
D the root n the frst uadrant s ost and n ts stead we ceary
ha e a pure magnary whe the roots n the thrd ffth amp c.
uadrants reman rea. Let 0 0 0 amp c. be the roots of the frst
thrd ffth amp c. uadrants. As the frst term of e uaton 25 s
unty we ha e
1 1 1 f. .
where 022 0 2 amp c. are rea post e numercs whe 012 s rea
post e or rea negat e accordng as b s greater than D or ess
than D.
Reso ng now the recproca of nto parta fractons we
fnd
1I N1 N N
w _ - amp c.......... 29
1 02 1 0 1
where
_r -1 _ -2 2 1 - D/b cos 0
1 r d d D/b-Tcos
9.2_2 21 -D/b sn 0.
2 1 - D.b sn
1 - b/D. cos2 . 0
. I .
19
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290
A ES N ATER
29
or 1 and D gt b s as we ha e seen magnary ts s uare
rea negat e and for ths case the formua 0 may be con enenty wrtten
Db - ea
N- -b- b I - I t2a1 e-21
and the e uaton for fndng o- s
E1 E- - -D ba . e - e-u .............. 2
an e uaton whch has one and ony one rea root when D gt b
and no rea root when D t b.
hen b/D s g en t s easy to fnd as the case may be ao of
2 or 01 the frst- uadrant root of 27 by arthmetca tra and
error and the success e roots 02 0 amp c. more and more easy
by the souton of 27 . It s to be remar ed that whate er be
the aue of b/D these roots approach more and more neary to
the superor mts of the uadrants n whch they e: thus f
we put
r- .....................
we ha e
N -_ 1 2 - D/b sn a
D/b - sn2 a -
1- D/b cos a
I 2 -/s....................
_ 2 1 .9 -/- / s cI 4
I - b/D. sn2 a
and sn oa - 1 7r - a D/b. cos a............ 5
or as s con enent for appro maton when s ery arge
a - 1 - a D/b. as/tan a ............ 6
whch shows that as s ncreased to nfnty the aue of a
approaches asymptotcay to D/ b - 7r . Hence when s
ery arge the second member of 6 becomes appro matey
D/b. 1 - a2 and the e uaton becomes
1-D/b - 7r _-D/b......... 7
a uadratc of whch the smaer root when D s ess than b and
the post e root when D s greater than b s the re ured aue
of a..
Gong bac now to 2 and modfyng t by 24 and 29 we
ha e
A /D b. f0 cos a /D
d o- 2....... 8
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-III 291
or accordng to the we- nown e auaton attrbuted by Cauchy
to Lapace of the defnte ntegra ndcated
- - 0/b N e ............... 9
or wth 0 N emnated by and 4
A - 1 / cos a -
1- b/D sn 6 D......... 40
where a a2 ... a denote a the post e roots of 5 .
Ths seres con erges wth e ceedng rapdty when s any
thng greater than D and wth ery con enent rapdty for cacuaton when s e en as sma as a tenth of D. hen 0 the
con ergence has fnay the same order as that of 1 - e e2 - amp c.
when e 1 and we fnd the sum by ta ng as remander haf the
term after the ast term ncuded. The true aue of the sum s
ntermedate between the aues whch we obtan by ths rue for
a certan number of terms and then for one term more. hen t
s desred to obtan the resut wth consderabe accuracy a arge
number of terms woud be re ured and t w no doubt be
preferabe to use my frst method as ndcated abo e.
It remans to dea wth the frst term for the case D gt b whch
ma es t magnary n the form 9 but rea n the form 8
wth - a-12 substtuted for 2. or ths case we ha e by the we nown defnte ntegra frst I bee e e auated by Cauchy
AID o A
2 . b N sn............... 41
where a- and N are g en by 2 and 1 .
It s to be remar ed that nasmuch as 8 has the same
aue for e ua post e and negat e aues of the e auatons
e pressed n 9 and 41 are essentay dscontnuous at 0
and when s negat e - must be substtuted for n the
second member of the formuas. I hope n Part I . to g e
numerca ustratons but wth or wthout numerca ustratons
Here and esewhere n the ntegras the prncpa aue of Cauchy s
adopted. Ths smpy negects the nfnte amptudes n the ntegrand whch
arse from synchronsm wth free bratons n nature such ery arge amptudes
are aways depressed by frctona agences and when the frcton s sght the
range of ths depresson s narrow confned to the ery near neghbourhood of the
free perod so that ther actua contrbuton s neggbe and the prncpa aue
s thus practcay ustfed.
19-2
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292
A ES N ATER
29
the anaytca formua 9 wth 41 for ts frst term and the
sgn of changed throughout when s negat e s partcuary
nterestng as a dscontnuous e presson for a cur e passng contnuousy from one to the other of the two cur es
Y 2-/b o N sn -- for arge post e aues of
and A
y 1- /. N sn D for arge negat e aues of ......... 42 .
or the case of b gt D e ery term of 9 s rea and rememberng that the sgn of s changed when s negat e we
see that t ma es I e ua for e ua post e and negat e aues
of and dmnsh asymptotcay to ero as becomes greater
and greater n ether drecton. It e presses unambguousy the
souton ceary un ue when b gt D of the probem of steady
moton of water n a unform rectanguar cana nterrupted ony
by a snge rdge of magntude A across the bottom. Ths s the
case of eocty of fow greater than that ac ured by a body n
fang through a heght e ua to haf the depth.
It s otherwse n respect to un ueness of the souton when
the eocty of fow s ess than that ac ured by a body n fang
through a heght e ua to haf the depth b t D . or ths case
the formuas 9 and 41 e press a partcuar souton of the
probem of steady moton through a rectanguar cana when
reguarty of the cana s ony nterrupted by the snge rdge of
magntude A. ut we ceary ha e an nfnte number of soutons
of ths probem because n st water n a cana of depth D we
can ha e free wa es of any eocty from ero to /gD whch s
the eocty of an nfntey ong wa e n water of depth D. In
our fowng water then supermpose upon the souton 9 41
any wa e-moton of arbtrary magntude and arbtrary chosen
poston for one of the eros wth wa e-ength such that the
eocty of wa e-propagaton s and the drecton of moton
such as to cause the progresson of the wa e to be up-stream.
The wa e-moton thus nsttuted consttutes a set of free statonary
wa es and the superposton of ths upon the case of moton represented by our symmetrca souton consttutes the genera
souton of the probem of snge-rdge steady moton. To fnd the
arbtrary addton whch we must thus ma e to our symmetrca
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-III 29
souton to fnd the genera souton put 1 nto the foowng
form:
2H emD E-mD - g D e D ......... 4 .
p m 2- ..
Ths shows that f H 0 may ha e any aue that s to say
we may ha e statonary wa es of any magntude o er a pane
bottom f
nD -mD-2 D emD ......... 44 .
Ths s n fact the we- nown e uaton to fnd the eocty
reat ey to the water of perodc wa es of wa e-ength 27r/m n
a cana of depth D. or us at present e uaton 44 s to be
oo ed upon as a transcendenta e uaton for determnng the
wa e-ength correspondng to a g en eocty of progress and
t has as we ha e seen ony one rea root when t /gD but no
rea root when gt /gD. Puttng now n 4 2 gb and comparng wth 2 we see that mD o-r and gong bac to e uaton
2 abo e we see that
o - a
Cos-1 - a ..................... 45
cos D. 45
where and a are arbtrary constants s the addton whch we
must ma e to 9 to g e the genera souton for the case b t D.
Puttng together ths and 9 and 41 we accordngy ha e for
the genera souton of the snge-rdge steady-moton probem
for the case of t gD
C cos C A/D N sn D D
when s post e and
h o- A/D I s A/ID oN I
b Ccos D - s.7 EsC - D NeD
cI -D/b T D I -Db 2
when s negat e......... 46
where C and C denote arbtrary constants and A s the profesectona area of the rdge on the bottom.
The moton represented by ths souton wth any aues of C
and C s steady and stabe throughout any fnte ength of the
cana on each sde of the rdge pro ded the water s ntroduced
at one end of the porton consdered and ta en away at the other
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294 A ES N ATER 29
conformaby. If the cana e tends to nfnty n both drectons
and f the water throughout be g en n the state of moton correspondng to the souton 46 the moton throughout any fnte
dstance on each sde of the rdge w contnue for an nfnte
tme conformabe to 46 . The water f g en at rest mght be
started nto ths state of moton n the foowng manner:- rst
dspace ts surface to the shape represented by e uaton 46 and
appy a rgd corrugated d to eep t e acty n ths shape so
that t s now encosed as t were n a rectanguar tube wth one
sde corrugated two sdes pane and the fourth sde the bottom
pane e cept at the pace of the rdge. Ne t by means of a
pston set the water graduay n moton n ths tube. To begn
wth the pressure on the d w n rtue of gra ty be nonunform ess at the hgh parts and greater at the ow parts. If
too great a eocty be g en to the water by the pston the
pressure w n rtue of fud moton be greater at the hgh
parts and ess at the ow parts. If the a erage eocty be made
e acty the pressure w be unform o er the d whch may
then be annued thus the ud s eft mo ng steady under
the surface represented by e uaton 46 as free surface. ut t
s ony n rtue of ths moton beng g en to the fud throughout
an nfnte ength of the cana on each sde of the rdge that the
moton can reman steady on each sde of the rdge conformabe to
46 e cept for the partcuar case of ths genera souton correspondng to
C 0 and C 1A/D............ 47
1- D/b whch reduces 46 to
1- o- N sn 1 0 D when s post e
1 - D/b NsnD 2
and I I N ED when s negat e
pp. 274-5 and s the mathematca souton promsed n the......... 48
ths beng the practca souton for the case of water fowng from
the sde of negat e o er the snge rdge and towards the sde
of post e. It s the mathematca rea aton for the case of a
snge rdge of the crcumstances descrbed n Part I. abo e ante
pp. 274-5 and s the mathematca souton promsed n the
ast sentence of Part II. The demonstraton that ths s the
practcay un ue souton for n scd water fowng n a cana
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1886 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-III 295
wth a snge rdge and the e panaton of how any other state of
moton such for e ampe as that represented by 46 wth any
aue of C and C but g en to the water throughout ony a fnte
dstance on each sde of the rdge settes nto the permanent
steady moton represented by 48 must be reser ed for Part I .
whch I hope w appear n the anuary number.
Meantme the accompanyng dagram represents by two cur es
two cases of the souton 46 for the partcuar aue 2 456 for
D/b that s to say for eocty 6 81 of the crtca eocty /gyD.
The fant cur e represents the souton 46 wth C 0 and C 0.
The hea y cur e represents the practca souton 48 . These
cur es were drawn from cacuatons of a perodc souton accordng to the frst of the two methods ndcated abo e before I had
found the anaytca souton 9 by whch the desred resut
coud ha e been arr ed at wth much ess abour. The fant cur e
was drawn frst by drect cacuaton from the perodc souton:
the etters 1 1 -1 - 1 show on the two sdes of one rdge
uarters of the dstance from rdge to rdge n the perodc souton
one of the rdges beng n the mdde of the dagram. The hea y
cur e s found by addng to the ordnates of the fant cur e the
ordnates of a cur e of snes found by tra to as neary as possbe
annu on the one sde and to doube on the other sde the ordnates
of the orgna cur e. How neary perfect was the annument on
the one sde and the doubng on the other s ustrated by the
sma-scae dagram anne ed fg. whch has been drawn by the
g. .
engra er from a ten tmes arger copy. How neary perfect the
annument and the doubng ought to be at any partcuar dstance
from a snge rdge s now easy cacuated from the second ne of
e uaton 48 and w be actuay cacuated for the case of these
cur es and probaby aso for some other cases for numerca ustratons whch I hope to g e n Part I .
An e tenson of the present n estgaton to the effect of an ne uaty of any
form n the bed of the stream s g en by . E man Arch fr Matemat
Astronom oc Phys and No. 2 1906.
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A ES N ATER
29
PART I . STATI NARY A ES N THE S R ACE PR D CED Y
E IDISTANT RIDGES N THE TT M.
rom the Phosophca Maga ne o. III. anuary 1887 pp. 52-57.
THE most ob ous way of so ng ths probem s by the use of
perodc functons whch we ha e been so we taught by ourer
n hs Mathematca Theory of Heat and n ths way t was
so ed n Part III. formuas 1 to 15 the souton beng 15
Part III. wth
c n 27r/a...........1...... 1
where a denotes the dstance from rdge to rdge. Thus reproducng 15 Part III. wth the notaton modfed to shorten t n
form and to sut t for numerca computaton we ha e
1 _t E 4A/a. cos r
e- -M -1 e - e-
where denotes heght abo e mean e e of the water
at dstance from the pont o er one of the
rdges
A denotes profe-sectona area of one of the
rdges
4 denotes 27r /a .
e denotes e27//a
M denotes the g/m 2 of Part III. 6 to 18 or
a/27rb
b denotes 2/g
and D denotes the depth
Thus n 2 we ha e an e presson for the surface-effect of an
endess successon of e udstant rdges on the bottom. e sha
see presenty that f the successon of rdges s fnte the resut
e pressed by 2 w not be appro mated to by ncreasng the
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1887 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-I
297
number of rdges. The dfference n the effect of a mon e udstant rdges from that of a mon and one e udstant rdges
n respect to the corrugatons on the surface of the fud o er any
part of the seres may be as great as the dfference between the
effects of a thousand and of a thousand and one or between the
effects of ten and of ee en: and the absoute effect of four or s
or eght may be sensby the same as or may be greater than or
may be ess than the effect of a mon n respect to the condton
of the surface o er the space between the two mdde rdges. The
aw wardness of. the consderaton of nfnty for our present case
s beautfuy done away wth after the manner of ourer by
substtutng for an nfnte cana an endess cana or a cana
formng a compete crcutt: a crcuar cana as we may magne
t to be athough t mght be cur ed of any form pro ded ony
that whether t be crcuar or not crcuar the radus of cur ature
at any pont s ery great compared wth the breadth of the cana.
Ths condton s a that s necessary to aow the moton of the
water n e ery part of the cana to be so neary two-dmensona
that our formuas for two-dmensona moton n a straght
cana sha be practcay appcabe to the water n the cur ed
cana.
Now et there be any ntegra number n of e udstant rdges
n the crcut and et a be the dstance from rdge to rdge.
Superposton by smpe addton of soutons of the formua 2
g es for the surface effect
4A/a. I cos
1 e e- - M- e - e-
It s curous that the word endess shoud n common usage and especay
n technoogy ha e so dfferent a meanng from nfnte. Thus e ery one
understands what s meant by an endess cord. An nfnte cord means
n common anguage an nfntey ong cord-a cord whch has no mt to the
greatness of ts ength.
t A curous pece of ogca usage n mathematca anguage accordng to
whch an encosng cur e s caed a cosed cur e must henceforth be absoutey
a oded. It has aready ed to endess troube n eectrca nomencature accordng
to whch n common anguage an eectrc crcut s sad to be cosed when a
current can pass through t and to be open when a current cannot pass through t.
I bee e a or amost a Engsh wrters on eectrca sub ects ha e been guty
of ths absurdty. I doubt whether any one of them woud say a road round a par
s open when a gate on t s cosed and s cosed when e ery gate on t s open.
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298
A ES N ATER
29
The consderaton of cases of dfferent aues of n e en or odd
eads to nterestng ustratons both of mathematca prncpes
and of practca resuts n dynamcs but for the present I confne
mysef to the case of n I for whch 4 becomes dentca
wth 2 .
Remar now that f M e - e- / e e- practcay constant
for arge aues of s an nteger the denomnator of 2 anshes
for the case of e ua to ths nteger. Ths s the case n whch
the ength of the crcut of the cana s an ntegra number of
tmes the wa e-ength of free wa es n water of depth D. The
nterpretaton s ob ous and s nterestng both n tsef and n
ts reaton to correspondng probems n many branches of physca
scence.
Meantme remar ony that when the aue of
M e- e- / e e-
approaches ery neary to any nteger the chef term of 2 s
that for whch and a the other terms are reat ey ery
sma. Thus the chef effect s forced statonary wa es of wa eength a/ . Thus f we consder dfferent eoctes of fow
approachng more and more neary to the eocty whch ma es
1 e-e- / e e- an nteger the magntude of the forced
statonary wa es s greater and greater for the same magntude
of rdge but the moton s st perfecty determnate. Suppose
now we ma e the rdge smaer and smaer so that the wa eheght of the statonary wa e may ha e any moderate aue as
the eocty approaches more and more neary to that whch ma es
M e - e- / e e- an nteger the magntude of the rdge must
be smaer and smaer and n the mt must be ero. Thus
wth no rdge at a we may ha e statonary wa es of any g en
moderate aue n the mtng case -that n whch the eocty
of the fow e uas the eocty of a wa e of wa e-ength a/ .
ut now et us consder the case of M e - e- / e e- as far
as possbe from beng an nteger that s to say
M e - e- / e e- ............... 5
where s an nteger. or a aues of ess than 1 the
denomnator of 2 s ceary negat e wth decreasng absoute
aues up to and for a aues of greater than t s
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1887 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-I
299
post e wth ncreasng aues from 1 to o. Thus
the absoute magntudes of the coeffcents of cos r n the success e terms of the seres from the begnnng are negat e wth
ncreasng absoute aues up to and after that post e
wth decreasng aues con ergng utmatey accordng to the
rato e-1. Rememberng that e 2rD/a we see that the con ergence s suggsh when a the dstance from rdge to rdge or
the ength of the crcut n the case of an endess cana wth one
rdge ony s ery arge n comparson wth the depth but that
when a s ess than the depth or not more than f e or ten tmes
the depth an e ceedngy nterestng cass of cases the con ergence s ery rapd.
e sha fnd presenty howe er another souton st more
con ergent much more con ergent ndeed for the greater part of
the confguraton whate er be the rato of D to a a souton
whch s hghy con ergent n e ery case e cept for aues of
consderaby smaer than the depth. The cacuaton for these
sma aues of s necessary to g e the shape of the water-surface
at dstances on each sde of the ertca through the rdge sma
n comparson wth the depth: for ths purpose and for ths purpose
ony s the souton 2 ndspensabe. or n estgatng a
other parts of the confguraton the new souton s much more
con enent and n o es on the whoe ery much ess of
arthmetca abour. It s found by summaton from the souton
of the snge-rdge probem g en n Part III. 40 41 as
foows.
Let the whoe number of rdges be 1 and et t be
re ured to fnd the shape of the surface between the ertcas
through rdges numbers 1 and 2. Ta e the orgn of the
coordnate n the ertca through number 1 rdge and et
number 2 be on the post e sde of t. The souton w be
found by addng to the souton 40 Part III. soutons dfferng
from 40 ony n ha ng respect ey a 2a ... a
substtuted for and soutons each the same as 40 Part III.
but ha ng - a - 2a ... - a substtuted for . Thus
denotng by S the sum of the effects of the 1 snge-rdges
we fnd
_ 1 -f f 1 _f f- a.
2 -.1..... 6
-I 1 -f
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00
A ES N ATER
29
where
A - 1 cos
C denotes 1 1cosa
D - b/D. sn2 a
L - r -a a o a
f denotes e D or e D
a denotes - - 7r - 0 or the numerc between
ero and 7r/2 whch satsfes the e uaton
- - w - a tan a - D/b 0
D denotes the depth
b denotes 2/g ... 7 .
denotes the eocty of the fow
a denotes the dstance from rdge to rdge
A denotes the profe-sectona area of one of the
rdges
S denotes for the hor onta coordnate the
heght of the water abo e the mean e e of
paces nfntey dstant ether upstream or
downstream from the rdges
Ta e frst the case of b gt D. In ths case as we ha e aready
remar ed n Part III. a ac2... as are a rea and therefore
f f ... f are each rea and ess than unty. Hence n ths case
the seres and the seres of whch the sums appear n 6 are
each con ergent and f we ta e cm and oo 6 becomes
f. a 1- a
.f
e ha e now the same e presson for S whche er of the rdges
be chosen for the orgn of and the aue for a s e ua to
the aue for 0. The water-dsturbance s therefore e ua and
smar n a the spaces from rdge to rdge and the souton 8
from 0 to a e presses wthn the perod the heght of the
water abo e a certan e e not now as n 2 the mean e e
pa
throughout the perod but a e e at a heght S. d /a abo e
the mean e e. Now by ntegraton of 8 we fnd
1 aSd 2
og 1 /f ............. 9 .
a: o. og /f
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1887 N STATI NARY A ES IN L ING ATER-I
01
To e auate the seres formng the second member of ths
e presson remar that by 7 abo e and 4 Part III. we ha e
2C_ - 1 Cos aC A a. N
og If Aa 1 - b/D. sn2a 1 -D/b
Now by puttng - 0 n Part III. 29 and 24 we fnd
N 1 - D/b........................ 11 .
Hence and by 10 9 becomes
Sd A /a....................... 12 .
a o
Denotng now as before by I the heght abo e mean e e
from rdge to rdge we fnd from 8
o fC.Pa f- /a
52 C - A/a.............. 1 .
1-f
The comparson between ths and 2 abo e two dfferent e pressons for the same uantty wth for smpcty D 1 eads
to the foowng remar abe theorem of pure anayss
2 . T
4/a. cos
a
1e e- 2- b e - e-
_1 _ 1 Cos a 6- o e-0 a- 1 1
2 1-b sn2a 1 - e- a
where
a denotes any rea post e numerc
b denotes any numerc gt 1
e denotes e27/a
a denotes the numerc between ero and r/2
whch satsfes the e uaton.. 15
- T7 - a tan a - 1/b 0
denotes - 7r - a
denotes any rea post e numerc t a
The theorem 14 s easy erfed by ta ng d c. cos --
of both members. The frst member of the resut s ob ousy
2 /e e- -. 2 e - e- The second member modfed by
/ L 127rb
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02
A ES N ATER
29
4 29 and 24 of Part III. s found to ha e the same aue.
or the partcuar case of 0 that s to say the mere ntegra
ra
f d of each member the e uaty s pro ed by 12 .
or the most nterestng cases of our physca probem the
souton 1 con erges wth great rapdty e cept for sma aues
of and for these the form of the surface s more easy cacuated
by 2 . Numerca ustratons and the wor ng out of the souton
correspondng to 1 for the case of b t D are reser ed for Part .
whch I am sorry to say must be set asde for some tme. I hope
t w appear n the Apr or May number and that t or Part I.
w contan practca ustratons such as the statonary wa es
produced by a deeper pace or a ess deep pace e tendng o er a
consderabe ength of the stream whch s ery easy wor ed out
from our souton 40 48 Part III. for the effect of a snge
nfntesma rdge. I hope to pass ne t to the effect of surface
dsturbance wth nterestng appcatons to the ueston of the
towage of a boat n a cana and the beautfu practca dsco eres
of Mr Houston and Mr Scott Russe referred to at the commencement of Part III. If I succeed n carryng out my ntenton ths
seres of Artces on Statonary a es w end wth the n estgaton of the wa e-group produced by a shp mo ng through the
water wth unform eocty promsed at the commencement of
Part I. and suggestons for e tenson n the drecton towards the
theory of the effect of the wnd n generatng wa es at sea.
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1887
0
0. N THE A ES PR D CED Y A SINGLE IMP LSE IN
ATER ANY DEPTH R IN A DISPERSI E MEDI M.
rom the Phosophca Maga ne o. II. March 1887 pp. 252-255 ha ng
been read before the Roya Socety rd ebruary 1887 Proceedngs
o. LI. p. 80.
R bre ty and smpcty consder ony the case of twodmensona moton.
A that t s necessary to now of the medum s the reaton
between the wa e- eocty and the wa e-ength of an endess
processon of perodc wa es. The resut of our wor w show
us that the eocty of progress of a ero or ma mum or
mnmum n any part of a aryng group of wa es s e ua to
the eocty of progress of perodc wa es of wa e-ength e ua
to a certan ength whch may be defned as the wa e-ength n
the neghbourhood of the partcuar pont oo ed to n the group
a ength whch w generay be ntermedate between the
dstances from the pont consdered to ts ne t-neghbour correspondng ponts on the precedng and foowng wa es .
Let f m denote the eocty of propagaton correspondng
to wa e-ength 27r/m. The ourer-Cauchy-Posson synthess
g es
1 r
u 2- dm cos m - tf m ............ 1
for the effect at pace and tme t of an nfntey ntense
dsturbance at pace and tme 0 0 . The prncpe of nterference as set forth by Prof. Sto es and Lord Rayegh n ther
theory of group- eocty and wa e- eocty suggests the foowng
treatment for ths ntegra: hen - tf m s ery arge the parts of the ntegra 1
whch e on the two sdes of a sma range p - a to / a ansh
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04 A ES N ATER 0
by annung nterference beng a aue or the aue of m
whch ma es
d m tf m .................. 2
so that we ha e
t f a f A t..................
where f /L Lf / .................... 4
and we ha e by Tayor s theorem for m - A ery sma
mn I - t m / : - tf - t f/ 2f I m - ... 5
or modfyng by
m - tf rm t /2f A/ - Lf / - 2f A m -. 2 .. 6 .
Put now
Im- a 1 1-Ad .......e
t2 - t f - 2f tA 2
and usng the resut n 1 we fnd
/2 f da cos ta2f A o-2
I-............ 8
27rt2 - A// - 2f/ p
the mts of the ntegra beng here -oo to oo because the
denomnator of 7 s so nfntey great that though a the
arbtrary mts of m - A/ are nfntey sma a mutped by t
s nfntey greatt.
Now we ha e
do-cos2 0 do- sn2 ......... 9 .
Hence 8 becomes
cos t2f /t - sn tL2f/ L 1/2 cos ta2f/ L Trr
27r t2 - /L L - 2f /. 2 2rr2 t f - 2f 4 ......... 10 .
Ths s the group- eocty accordng to Lord Rayegh s genera aton of
Prof. Sto es s orgna resut. or further e tenson on the nes of the present
paper see atmore Lectures App. C pp. 528-5 1 and paper on Deep-Sea
Shp a es reprnted nfra 80 se . aso H. Lamb Hydrodynamcs rd ed.
1906 25 T. H. Ha eoc Proc. Roy. Soc. Aug. 1908 pp. 98-4 0 and
G. Green Proc. . S. E. o. uy 1909.
T Mr Green ponts out that ths condton of ery great denomnator s not
needed greatness of t suffcng by tsef to ustfy the nfnte mts: cf.
e uaton 14 nfra.
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1887 N THE A ES PR D CED Y A SINGLE IMP LSE 05
To pro e the aw of wa e-ength and wa e- eocty for any
pont of the group remar that by
t/2f p - tf
and therefore the numerator of 10 s e ua to /2 cos 0 where
0 4 - tf Ir......... ......... 10
and by 2 and
d/d 1 / - tf 0
by whch we see that
d /d 1A and d /dt - f p ......... 10
whch pro es the proposton.
E ampe 1 . As a frst e ampe ta e deep-sea wa es we
ha e
f m .......................... 1
whch reduces 4 and 10 to
-I. 12
2........................ 12
and t................. 1
g1 t gt2. gt2 gt gt2 7r
u 2 -r- cos sn aos - 14
2 M- 4 y 4 2 4 4
whch s Cauchy and Posson s resut for paces where s ery
great n comparson wth the wa e-ength 27r// that s to say
for pace and tme such that gt2/4 s ery arge.
E ampe 2 . a es n water of depth D
f m m 1 e-2m.-.... ........ 15 .
E ampe . Lght n a dspers e medum.
E ampe 4 . Capary gra tatona wa es
f m 4 TM ............. 16 .
E ampe 5 . Capary wa es
f m Tm ............................. 17 .
. I . 20
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06
A ES N ATER
0
E ampe 6 . a es of fe ure runnng aong a unform
eastc rod
f m ........................ 18
where denotes the fe ura rgdty and w the mass per unt of
ength.
These ast three e ampes ha e been ta en by Lord Rayegh
as appcatons of hs genera aton of the theory of group eocty and he has ponted out n hs Standng a es n
Runnng ater London Mathematca Socety December 1
188 the mportant pecuarty of e ampe 4 n respect to
the crtca wa e-ength whch g es mnmum wa e- eocty
and therefore group- eocty e ua to wa e- eocty. The
wor ng out of our present probem for ths case or any case
n whch there are ether mnmums or ma mums or both
ma mums and mnmums of wa e- eocty s partcuary
nterestng but tme does not permt ts beng ncuded n the
present communcaton.
or e ampes 5 and 6 the denomnator of 10 s magnary
and the proper modfcaton from 7 forwards g es for these
and such cases nstead of 10 the foowng:cos t2f / sn tp f a 19 .
271........... 19 .
2 rg t Af t 2f p
The resut s easy wrtten down for each of the two ast
cases E ampes 5 and 6 .
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1887
07
1. N THE R NT AND REAR A REE PR CESSI N
A ES IN DEEP ATER.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Edn. an. 7 1887 Ph. Mag. o. .
ebruary 1887 pp. 11 -120.
Repaced ater by a Paper on dfferent nes n Ph. Mag. ct. 1904:
aso substantay ncuded n a Paper n Ph. Mag. an. 1907 127-158:
both reprnted nfra.
Not to be prnted because n my R. S. E. paper of eb. 1 and ts successor
now n hand the whoe substance of t wth promsed e tensons s g en n
much better and more easy read form. . Mentone March 0 1904 .
2. N SHIP A ES.
A Lecture n conne on wth the Insttuton of Mechanca Engneers
Conference at Ednburgh Aug. 1887.
Reprnted from Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 1887 n Popuar Lectures and
Addresses o. III. pp. 450-500 some of the ustratons beng omtted.
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08
. N THE PR PAGATI N LAMINAR M TI N THR GH
A T R LENTLY M ING IN ISCID LI ID.
rom rt. Assoc. Report 1887 pp. 486-495 Ph. Mag. o. I .
ct. 1887 pp. 42- 5 .
1. IN endea ourng to n estgate turbuent moton of water
between two f ed panes for a promsed communcaton to Secton
A of the rtsh Assocaton at ts Meetng n Manchester I ha e
found somethng seemngy towards a souton many tmes tred
for wthn the ast twenty years of the probem to construct by
g ng orte moton to an ncompressbe n scd fud a medum
whch sha transmt wa es of amnar moton as the umnferous
ether transmts wa es of ght .
2. Let the fud be unbounded on a sdes and et u w
be the eocty-components and p the pressure at y t . e
ha e
du d dw
d dy d....................
du I du du du dp
- e w 7 ............ 2
d- w dt d dy d d 2
d d d d dp
7 - - w ..........
dt da dy d dy......
dw dw dw dw dp
dt d dy d d .....
rom 2 4 we fnd ta ng 1 nto account
P d2 d y2 dw 2 d dw dw d dw dud
- 2 - 2 - - - ---d dy d d dy d d dy d ......... 5 .
Cf. G. . t Gerad Nature May 9 1889 Proc. Roy. Dub. Soc. 1899 and
. A. Report 1899 or n Scentfc Papers 1902 pp. 254 472 484. See aso
snpra p. 202.
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1887 N LAMINAR M TI N THR GH A T R LENT LI ID 09
. The eocty-components u w may ha e any aues
whate er through a space sub ect ony to 1 . Hence on
ourer s prncpes we ha e as a perfecty comprehens e
e presson for the moton at any nstant
u E ef sn m e os ny f cos . 6
mn
mn
ef cos m e sn ny f c s g ... 7
w Y m cosm e os nym f sn g ... 8
mn n
e f g e f g e f a
where a n f e are any three eoctes satsfyng
the e uaton
e f g ef g e f g ............ 9
0 -- m m n m n y m n ............ 9
and 2E E2 2 summaton or ntegraton for dfferent aues of
m n e f g. The summatons for e f g may wthout oss of
generaty be each confned to two aues: e and e 7r
f 0 andf - 7 g 0 and g 7r. e sha admt arge aues
and nfnte aues of m- n- -1 under certan condtons 4
10 11 12 and 15 beow but otherwse we sha suppose
the greatest aue of each of them to be of some moderate or
e ceedngy sma near magntude. Ths s an essenta of the
a eragngs to whch we now proceed.
4. Let a a y a denote space-a erages near surface
and sod through nfntey great spaces defned and ustrated
by e ampes each wor ed out from 6 7 8 as foows L
denotng an nfntey great ength or a ery great mutpe of
whche er of m- n- - may be concerned:I1 L 7 c fgg
a u 1 d u a. 2 aA o cos ny f cos g
-L -L n ......... 10
a u d d u 2 a f cos ny f ... 11
2 -L -L n
1 rL L L pr 0 0
y a u - L d dyd u ........... 12
a u 2 S a e 2 os ny f cos2 g .. 1
mnn
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10
A ES N ATER

ths wth the e ceptons that
n the case of m e 0 we ta e 0 n pace of
and n the case of m e -7 1
a 2 - f 2 n................. 14
mn
a r f g 0
m g m n
mn
f g tI f g
-a m n m n cos ny f sn ny f ......... 5
wth the e ceptons for 14 that
n the case of m 0and e 0
gt we ta e 0 nstead of -
and n the case of 0 and g wr
n the case of m and e Tr 1 1
and n the case of and g 0 2 4
n the case of 0 e T7r n f -r 1
and anaogous e ceptons for 15 .
efg f g e 2
y a 2 1 m n ................. 16
wth e ceptons for eros of m and anaogous to those of 14 .
5. As a ast e ampe of a eragngs for the present ta e
y a of 5 . Thus we fnd
y a 2meof g t e fg e f g e f g 2
- y a 2p 8-2 ma m n 2 n m - y m
-0 by 9 ......... 1 7 .
The nterpretaton s ob ous.
6. Remar as a genera property of ths nd of a eragng
d
a 0........................... 18
f be any uantty whch s fnte for nfntey great aues
of .
7. Suppose now the moton to be homogeneousy dstrbuted
through a space. Ths mpes that the centres of nerta of a
great oumes of the fud ha e e ua parae motons f any motons
at a. Con enenty therefore we ta e our reference nes
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1887 N LAMINAR M TI N THR GH A T R LENT LI ID 11
0 Y as f ed reat ey to the centres of nerta of three and
therefore of a centres of nerta of arge oumes n other
words we assume no transatory moton of the fud as a whoe.
Ths ma es ero of e ery arge a erage of m and of and of w
and n passng we may remar wth reference to our notaton of
that t ma es as we see by 10 11 12
0 0 n a n 0 a m n 0 / 0 ... m 0 . 19 .
thout for the present howe er encumberng ourse es wth
the ourer-e presson and notaton of we may wrte as the
genera e presson for nuty of transatona mo ement n arge
oumes
0 a e u a e a e w.............. 20
where a e denotes the a erage through any great ength of straght
or cur ed ne or area of pane or cur ed surface or through any
great oume of space.
8. In terms of ths genera ed notaton of a erages homogeneousness mpes
a e u2 2 a e 2 2 a e 2 2... 21
a e w C a ewu CA a e u A ... 22
where A C are s eoctes ndependent of the
postons of the spaces n whch the a erages are ta en. These
e uatons are howe er nfntey short of mpyng though
mped by homogeneousness.
9. Suppose now the dstrbuton of moton to be sotropc.
Ths mpes but s nfntey more than s mped by the
foowng e uatons n terms of the notaton of 8 wth further
notaton R to denote what we sha ca THE A ERAGE EL CITY
of the turbuent moton:
12 2 2 R2................. 2
C.............................. 24 .
10. Large uestons now present themse es as to transformatons whch the dstrbuton of turbuent moton w
e perence n an nfnte ud eft to tsef wth any dstrbuton
g en to t ntay. If the nta dstrbuton be homogeneous
through a arge oumes of space e cept a certan arge fnte
space S through whch there s ntay ether no moton or
turbuent moton homogeneous or not but not homogeneous wth
the moton through the surroundng space w the fud whch
at any tme s wthn S ac ure more and more neary as tme
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12
A ES N ATER

ad ances the same homogeneous dstrbuton of moton as that of
the surroundng space t utmatey the moton s homogeneous
throughout
11. If the answer were yes coud t be that ths e ua aton
woud come to pass through smaer and smaer spaces as tme
ad ances In other words woud any g en dstrbuton homogeneous on a arge enough scae become more and more fne-graned
as tme ad ances Probaby yes for some nta dstrbutons
probaby no for others. Probaby yes for orte moton g en
contnuousy through a of one arge porton of the fud whe
a the rest s rrotatona.
12. Probaby no for the nta moton g en n the shape of
e ua and smar Hemhot rngs of proportons sutabe for
nd dua stabty and each of o era dameter consderaby
smaer than the a erage dstance from nearest neghbours.
Probaby aso no though the rngs be of ery dfferent oumes
and ortctes. ut probaby yes f the dameters of the rngs
or of many of them be not sma n comparson wth dstances
from neghbours or f the nd dua rngs each an endess sender
fament be entanged or neary entanged among one another.
1 . Agan a ueston: If the nta dstrbuton be homogeneous and ceootropc w t become more and more neary sotropc as tme ad ances and utmatey ute sotropc Probaby
yest for any random nta dstrbuton whether of contnuous
rotatonay-mo ng fud or of separate fnte orte rngs.
Possby no for some symmetrca nta dstrbuton of orte
rngs conce aby stabe.
14. If the nta dstrbuton be homogeneous and sotropc
and therefore uttery random n respect to drecton w t
reman so Certany yes. I proceed to n estgate a mathematca formua deducbe from the answer whch w be of use
to us ater 18 . y 22 and 24 we ha e
a u 0 for a aues of t............ 25 .
ut by 2 and we fnd
d d u d u d u dp dp
- a u - a u -- - w - u --
dt d dy d d dy ......... 26 .
No . T. Netherha Aug. 10 1889. See p. 202 supra.
No ecause n fact such feootropy as that of 20 s merey transatona
moton of ud and ortces. .T.
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1887 N LAMINAR M TI N THR GH A T R LENT LI ID 1
Hence
a d ud d d u dp dp..
0 a u Ms - mu 27 .
d c dy d dc dy
Ths e uaton n fact hods for e ery random case of moton
satsfyng 0 beow because post e and negat e aues of
u w are a e uay probabe and therefore the aue of the
second member of 27 s doubed by addng to tsef what. t
becomes when for u w we substtute -u - -w whch
t may be remar ed and erfed by oo ng at 5 does not
change the aue of p.
15. e sha now suppose the nta moton to consst of
a amnar moton f y 0 supermposed on a homogeneous
and sotropc dstrbuton u0 o w so that we ha e
whent 0 u f y u0 o w wo...... 28
and we sha endea our to fnd such a functon f y t that at
any tme t the eocty-components sha be
f y t u w....................... 29
where u w are uanttes of each of whch e ery arge enough
a erage s ero so that partcuary for e ampe
0 a u a a w............... 0 .
16. Substtutng 29 for u w n 2 we fnd
df y t du Sf y t du df
dt dt- f t d dy
du d du dp 1 .
-u w d ... 1 .
d c dy d d a
Ta e now a of both members. The second term of the
frst member and the second term of the second member dsappear each n rtue of 0 . The frst and ast terms of the
second member dsappear each n rtue of 18 aone and aso
each n rtue of 0 . There remans
gt d ty - a d - w...... 2
dt d dy d
To smpfy add to the second member by 1
0 - du u d dw - u .
0 - a ud - -.........
du d dw
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14
A ES N ATER

and the frst and thrd par of terms of the thus-modfed second
member anshng by 18 fnd
df y t a d u
- a .................. 4 .
dt dy
It s to be remar ed that ths resut n o es besdes 1 no
other condton respectng u w than 0 no sotropy no
homogeneousness n respect to y and ony homogeneousness of
regme wth respect to y and wth no mean transatona
moton.
The -transatona mean component of the moton s whoy
represented by f y t and so far as our estabshment of 4
s concerned may be of any magntude great or sma reat ey
to eocty-components of the turbuent moton. It s a fundamenta formua n the theory of the turbuent moton of water
between two panes and I had found t n endea ourng to treat
mathematcay my brother Prof. ames Thomson s theory of the
ow of ater n nform Regme n R ers and other pen
Channes . In endea ourng to ad ance a step towards the aw
of dstrbuton of the amnar moton at dfferent depths I was
surprsed to dsco er the seemng possbty of a aw of propagaton
as of dstortona wa es n an eastc sod whch consttutes the
concuson of my present communcaton on the supposton
of 15 that the dstrbuton 0 0 w0 s sotropc and that
df y t /dy d ded by the greatest aue of f y t s nfntey
sma n comparson wth the smaest aues of m n n the
ourer-formume 6 7 8 for the turbuent moton.
17. y 4 we see that f the turbuentt moton remaned
through tme sotropct as at the begnnng f y t woud reman
constanty at ts nta aue f y . To fnd whether the
turbuent moton does reman sotropct and f t does not to
fnd what we want to now of ts de aton from sotropy et us
fnd a d tt /dt by 2 and as foows:- rst by mutpyng 1 by and by u and addng we fnd
df y t d u d df y t
dt - f y t
dt d dy
Proc. Roy. Soc. Aug. 15 1878.
t Modfy ths. . T.
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1887 N LAMINAR M TI N THR GH A T R LENT LI ID 15
Ta ng a of ths and remar ng that the frst term of the
frst member dsappears by 0 and the frst term of the second
member by 18 we fnd wth 2 as n 8 9 to denote the
a erage y-component- eocty of the turbuent moton
d d
d a - 2 t............ 6
where
f u d d dp d 7
a d w- d y 7 .
d dy d d dy
18. Let
p p ........................... 8
where p denotes what p woud be f f were ero. e fnd
by 5
- 2 2 dr y d 9
dy d ..................
and by 27 and 7
d dy
a d u................... 40 .
So far we ha e not used ether the supposton of nta
sotropy for the turbuent moton or of the nfntesmaness of
df/dy. e now must ntroduce and use both suppostons.
19. To factate the ntegraton of 9 we now use our
supposton that d/dy.f y t d ded by the greatest aue of
f y t s nfntey sma n comparson wth m n whch as
s easy pro ed g es
2 y t 1 d
dy - 2 d 41
by whch 40 becomes
- df/ y t o d d - d
- 2 a d- 2...... 42 .
dy d dy d .
Now by sotropy we ha e
2 a o0 d 0 A
a d dy d
d2 d d d d . 4
a o0 -7 - o - o - 7 02 . 4
d d 2 d 2 d d dy
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16
A ES N ATER

Performng ntegratons by parts for the ast two terms of the
second member and usng 1 we fnd
d d d -2o - - duo dw d -
a uo - w - 0 - a u d - o2
d d dy d d dy
d o d
a dy -2 o
dy dy
and so we fnd by 4 and 42
df y t I d2 d2 d d
_ / a o y .-2.. 44 .
ay d 2 ay dy
20. sng now the ourer e panson 7 for o we fnd
- -2 0 E ef g cos a e sn ny f cos g
- m n 7m2 2 2......... 45 .
Hence we fnd wth suff es amp c. dropped
d d 0 - -
a d- d -2 - -m2 n2 2... 46
dy dy 8 m2 n2 2
and
_d2 _ d2 - nSY M2 2 / 2
d d 7-2 .......
a d2 d2 o 8M 2 2 2 2. 47 .
Now n rtue of the a erage unformty of the consttuent terms
mped n sotropy and homogeneousness 7 8 9 the second
member of 46 s e ua to 8 EE2S / 2 and therefore 9
e ua to - 1R2 and smary we see that the second member of
47 s e ua to 2R2. Hence fnay by 44
o - -R df y t
- dy........... 48
and 6 for t 0 wth R2 for 2 on account of sotropy
becomes
a u -2Rs dy t . 9
-t a s d - 9. t 0......... 49 .
dt Idy o
The de aton from sotropy whch ths e uaton showst s
ery sma because of the smaness of df/dy and 27 does not
need sotropy but hods n rtue of 0 . Hence 49 s not
confned to the nta aues aues for t 0 of the two members
because we negect an nfntesma de aton from 2R2 n the
Here and henceforth an a eragng through y-spaces so sma as to co er no
sensbe dfferences off y t but nfntey arge n proporton to n-1 s mped.
t See note to 1 . . T. Aug. 10 1889.
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1887 N LAMINAR M TI N THR GH A T R LENT LI ID 17
frst factor of the second member consderng the smaness of
the second factor. Hence for a aues of t uness so far as the
random character referred to at the end of 1 may be ost
by a rearrangement of ortces tatng 27
d a - 2R2 df y t 50 .
dt 9 dy........
21. Emnatng the frst member from ths e uaton by 4
we fnd
df d........................ 51 .
dt2 -9 dy2
Thus we ha e the ery remar abe resut that amnar dsturbance
s propagated accordng to the we- nown mode of wa es of
dstorton n a homogeneous eastc sod and that the eocty
of propagaton s R /2/ or about 47 of the a erage eocty of
the turbuent moton of the fud. Ths mght seem to go far
towards g ng probabty to the orte theory of the umnferous
ether were t not for the doubtfu pro so at the end of 20.
22. If the undsturbed condton of the medum be a stabe
symmetrca dstrbuton of orte -rngs the suggested taton
by rearrangement cannot occur. or e ampe et t be such
as s represented n fg. 1 where the sma whte and bac crces
g. 1.
11 C g
. a : - /
go et 9t P H
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18
A ES N ATER

represent cross sectons of the rngs: the whte where the rotaton
s opposte to and the bac where t s n the same drecton as
the rotaton of the hands of a watch paced on the dagram facng
towards the spectator. Imagne frst each orte -rng to be n a
porton of the fud contaned wthn a rgd rectanguar bo of
whch four sdes are ndcated by the fne nes crossng one
another at rght anges throughout the dagram and the other
par are parae to the paper at any dstance asunder we e to
magne. Supposng the oume of the rotatonay mo ng
porton of the fud consttutng the rng to be g en there s
ceary one determnate shape and dametra magntude n whch
t must be g en n order that the moton may be steady. Let
t be so g en and f space wth such rectanguar bo es of
ortces arranged facng one another oppostey n the manner
shown n the dagram. Annu now the rgdty of the sdes of
the bo es. The moton contnues unchangedy steady. ut s
t stabe now that the rgd parttons are done away wth No
proof has yet been g en that t s. If t s amnar wa es such
as wa es of ght coud be propagated through t and the eocty
of propagaton woud be R/ 2/ f the sdes of the dea bo es
parae to the undsturbed panes of the rngs are s uare whch
ma es a e u2 a e w2 and f the dstance between the s uare
sdes of each bo bears the proper rato to the sde of the s uare
to ma e a e 2 a e 2 a e w2.
2 . Consder now for e ampe pane wa es or amnar
bratons n panes perpendcuar to the undsturbed panes of
the rngs. The change of confguraton of the ortces n the
course of a uarter perod of a harmonc standng braton
f y t cos cot sn cy whch s more easy ustrated dagrammatcay than a wa e or successon of wa es s ustrated n
fg. 2 for a porton of the fud on each sde of y 0. The upper
part of the dagram represents the state of affars when t 0
the ower when t r/ 2to . ut t must not be o eroo ed that
a ths 22 2 depends on the unpro ed assumpton that the
symmetrca arrangement s stabe.
24. It s e ceedngy doubtfu so far as I can udge after
much an ous consderaton from tme to tme durng these ast
twenty years whether the confguraton represented n fg. 1 or
any other symmetrca arrangement s stabe when the rgdty
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1887 N LAMINAR M TI N THR GH A T R LENT LI ID 19
y
u neg.
f o
passm.
u pos.
d neg.

pos. - b passm.
ndy c
df -
0
g. 2.
Here u means an a erage of the nd descrbed n the footnote on 46
e e are rngs whch are beng e panded
and c c are rngs whch are beng contracted.
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20
A ES N ATER

of the dea parttons encosng each rng separatey s annued
throughout space. It s possbe that the rgdty of two three
or more of the parttons may be annued wthout tatng the
stabty of the steady symmetrc moton but that f t be
annued through the whoe of space for a the parttons the
symmetrc moton s unstabe and the rngs shuffe themse es
nto perpetuay aryng reat e postons wth a erage homogeneousness e the utmate moecues of a homogeneous ud.
I cannot see how under these condtons the tatng rearrangement referred to at the end of 20 can be e pected not
to ta e pace wthn the perod of a wa e or braton. To
suppose the o era dameter of each rng to be ery sma n
proporton to ts a erage dstances from neghbours so that the
crowd woud be anaogous rather to the moecues of a gas than
to those of a ud woud not hep us to escape the tatng
rearrangement whch woud be anaogous to that n estgated by
Ma we n hs admrabe netc theory of the scosty of gases.
I am thus dr en to admt n concuson that the most fa ourabe
erdct I can as for the propagaton of amnar wa es through a
turbuenty mo ng n scd ud s the Scottsh erdct of not
pro en.
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1887 21
4. RECTILINEAL M TI N ISC S L ID ET EEN T
PARALLEL PLANES.
rom the Phosophca Mfaga ne o. I . August 1887 pp. 188-196
ha ng been read before the Roya Socety of Ednburgh uy 15 1887.
27. SINCE the communcaton of the frst of ths seres of
artces to the Roya Socety of Ednburgh n Apr and ts
pubcaton n the Phosophca Maga ne n May and une the
stabty or nstabty of the steady moton of a scous fud has
been proposed as sub ect for the Adams Pr e of the n ersty
of Cambrdge for 1888t. The present communcaton 27-40
so es the smper of the two cases specay referred to by the
E amners n ther announcement and prepares the way for the
n estgaton of the ess smpe by a premnary ayng down
n 27-29 and e uatons 7 to 12 beow of the fundamenta
e uatons of moton of a scous fud ept mo ng by gra ty
between two nfnte pane boundares ncned to the hor on at
any ange I and g en wth any moton de atng nfntey tte
from the determnate steady moton whch woud be the un ue
and essentay stabe souton f the scosty were suffcenty
arge. It seems probabe amost certan ndeed that anayss
smar to that of 8 and 9 w demonstrate that the steady
moton s stabe for any scosty howe er sma and that the
practca unsteadness ponted out by Sto es forty-four years ago
and so admraby n estgated e permentay f e or s years
ago by sborne Reynods s to be e paned by mts of
stabty becomng narrower and narrower the smaer s the
scosty.
Let be chosen n one of the boundng panes parae to
the drecton of the rectnea moton and Y perpendcuar to
See Ph. Mag. uy 1887 p. 142.
t Reprnted supra pp. 166 se . The numberng of the sectons s contnuous
wth that paper.
. I .
21
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22
A ES N ATER
4
the two panes. Let the - y- - component eoctes and the
pressure at y t be denoted by u w and p respect ey
denotng a functon of y t . Then cang the densty of
the fud unty and the scosty /t we ha e as the e uatons of
moton
du d dw
d d- d - 0.................... 1
u u d- d u w 2 - gsn
at- d dy d d
d d d d 2 dpg
dt T d dy d dy cos
dw dw dw dw dp
dt d dy d d
d2 d2 d2
where 2 denotes the Lapacan d2 - d2 d 2
28. If we ha e u w p C-gcosI. y thefour
e uatons are satsfed dentcay e cept the frst of 2 whch
becomes
d d2
dt - 4- g sn I..................... .
cdt -L dy sy2 .
Ths s reduced to
d d2
ct dy2 4
f we put
g sn I/. b2 y2 ............... 5 .
or termna condtons the boundng panes supposed to be
y and y b we may ha e
t when y 0.
t y b ....
where and denote arbtrary functons. These e uatons 4
and 6 show what was found forty-two years ago by Sto es
that the dffuson of eocty n parae ayers pro ded t s
e acty n parae ayers through a scous fud foows ourer s
aw of the near dffuson of heat through a homogeneous sod.
Now towards answerng the hghy mportant and nterestng
ueston whch Sto es rased -Is ths amnar moton unstabe
Sto es s Coected Papers o. I. p. 9 .
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1887 STA ILITY RECTILINEAL M TI N ISC S L ID 2
n some cases -go bac to 1 and 2 and n them suppose
u w to be each nfntey sma: 1 s unchanged 2 wth
emnated by 5 become
du 2 _ y2 du d
-t 8-c/ b CY... 7
dt 2 - - d
d _ d dp
dt 2c b_- -. 2
dw y dw dp
d t b2 y2 2w- _ 9
where c g sn I/ L........................ 10
and for bre ty p denotes nstead of as before the pressure smpy
now the pressure g cos I. y.
e st suppose to be a functon of y and t determned by
4 and 6 . Thus 1 and 7 8 9 are four e uatons whch
wth proper nta and boundary condtons determne the four
un nown uanttes u w p n terms of y t.
29. It s con enent to emnate u and w by ta ng d/d
d/dy d/d of 7 8 9 and addng. Thus we fnd n rtue
of 1
2 d _- c d .................. 11 .
dy YI d -L /
Ths and 8 are two e uatons for the determnaton of and p.
Emnatng p between them we fnd
dc72 d2 d d2 _
t- - -c d c b2 - y2 4... 12
a snge e uaton whch wth proper nta and boundary condtons determnes the one un nown . hen s thus found
8 7 9 determne p u and w.
0. An nterestng and practcay mportant case s presented
by supposng one or both of the boundng panes to be ept
oscatng n ts own pane that s and of 6 to be perodc
functons of t. or e ampe ta e
a cos cot 0..................... 1 .
The correspondng perodc souton of 4 s
e b-y t/w/2 - - - b-y /o /2 / /
a C/ / -_ e-b-2- cos ot - y 14 .
e6b / /2_ /- / /2 21-2
21-2
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24
A ES N ATER
4
In conne on wth ths case there s no partcuar nterest
n supposng a current to be mantaned by gra ty and we
sha therefore ta e c 0 whch reduces 7 8 9 11 12 to
du du d dp
_ ............ 15
dt d dy d .. 1
d d d dp
-dt d / 2 ............ 16
dw dw - dp
d t . -d ............ 17
dt d d
d d
2 d - 2p.................. 18
dyd - P8
d 2 d2 d d72
- d - t 4..................... 19
dt dy2 d d
n a of whch s the functon of y t e pressed by 14 .
These e uatons 15 - 19 are of course satsfed by u 0
0 w 0 p 0. The ueston of stabty s Does e ery
possbe souton of them come to ths n tme It seems to me
probabe that t does but I cannot at present at a e ents enter
on the n estgaton. The case of b c s specay mportant
and nterestng.
1. The present communcaton s confned to the much
smper case n whch the two boundng panes are ept mo ng
reat ey wth constant eocty ncudng as sub-case the
two panes hed at rest and the fud caused by gra ty to mo e
between them. ut we sha frst ta e the much smper subcase n whch there s reat e moton of the two panes and no
gra ty. Ths s the ery smpest of a cases of the genera
ueston of the Stabty or Instabty of the Moton of a scous
ud. It s the second of the two cases prescrbed by the
E amners for the Adams Pr e of 1888. I ha e ascertaned and
I now g e 2- 9 beow the proof that n ths sub-case the
steady moton s whoy stabe howe er sma or howe er great
be the scosty and ths wthout mtaton to two-dmensona
moton of the admssbe dsturbances.
2. In our present sub-case et f b be the reat e eocty of
the two panes so that n 6 we may ta e 0 /8b and
the correspondng steady souton of 4 s
y........................... 20 .
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1887 STA ILITY RECTILINEAL M TI N ISC S L ID 25
Thus e uaton 19 becomes reduced to
do dda - -/y du /
d.............. 21
where r 2
and 18 15 16 17 become
d
2/s g. 22
du du 2- dp.
dt fy d f d . 2
d d dp....... 24
t dy...........
dw dw dp
dt d..... 2 d 25 .
dt d y d -d-.................. 25 .
It may be remar ed that e uatons 22 - 25 mpy 1 and
that any four of the f e determne the four uanttes u w p.
It w st be con enent occasonay to use 1 . e proceed
to fnd the compete souton of the probem before us consstng
of e pressons for u w p satsfyng 22 - 25 for a aues of
y t and the foowng nta and boundary condtons:when t 0: u w to be arbtrary functons 26
of y sub ect ony to 1 ..
u 0 0 w 0 for y 0 and a aues of t... 27 .
m 0 0 w 0 for y b
. rst et us fnd a partcuar souton u w p whch
sha satsfy the nta condtons 26 rrespect ey of the
boundary condtons 27 e cept as foows: 0 when t and 0
0 when t and y b............
Ne t fnd another partcuar souton u b b p satsfyng the
foowng nta and boundary e uatons:u 0 b 0 to when t 0............ 29
u 0 b 0 tu w 0 when y 0..
and when y b
The re ured compete souton w then be
u u u b w to w............ 1 .
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26
A ES N ATER
4
4. To fnd u w remar that f p were ero the compete
ntegra of 21 woud be
a- arb. func. - yt
and ta e therefore as a tra for a type-souton wth / not ero
r - Tr m n-nmt y .................. 2
where T s a functon of t and t denotes /-1. Substtutng
accordngy n 21 we fnd
dt - m - n - m/t 2 2 T............
whence by ntegraton
T C6-gt m2 n2 2-n mt m2/ s2t2 ........... 4 .
y the second of 21 and 2 we fnd
T m n - mPt y
-M 2 _ M8t 2 2..............
m2 n-m/ t 2 2 5
whence by 22
EC m n- mftt y
- 2mT n t ......... 6 .
P nI n - mat 2 2 2
sng ths n 25 and puttng
t m n-mn t y .................. 7
we fnd
d 2/ m T
_ M2 n - n - 2 2 -
dt n-t - 2 n _t 2 2 2 8
whch ntegrated g es .
Ha ng thus found and w we fnd u by 1 as foows: n - mft w 9 .
u .................. 9 .
m
5. Rea ng by addng type-soutons for b and n
wth proper aues of C we arr e at a compete rea typesouton wth for the foowng-n whch denotes an
arbtrary constant: - t-t m2 n2 2 - tmp t m2/m 2t2 C S
2 m2 n - mt 2 2 sn m n m
e- Mt m n2 2 nmpt m2/ 2t C S..
- m2 n f pt 2 2 sn -- 7-r m - n mRt y ... 40 .
m2 n mft 2 : sn I
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1887 STA ILITY RECTILINEAL M TI N ISC S L ID 27
Ths g es when t 0
T sn
n2 s nny m ......... 41
m2 2 C S
whch fufs 28 f we ma e
n /b........................ 42
and aows us by proper summaton for a aues of from 1
to co and summaton or ntegraton wth reference to m and
wth propery determned aues of after the manner of
ourer to g e any arbtrary assgned aue to t o for e ery
aue of y
from -co to o y o y b............ 4 . -o C- C
The same summaton and ntegraton apped to 40 g es
for a aues of t y and then by 8 7 9 we fnd
correspondng determnate aues of w and u.
6. To g e now an arbtrary nta aue w0 to the component of eocty for e ery aue of y add to the
souton u w whch we ha e now found a partcuar souton
u w fufng the foowng condtons: 0 for a aues of t y
w w - w0 for t 0 and a aues of y
and to be found from 25 and 1 by remar ng that 0
ma es by 22 p and therefore 2 and 25 become
du du
dw dw
-dT /y d 2 ............ 46 .
So ng 46 ust as we so ed 21 by 2 4 and then
rea ng and summng to satsfy the arbtrary nta condton
as we dd for n 40 41 42 we ache e the determnaton
of w and by 1 we determne the correspondng u pso facto
satsfyng 45 . Lasty puttng together our two soutons we
fnd
u u w w w ............ 47
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28
A ES N ATER
4
as a souton of 26 wthout 27 n answer to the frst re uston
of . It remans to fnd u b 0 n answer to the second
re uston of .
7. Ths we sha do by frst fndng a rea smpe harmonc
perodc souton of 21 22 2 25 fufng the condton
u A cos wt sn wt
C cos cot D sn cot when y
w E cos cot sn cot
u 2. cos cot snt 48
cos ot sn cot when y b
w cos cot 4 sn cot
where A C D E S E are twe e arbtrary
functons of . Then by ta ng dwf o of each of these
after the manner of ourer we so e the probem of determnng
the moton produced throughout the fud by g ng to e ery
pont of each of ts appro matey pane boundares an nfntesma
dspacement of whch each of the three components s an arbtrary
functon of t. Lasty by ta ng these functons each 0
from t -o to t 0 and each e ua to mnus the aue of
u w for e ery pont of each boundary we fnd the u b to of
. The souton of our probem of 2 s then competed by
e uatons 1 . To do a ths s a mere routne after an magnary
type-souton s pro ded as foows.
8. To satsfy 21 assume
e wt m
t m Hey / m2 2 e-y / m2 2
2 m2 2 y 2 2 dye 2 2 Lf y M
- y m2 2 dy /.2 2 f y yM ... 49
where H L M are arbtrary constants and f any two
partcuar soutons of
t a m/y d - m2 2 ......... 50 .
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1887 STA ILITY RECT1LINEAL M TI N ISC S L ID 29
Ths e uaton f we put 1/ L y and m2 2 / ........ 51
becomes dy2 ry -................... 52
whch ntegrated n ascendng powers of tyy g es two
partcuar soutons whch we may con enenty ta e for our f
and as foows:-f -2 yy 7-4 ty 6 7-6 y 9 amp
f D - .2 6.5. .2 9.8.6.5. .2
y-2 .ey 4 7-4 yy 7 76 ty amp c.
- sy 4. 7.6.4. 10.9.7.6.4. ......... 5 .
9. These seres are essentay con ergent for a aues of y.
Hence n 49 we ha e a souton contnuous from y 0 to y b
and by ts four arbtrary constants we can g e any prescrbed
aues to and d /dy for y 0 and y b. Ths done fnd p
determnatey by 24 and then ntegrate 25 for w n an
essentay con ergent seres of ascendng powers of tyy whch
s easy wor ed out but need not be wrtten down at present
e cept n abstract as foows:w 0 t t m .................... 54
where
H1 tyy 2 tyy L tyY
M 4 ty Pey n2 2 e-y m2 2 55
Here P and are the two fresh constants due to the ntegraton
for w. y these we can g e to any prescrbed aues for
y 0 and y b. Lasty by 1 wth 49 we ha e
u e t m I
where d - . 56 .
where - I d ................ 56 .
mt dy m
ur s arbtrary constants H L M P ceary aow
us to g e any prescrbed aues to each of 6 for y
and for y b. Thus the competon of the rea ed probem wth
rea data of arbtrary functons as descrbed n 7 becomes a
mere affar of routne.
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0
A ES N ATER
4
40. Now remar that the u w souton of 4 comes
essentay to nothng asymptotcay as tme ad ances as we
see by 4 and 8 . Hence the u b b of 7 whch
rse graduay from ero at t 0 comes asymptotcay to ero
agan as t ncreases to oo. e concude that the steady moton
s stabe .
R AD RI ER L ING D N AN INCLINED PLANE ED.
rom the Phosophca Maga ne o. . September 1887 pp. 272-278.
41. Consder now the second of the two cases referred to n
27-that s to say the case of water on an ncned pane
bottom under a f ed parae pane co er ce for e ampe .
both panes nfnte n a drectons and gra ty e erywhere
unform. e sha ncude as a sub-case the cy co er mo ng
wth the water n contact wth t whch s partcuary nterestng .
because as t annus tangenta force at the upper surface t s
for the steady moton the same case as that of a broad open r er
fowng unformy o er a perfecty smooth ncned pane bed. It
s not the same e cept when the moton s steady amnar the
dfference beng that the surface s ept rgorousy pane but not
It woud seem cf. Lord Rayegh n the ueston of the Stabty of the
ow of uds Ph. Mag. . 1892 pp. 59-70: Scentfc Papers . p. 582
that n addton to the forced moton determned n 40 the fud s capabe of a
set of free motons n each of whch the eocty at the boundary s nu. In the
te t annung u w or what s the same and d /dy n 9 at each
boundary eads as ony the ratos of the s constants are n o ed to a perod
e uaton n w ntroducng for each free perod norma types of moton whose scae
of magntude s undetermned: magnary aues of these free perods mght n o e
nstabty. A smar crtcsm s apped by Lord Rayegh hmsef to the argument
of the sectons ne t foowng. The e permenta n estgaton of sborne Reynods
referred to nfra appear to show howe er that wthn certan mts of the eocty
of fow the steady fow s practcay stabe. ne suggeston mentoned by Lord
Rayegh oc. ct. s that as there s no contnuous transton from steady moton
wth sma scosty to moton of perfect fud wth no scosty the actua moton
of a fud of sma scosty may n o e nstabtes n a ery thn ayer aong
the boundary cf. nfra . In any case the n estgatons n the te t woud perhaps .
n addton to the nterestng genera remar s st retan an appcaton as determnng how far steady amnar moton f somehow estabshed s susceptbe to
dsturbance by the acton of outsde forces.
In repy to an n ury Lord Rayegh now refers to a paper by Prof. . MC . rr
Proc. Roy. Irsh Acad. . No. 1907 e tendng hs own pre ous crtcsm
somewhat as abo e wth whch he s dsposed to agree. In that paper howe er
arguments are g en pp. 72 74 99 whch are hed to ma e t probabe that the
free nterna motons fade away e ponentay and that the forced oscaton determned n the te t s the actua souton t s urged that t does n fact satsfy
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1887 R AD RI ER L ING D N AN INCLINED ED
1
free from tangenta force by a rgd co er whe the open surface
s ept amost but not ute rgorousy pane by gra ty and
rgorousy free from tangenta force. ut pro ded the bottom
s smooth the smaness of the dmpes and tte round hoows
whch we see on the surface produced by turbuence when the
moton s turbuent seems to pro e that the moton must be
ery neary the same as t woud be f the upper surface were
ept rgorousy pane and free from tangenta force.
42. The sub-case descrbed n 1 ha ng been dsposed of
n 2-40 we now ta e the ncudng case descrbed n the
frst haf-sentence of 1 for whch we ha e as steady souton
accordng to 5
a y- cy..................... 57
f we rec on y from the bottom upwards. Thus 7 8 9 11
12 become
du e du dp
dt Y- 2 d -y d...... 58
d2 y 2 gnd d .
d _ d dp
d 2 y - d 2 d...... 59
dt y -.dy.
dw dw dp 6
- - a...... 60
dt yc- Y d d .
d
2 /- cy d - 2p... 61
d72 d d 2 -
dt - ............ 62 .
4 . e ha e not now any such smpe parta souton as
that of 4 5 6 for the sub-case there deat wth and we
proceed at once to the rtuay ncus e n estgaton specfed
n 7 and as n 8 assume
eL t m ..................... 6 .
29 as s here tacty assumed. There aso dscussons of probems of ths type by
0. Reynods energy method are g en n pp. 122-1 8 wth an account of pre ous
wor of that nd. In a pre ous part oc. ct. No. 2 A 5 8 Prof. rr g es
reasons for modfyng Lord Rayegh s concuson that n the absence of scosty the
amnar moton woud be stabe n the sense that ths stabty woud e st ony
for ery sma dsturbances cf. supra 27.
The ourer-Sturm-Lou e anayss ourer Theore de a Chaeur Sturm
and Lou e Lou e s ourna for the year 18 6 and Lord Rayegh s Theory
of Sound 142 o. I. shows how to e press an arbtrary functon of y by
summaton of the type-soutons of 7 9 abo e and 4 6 67 70 here
and so to compete whether for our present case or former sub-case the fufment
of the condtons 26 27 wthout usng the method of 4 5 6.
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2
A ES N ATER
4
d d d2
Ths g es - to d tm and - -m2 - 2...... 64
dt dr dy2
and 62 becomes therefore
c1 d2
- 4 2 m2 2 t a m M y C y2 2 tIa M2 2 2
CL dy a Y / dy2
t C f y _ Cy2 M 2 -tom 61 0... 65
or for bre ty
e fy gy2 2 h Icy ys 0... 66 .
11 y4 dy 2
To ntegrate ths assume
C 0o0 C Cy2y2 C o C4o4 amp C.......... 67
and by e uatng to ero the coeffcent of y n 66 we fnd
4 2 1 C 4 2 1 ecf2
- 1 fc -.1 g f h C cC-1 C-2 0... 68 .
Ma ng now success ey 0 1 2 ... and rememberng
that c wth any negat e suff s ero we fnd
4. . 2. 1. C4 2. 1. ec2 ho0 0
5. 4. . 2. puo5 . 2. ec 2. 1.fc2 hc 0 0
6. 5. 4. . /c6 4. . eo4 .2.fc 2. 1. g h c c 100 0
7. 6. 5. 4. / to 5. 4. ec5 4. .fC4 . 2. g h C 1002 CI 0
amp c. amp c. amp c.......... 69 .
These e uatons ta en n order g e success ey 04 05 06 ... each
e pcty as a near functon of cI c1 02 C and by usng n 67
the e pressons so obtaned we fnd
62 c0A0 y CA y C2 amp y c A Y ...... 70
where c. 01 C2 c. are four arbtrary constants and S
four functons each whoy determnate e pressed n a seres of
ascendng powers of y whch by 68 we see to be con ergent for
a aues of y uness p be ero. The essenta con ergency of
these seres pro es as n 9 for the case of no gra ty that the
steady moton a 0 0 w 0 s stabe howe er sma be E
pro ded t s not ero.
44. The ess s /_t the ess the con ergence. hen /w s
ery sma there s d ergence for many terms but utmate
con ergence.
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1887 R AD RI ER L ING D N AN INCLINED ED
45. In the case of 0 the dfferenta e uaton 65 or
66 becomes reduced from the 4th to the 2nd order and may be
wrtten as foows:
-d2L 2 cm 7
dy2 m2 m y - c . ........ 71 .
2
Ths for the case of two-dmensona moton 0 agrees wth
Lord Rayegh s resut e pressed n the ast e uaton of hs
paper on The Stabty or Instabty of certan ud Motons
Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. eb. 12 1880 . The ntegra but now
wth ony two arbtrary constants C0 c s st g en n ascendng
powers of y by 67 and 68 whch wth L 0 and the thussmpfed aues of e f g put n pace of these etters becomes
- 2 1 oc 2 1 m/c
- 1 mc h C - c-2 0...... 72 .
or ery great aues of ths g es
wc 2 m c - mcc 0............... 7
whch shows that utmatey e cept n the case of one partcuar
aue of the rato c/co
C /C -........................ 74
where denotes the smaer root of the e uaton
o mn/y - mcy2 0..................... 75 .
Hence there s certany not con ergence for aues of y e ceedng
the smaer root of 75 and thus the proof of stabty s ost.
46. ut the dfferenta e uaton smpfed n 71 for the
case of no scosty may no doubt be treated more appropratey
n respect to the ueston of stabty or nstabty by wrtng t
as foows C I denotng the two roots of 75
d2 n2 2 I - 2...... 76
dy -y. _ -y.
and ntegratng wth speca consderaton of the nfntes at
y and y . ne way of dong ths whch I merey
suggest at present and do not foow out for want of tme s to
assume
G -y C2 -y 2 o -y amp c.
C - y c - y 2 C / - y amp c. ... 77
where C and C are two arbtrary constants and C2 c ... c2 c / ..
coeffcents to be determned so as to satsfy the dfferenta
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4
A ES N ATER
4
e uaton. Ths s ery easy done and when done shows that
each seres con erges for a aues of y ess than 4 and e ceedng
. The wor ng out of ths n deta woud be ery nterestng
and woud consttute the fu mathematca treatment of the
probem of fndng snuous stream-nes cur es of snes throughout
the space between the two cat s-eye borders correspondng to
y 4 and y whch I proposed n a short communcaton to
Secton A of the rtsh Assocaton at Swansea n 1880 n a
Dsturbng Infnty n Lord Rayegh s souton for a es n a
pane orte stratum. It s to be remar ed that ths dsturbng
nfnty tates the seemng proof of stabty contaned n Lord
Rayegh s e uatons 56 57 58 t.
47. Rea ng 6 and nterpretng the resut n conne on
wth 57 we see that
a The souton whch we ha e found conssts of a wa edsturbance tra eng n any drecton of whch the
propagatona eocty n the -drecton s - o/m.
b The roots 4 of 75 are aues of y at paces where
the eocty of the undsturbed amnar fow s e ua to the eocty of the wa e-dsturbance.
Hence supposng the boundng-panes to be pastc and force
to be apped to ether or both of them so as to produce an
nfntesma unduatory corrugaton accordng to the formua
cos ot m ths surface-acton w cause throughout the
nteror a correspondng nfntesma wa e-moton f o/m s not
e ua to the aue of for any pane of the fud between ts
boundares. ut the nfnty correspondng to y 4 or y 4 w
tate ths souton f co/m s e ua to the aue of for some one
pane of the fud or for two panes of the fud and the true
souton w n o e the cat s-eye pattern of stream-nes and
the encosed eptc whrs at ths pane or these panes.
f whch an abstract s pubshed n Nature for No ember 11 1880 and n
the rtsh Assocaton oume Report for the year. In ths abstract cance the
statement s stabe wth reference to a certan steady moton descrbed n t
supra p. 186 but see ne t footnote .
t Lord Rayegh remar s n repy oc. ct. supra that when c s compe there
s no dsturbng nfnty so that the argument does not fa regarded as one for
e cudng compe aues of w though t may not competey ensure stabty.
He re erts to the sub ect n Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. II. 1895 Scentfc Papers
. pp. 20 -9. The nference n the te t and supra p. 186 s that there cannot
be steady moton n these cases uness ths band of ortces has been estabshed.
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1887 R AD RI ER L ING D N AN INCLINED ED
5
48. Now et the fud be g en mo ng wth the steady
amnar fow between two parae boundary panes e pressed
by 57 whch woud be a condton of netc e ubrum pro ed
stabe n 4 under the nfuence of gra ty and scosty and
et both gra ty and scosty be suddeny annued. The fud
s st n netc e ubrum but s the e ubrum stabe
To answer ths ueston et one or both boundng-surfaces be
nfntesmay dmped n any pace and eft free to become pane
agan. The ourer synthess of ths surface-operaton s
f dmd m cos cot cos m cos ...... 78
or f dmd m cos ot - m
cos ot m cos ...... 79
where co s determned as a functon of m and whch mpes
harmonc surface-unduatons tra eng n opposte -drectons
wth a aues from 0 to o of co/m the wa e- eocty. Hence
47 the nteror dsturbance essentay n o es eptc whrs.
Thus we see that the g en steady amnar moton s thoroughy
unstabe beng ready to brea up nto eddes n e ery pace on
the occason of the sghtest shoc or bump on ether pastc pane
boundary. The sghtest degree of scosty as we ha e seen
ma es the amnar moton stabe but the smaer the scosty
wth a g en aue of g sn I or the greater the aue of g sn I
wth the same scosty the narrower are the mts of ths
stabty. Thus we ha e been ed by purey mathematca n estgaton to a state of moton agreeng perfecty wth the
foowng remar abe descrptons of obser ed resuts by sborne
Reynods Ph. Trans. March 15 188 pp. 955 956 : The fact that the steady moton brea s down suddeny
shows that the fud s n a state of nstabty for dsturbances
of the magntude whch cause t to brea down. ut the fact
that n some condtons t w brea down for a arge dsturbance
whe t s stabe for a smaer dsturbance shows that there s a
certan resdua stabty so ong as the dsturbances do not e ceed
a g en amount....
And t was a matter of surprse to me to see the sudden
force wth whch the eddes sprang nto e stence showng a
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6
A ES N ATER
4
hghy unstabe condton to ha e e sted at the tme the steady
moton bro e down.
Ths at once suggested the dea that the condton mght be
one of nstabty for dsturbance of a certan magntude and stabe
for smaer dsturbances.
49. The moton n estgated e permentay by Reynods
and referred to n the precedng statements was that of water
n a ong straght unform tube of crcuar secton. It s to be
hoped that canddates for the Adams Pr e of 1888 may
n estgate ths case mathematcay and g e a compete souton
for nfntesma de atons from rectnea moton. It s probabe
that for t and generay for a unform straght tube of any cross
secton ncudng the e treme and e tremey smpfed case of
rectnear moton of a scous fud between two parae f ed
panes whch I ha e wor ed out abo e the same genera concuson as that stated at the end of 40 and n 4 -48 w be
found true.
50. In the case of no gra ty gsnI and the scous
fud ept n shearng or amnar moton by reat e moton
of the two parae panes there s when scosty s annued no
dsturbng nstabty n the steady unform shearng moton wth
ts unform moecuar rotaton throughout whch scosty woud
produce and therefore our reason for suspectng any mtaton
of the e cursons wthn whch there s stabty and for e pectng
possbe permanence of any nd of turbuent or tumutuous moton
between two perfecty smooth panes or between two poshed
panes wth any practca eoctes does not e st n ths case.
ut a great arety of genera obser aton and partcuary Ran ne
and roude s doctrne of the s n-resstance of shps and
roude s e permenta determnaton of the resstance e perenced
by a ery smooth thn ertca board 19 nches broad and 50 feet.
ong mo ed at dfferent unform speeds through water n a broad
Report to the Lords Commssoners of the Admraty on E perments for
the Determnaton of the rctona Resstance of ater on a Surface under arous
condtons performed at Cheston Cross Tor uay under the Authorty of ther
Lordshps. y . roude. London: Tayor and rancs. 1874.
roude found that at a constant eocty of 600 feet per mnute the resstance
of the water aganst one of hs smoothest surfaces at postons two feet abaft of
the cutwater and 50 feet abaft of the cutwater respect ey was 295 of a pound
per s uare foot and -244 of a pound per s uare foot. Remar that ths astonsh
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1887 R AD RI ER L ING D N AN INCLINED ED 7
deep tan 278 feet ong ma es t certan that f water be g en
at rest between two nfnte panes both at rest and f one of the
panes be suddeny or not too graduay set n moton and ept
mo ng unformy the moton of the water w be at frst turbuent
and the utmate condton of unform shearng w be approached
by gradua reducton and utmate annument of the turbuence.
I hope to ma e a communcaton on ths sub ect to Secton A of
the rtsh Assocaton n Manchester and to ha e t pubshed
n the ctober number of the Phosophca Maga ne. Correspondng uestons must be e amned wth reference to the
correspondng tubuar probem of an nfntey ong straght
sod bar ept mo ng n water wthn an nfntey ong f ed tube.
It s to be hoped that the 1888 Adams Pr e w brng out
mportant n estgatons on ths sub ect.
ngy great force of a uarter of a pound per s uare foot s the resstance due to
unform amnar fow of water between two parae panes - of a centmetre 9 of a foot asunder when one of the panes s mo ng reat ey to the other at
10 feet 00 centmetres per second f the water be at the temperature 0 Cent.
for whch the scosty cacuated from Poseue s obser atons on the fow of
water n capary tubes s 1- 4 10-5 of a gramme weght per s uare centmetre.
. I
22
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5
5. N DEEP- ATER T -DIMENSI NAL A ES PR D CED
Y ANY GI EN INITIATING DIST R ANCE .
rom Proc. Roy. Soc. Edn. o. . read eb. 1 1904 pp. 185-196
Ph. Mag. o. . une 1904 pp. 609-620.
1. C NSIDER frctoness water n a straght cana nfntey
ong and nfntey deep wth ertca sdes. Let t be dsturbed
from rest by any change of pressure on the surface unform n
e ery ne perpendcuar to the pane sdes and eft to tsef
under constant ar pressure. It s re ured to fnd the dspacement and eocty of e ery partce of the water at any future
tme. ur nta condton w be fuy specfed by a g en
norma component eocty and a g en norma component dspacement at e ery pont of the surface.
2. Ta ng 0 any pont at a dstance h abo e the undsturbed
water e e draw parae to the ength of the cana and
ertcay downwards. Let f be the dspacement-components
and t t the eocty-components of any partce of the water
whose undsturbed poston s . e suppose the dsturbance
nfntesma by whch we mean that the change of dstance
between any two partces of water s nfntey sma n comparson
wth ther undsturbed dstance and the ne onng them
e perences changes of drecton whch are nfntey sma n
comparson wth the radan. ater beng assumed ncompressbe
and frctoness ts moton started prmary from rest by pressure
apped to the free surface s essentay rrotatona. Hence
we ha e
d d d d
t d 0t ... 1
where b t or h as we may wrte t for bre ty when con enent s a functon of the arabes whch may be caed the
dspacement-potenta and b t s what s commony caed
n the probems treated n the foowng group of papers and ther hstory
cf. the Presdenta Address n Deep- ater a es by Prof. H. Lamb Proc.
Lond. Math. Soc. o. II. 1904 pp. 71-400.
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N DEEP- ATER T -DIMENSI NAL A ES
9
the eocty-potenta. Thus a nowedge of the functon p
for a aues of t competey defnes the dspacement
and the eocty of the fud. And by the fundamentas of
hydro netcs a nowedge of f for e ery pont of the free
surface suffces to determne ts aue throughout the water n
rtue of the e uaton
d 2 d200. 2 .
d2 d....................... 2 .
The moton beng nfntesma and the densty beng ta en as
unty another appcaton of the fundamenta hydro netcs
g es
__ dob d2ob
p-n g -h - g -h -gd -dt
where g denotes gra ty I the unform atmospherc pressure on
the free surface and p the pressure at the pont r wthn
the fud.
. To appy to the water-surface put n t h t g es
d h dt2 h... 4
and therefore f we coud fnd a souton of ths e uaton for a
aues of wth 2 satsfed we shoud ha e a souton of our
present probem. Now we can fnd such a souton by a curousy
atered appcaton of ourer s ceebrated souton
t c - 4 t c for
hs e uaton for the near conducton of heat. Change t c
nto t t g- respect ey:-we ha e 4 and we see that a
souton of t s
I -gt2
.................... 5
whch aso satsfes 2 because any functon of t satsfes 2
f L denotes -1. Hence f RS denotes a reasaton by
ta ng haf the sum of what s wrtten after t wth t we ha e
as a rea souton of 4 for our probem
I - gt2
10 t 1RS 4 ............ 6
t
A ery easy way of effectng the reasatons n 6 and 9 s by ad of
De Mo re s theorem wth for one ange concerned n t tan-1 and
another ange gt2 /4 2 2 .
22 2
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40
A ES N ATER
5
I r - gt2 t2
- p Cosg2 P - sn 4p2... 7
A/2. p 4 P 4p2
- 1 A 2 gt2
- sn Y-.. . ---. 8
P sn t2 8 e 4p2................................. 8
where p2 2 2 and 0 tan- /
p-
The sgn of / p - changes when passes through ero.
Gong bac now to 5 and denotng by RD the dfference
of ts aues for d ded by 2t we ha e another souton of our
probem essentay dfferent from 6 as foows
1 - t2
20 t RD 4 4 ............ 9
2p S/ p csos e-/ - 4t2 o
/1 _gt2e 47 -9t2
pSn 4- 2 - 4p2 2........................... 11 .
4. The anne ed dagram fg. 1 represents for t 0 the soutons
20 and 10 as functons of wth 1 for con enence n the
drawng. The formuas whch we fnd by ta ng t 0 n 7 2/2
and 10 /2 aret the mnus sgn n 10 beng omtted for
con enence 2 2 / 2 2 -_
/ 42 24 2 . 12
efore passng to the practca nterpretaton of our soutons
remar frst that 12 contan fu specfcatons of two dstnct
ntatng dsturbances n each of whch b may be ta en as a
dspacement-potenta or as a eocty-potenta or as a hor onta
dspacement-component or eocty or as a ertca dspacementcomponent or eocty. Thus we ha e reay preparaton for s
dfferent cases of moton of whch we sha choose one - /2 7
for detaed e amnaton.
5. Ta ng h 1 for the water-surface et the two cur es of
fgure 1 represent nta dspacements 12 of the water-surface
Souton 7 was g en frst n Proc. R. S. E. an. 1887 and Ph. Mag.
eb. 1887 supra p. 07: t has not been reprnted here .
Prof. Lamb remar s oc. ct. that the nta dsturbance s not entrey
ocased at the orgn as f d does not con erge. See aso nfra 101.
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1904 N DEEP- ATER T -DIMENSI NAL A ES 41
co
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co c .
I I
II
.

// f
//
s - 5 - - I
. -
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42
A ES N ATER
5
eft to tsef wth the water e erywhere at rest. The dspacements
at any subse uent tme t are e pressed n rea symbos by 7 10
wthout the d sor /2 and by 8 11 wth a factor /2 ntroduced ether of whch may be chosen accordng to con enence
n cacuaton. ne set has thus been cacuated from 8 wth
g 4 and 1 for s aues of t 5 1 1 5 2 2 5 and 5 and for
a suffcenty arge number of aues of to represent the resuts
by the cur es shown n fgs. 2 and . E cept for the tme t 5
each cur e shows suffcenty a the most nterestng characterstcs
of the fgure of the water at the correspondng tme. The cur e
for t 5 does not perceptby ea e the ero ne at dstances
t 1 8 but f we coud see t t woud show us two and a haf
wa eets possessng ery nterestng characterstcs shown n
the tabe of numbers 7 beow by whch we see that se era
dfferent cur es wth scaes of ordnates magnfed from one to
one thousand and to one mon and to ten thousand mon
woud be needed to e hbt them graphcay.
6. Loo ng to the cur es for t 0 and t we see that at
frst the water rses at a dstances from the mdde of the
dsturbance greater than 19 and fas at ess dstances. And
we see that the mdde 0 remans a crest or post e ma mum
t a ery short tme before t 1 when t begns to be a hoow.
A crest then comes nto e stence besde t and begns to tra e
outwards. n the thrd cur e t 1 we see ths crest tra eed
to a dstance 1 7 from the mdde where t came nto beng
and on the fourth ffth s th se enth cur es fgs. 1 2 we
see t got to dstances 2 9 4 8 6 5 22 at the tmes 1 2 2
5. Ths crest tra eng rghtwards on our dagrams has ts
anteror sope ery gradua down to the undsturbed e e at
o. Its posteror sope s much steeper and ends at the
bottom of the hoow n the mdde of the dsturbance at tmes
from t to t 12. At some tme whch must be ery soon
after t 1 ths hoow begns to tra e rghtwards from the
mdde foowed by a fresh crest shed off from the mdde. At
t 2 the hoow has got as far as 9 at t 2 and 5 respect ey t has reached 1 75 and 6 7. Loo ng n
magnaton to the e tenson of our cur es eftwards from the
mdde of the dagram we fnd an e act counterpart of what we
ha e been e amnng on the rght. Thus we see an nta
ee aton symmetrca on the two sdes of a con e crest of
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1904 N DEEP- ATER T -DIMENSI NAL A ES 4
heght 1 41 abo e the undsturbed e e sn ng n the mdde
and rsng on the two fan s. The crest becomes ess and ess
con e t t gets down to heght 1 1 when t becomes conca e
and two e ua and smar wa e-crests are shed off on the two
sdes tra eng away from t rghtwards and eftwards wth
acceerated eoctes each remanng for e er con e . Thus we
see the begnnngs of two endess processons of wa es tra eng
outwards n the two drectons orgnatng as nfntesma wa eets shed off on the two sdes of the mdde ne. Each crest and
each hoow tra es wth ncreasng eocty. Each wa e-ength
from crest to crest or from hoow to hoow becomes onger and
onger as t ad ances outwards a ths accordng to aw fuy
e pressed n 8 of abo e.
7. Here s now the tabe of numbers promsed n 5 abo e
t practcay defnes the forms and magntudes of the two and a
haf wa eets between 0 and 2 whch the space-cur e for
t 5 fgs. 2 and fas to show.
29 /tr/2 t2
p2 2 h2 h g 4 t 5 - sns 0 eP2.
Co. 1 Co. 2 Co. Co. 4 Co. 5 Co. 6 Co. 7
2 II 0 I I o 0
2r /p c e 5 a. e e p2 m
_
1- gt
0 1-4142 1-0000 1-4142 1 0000 10-10 1 57 11-0 196
05 1-4140 -9997 1 4140 4 4 1478 0717
-064......... 0... 0
10 1-410 9987 1-409 - 7541 1778 - 10-10 1891
-15 1-407 -9972 1-40 - 8997 - 066 - 882
-20 1 401 9952 1- 9 - 00 2 6 2 0016
-202........ 0... 0
- 0 1 84 -9894 1 70 -8997 1-094 10-10 1- 62
6 ......... 0... 0
-40 1 62 -9820 1 8 - 5451 4 66 - 10-10 -24
60 1- 09 96 8 1 262 - 2 41 10 -9 1-84
-6 2...... 00
-80 1 249 -94 7 1.179 759 10-5 02 96 10-5 0227
1 00 1-190 -92 9 1-099 -8962 2958 152
1 25 1-118 -9015 1-007 -68 1 5-79 4424
1-50 1-05 -8817 -9287 -492 456 2 67
1-517 9......... 0 2 2 0
1-75 -9961 -8651 -8616 - -68 2 212-5 10- 144-6
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44
A ES N ATER
TA LE contnued .
h 1 g 4 t 5 - 2 sn 2
5
Co. 1 Co. 2 Co. Co. 4 Co. Co. 6 Co. 7

2-00
2 50
2 54
-00
50
4-0
4-41
4 5
5 0
5 5
6-0
6-5
7 0
7-5
8-0
9 0
10
10-62
11
12
1
14
15
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
0
2
4
8
42
46
50
55
I 60
1 70
80
100
00
/2
9456
8612
7952
7411
6965
6588
6262
5981.57
551
5 18
5150
4980
4699
4461
4255
4076
916
775
648
5
1
160
014
2885
2772
2672
2581
2500
2425
2294
2182
2084
2000
1906
1826
1690
1581
1415
0
S
11
I I
r.

0 .
1 1
a cD I . .-I Cm
gt
c d Ca -
-4n
- 0 Ca
f
C5
e I E

-t2
e p2
-r
Cd
0 0
f 0 t
g C E H
CD
8506
824
811
7980
7882
7798
77
7678
7629
7587
7555
7522
7494
7451
7416
7 85
7 59
7 9
7 18
7 02
7286
7266
7256
72 0
7216
7206
719
7187
7181
717
716
7155
7147
7141
71 5
7129
7120
7114
7108
7071
8045
7142
-6452
5917
5490
51 9
484
4592
4 75
4185
4018
868
7 4
501
08
142
2999
2874
2762
266
2574
2420
2290
2179
2082
1998
192
1855
1795
1740
164
1561
1490
1428
1 60
1 02
120
1125
1005
0
- -9997
-16
0
8296
947
4856
0
- 0944
-5584
- 8457
- 9781
-9956
- 9 74
- 8
- 705
- 4289
- 1679
0
05698
2428
940
5175
616
695
8098
88 1
9 1
9627
9815
9915
9979
9999
999
99
9840
97 4
962
9486
9 61
9125
89 1
8626
7071
10-5 848 2
0 180
08210
1516
2298
08
82
449
5122
5641
6066
6462
6808
7 72
6 46
8147
8416
8644
8808
8954
9082
9260
9 96
9497
9579
96 8
9685
9727
9759
9786
9828
9847
988
9902
9917
99 1
9949
9961
9977
1 0000
-10-5 801 9 447-
0542
-1064
07771
0
- 01917
- 1 6
- 227
- 2872
- 096
- 024
- 277
- 2 92
- 1486
- 0475
0
01975
08 75
1 4
1721
201
22 1
2498
2622
2666
2661
2622
2565
2505
24 9
2 71
2240
2188
2005
-1905
1794
1697
-15 5
1407
1217
0
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1904 N DEEP- ATER T -DIMENSI NAL A ES 45
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46 A ES N ATER 5
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1904 N DEEP- ATER T -DIMENSI NAL A ES
47
8. Loo at the aues shown n the pre ous tabe for the
three factors whch consttute - -we see that the frst factor
co. 2 decreases sowy from 0 to oo the second factor
co. 5 aternates between 1 and - 1 wth ncreasng dstances
sem-wa e-engths from ero to ero as ncreases. The thrd
factor co. 6 ncreases graduay from e-t /h at 0 to 1 at
00. At 50h the thrd factor s 99 whch s so neary
unty that the dmnuton of amptude s for a greater aues
of practcay g en by the frst factor aone whch dmnshes
from 2 at 50h to 0 at o.
9. The dagrams htherto g en fgs. 1 2 may be caed
space-cur es as on each of them abscssas represent dstance from
the centre of the dsturbance. g. 4 s a tme-cur e abscssas
representng tme for 2h. It represents a ery gradua rse
from t 0 to t 6 foowed by a fa to a mnmum at t 2 8 and
a successon of aternatons wth smaer and smaer ma mum
ee atons and depressons and shorter and shorter tmes from
ero to ero on to t o. The same words wth atered fgures
descrbe the changes of water e e at any f ed poston farther
from the centre of dsturbance than 2. The foowng tabe
shows for the case a 100h a the tmes of ero ess than 71h
and the ee atons and depressons at the ntermedate tmes when
the second factor co. 5 of 7 has ts ma mum and mnmum
aues 1 . These ee atons and depressons are ery appro matey the greatest n the nter as between the eros because
the thrd factor co. 6 7 ares but sowy as shown n the frst
coumn of the present tabe.
10. ur assumpton h for the free surface n o es no
restrcton of our souton to a partcuar case of the genera
formua 7 . ur assumpton g 4 merey means that our unt
of abscssas s haf the space faen through n our unt of tme.
The fundamenta formuas of may be geometrcay e paned
by as n 2 ta ng 0 our orgn of co-ordnates at a heght h
abo e the water e e and defnng p as the dstance of any
partce of the fud from t. hen as n 5-9 we are ony
concerned wth partces n the free surface that s to say when
we see that f s a arge mutpe of p . See for
e ampe the headng of the tabe of 9. And f we are concerned
wth partces beow the surface we st ha e p f s a
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48
A ES N ATER
5
h 1 100 p 100-005.h tar 1 4518 .
99
Tmes of ero Tmes of ero
and of Appro mate and of Appro mate
- t2 Appro mate Ma mum A ppro mate Ma mum
E P2 Ma mum Ee atons and P Ma mum Ee atons and
Ee aton and Depressons Ee aton and Depressons
Depresson Depresson
9922 8 140 -7718 50-90 1091
15 0... 5242 0
-9616 19-80 - -1 60 -7478 5 90 - -1058
2 -4 9... 55- 4 0
9 17 26-57 1 17 7247 56 74 1025
29- 8 0... 0580 0
490 1 1 94 - 1277 6702 59 45 - 099
4- 1 0... 6075 0
8750: 6-54 12 7 6806 62 0 0962
8 62 0... 6 29 0.8480 40-61 -.1199 6595 6451 - -09
42 50 0... 6572 0.8219 44- 1 - -1162 6 92 66 90 0904
46 04 0 - 68 07 0
7964 47-72 - 1157 -6195 69-21 - 0876
49 4 0... 70 4 0
arge mutpe of . Thus we
for 7 of :
ha e the foowng appro maton
1 t2 t2 _gt__
10 0 C S4- / - Sy : 4 2.. 1
Suppose now dp/dt to represent - f nstead of - 5 as n 5-9
we ha e
dt
dt .......... 141
whch s easy found from 1 wthout farther restrct e suppostons. ut f we suppose that s neggby sma n
comparson wth and farther that
gt2 . . 15
4E 2
we fnd by 14
gt C St2 .t2
2 /2. /2 4 4 .....
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1904 N DEEP- ATER T -DIMENSI NAL A ES 49

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50 A ES N ATER 5
Ths e cept the sgn - nstead of s Cauchy s souton of
whch he says that when the tme has ad anced so much as to
oate a condton e u aent to 15 e mou ement change
a ec a methode d appro maton. The remander of hs Note
. about 100 pages s chefy de oted to ery eaborate efforts
to obtan defnte resuts for the arger aues of t. Ths ob ect
s thoroughy attaned by the e ponenta factor n 8 of
abo e wthout the crppng restrcton . 0 whch tates 16
for sma aues of .
Eu res o. I. note . p. 19 .
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1904
51
6. N THE R NT AND REAR A REE PR CESSI N
A ES IN DEEP ATER.
rom Proc. Roy. Soc. Edn. une 20 1904 Ph. Mag. o. III. ct. 1904
pp. 454-470.
11. The present communcaton s substtuted for another
bearng the same tte whch was read before the Roya Socety
of Ednburgh on anuary 7th 1887 because the resut of that
paper was rendered mperfect and unsatsfactory by omsson of
the e ponenta factor referred to n 10 of my paper of ebruary
1st 1904. I sha refer henceforth to the ast-mentoned paper as
1-10 abo e. See supra p 07.
12. I begn by consderng processons produced by superposton of statc ntatng dsturbances of the type e pressed n
12 of 4 abo e graphcay represented by fg. 1 and eadng
to moton n estgated n 1- 5-10. The partcuar type of
that souton whch I now choose s that chosen at the end of 4
whch we wth a sght but usefu modfcaton may now wrte
as foows:/ /y/ y2 gt 2
- 6b t co / - e....6 .
b r 7I / P 74P2 2....... 17 .
where p 2 2 and tan- /
Here - denotes the upward ertca component of the dspacement of the fud at tme t from ts undsturbed poston at pont
whch may be ether n the free surface or anywhere beow
t. Ta ng t 0 n 17 we ha e for the nta heght of the
free surface abo e the undsturbed e e
- -o . ...... 18 .
P 2p P
The substtuton of for r - tan- /- - sa es consderabe abour and
use of ogarthms especay when as n our cacuatons 1.
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52
A ES N ATER
6
1 . e sha frst ta e as ntatng dsturbance a row
e tendng from - oo to oo of superpostons of 18 aternatey
post e and negat e and paced at e ua success e dstances
: so that we now ha e
-o0 P 0 o - o ...... 19
-aoo
or as we may wrte t
/ oo
- P . 0 D o ......... 19
/ - -Co
where D 0 0 - 0 ............ 20 .
In 19 P denotes a space-perodc functon wth for ts perod.
Ths formua wth t substtuted for 0 represents - t beng the
ee aton of the surface abo e undsturbed e e at tme t n
rtue of nta dsturbance represented by 19 .
14. Remar now that whate er functon be represented by
b the formua for P n 19 mpes that
P 0 P 0 .................. 21
whch means that P s a space-perodc functon wth for perod.
And 19 aso mpes that
P 0 -P 0 ............... 22
whch ncudes 21 . And wth the actua functon 18 whch
we ha e chosen for b 0 the fact that t b 0 - 0
ma es
P 0 P - 0 .................... 2 .
Thus 19 has a graph of the character fg. 5 symmetrca on each
g. 5.
sde of each ma mum and mnmum ordnate. The ourer
harmonc anayss of P 0 when sub ect to 22 and 2 g es
2 r 27 r 27r
P 0 A cos -- A cos - A cos 5 ... 24 .
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1904 N THE R NT AND REAR A REE PR CESSI N 5
15. Dgresson on perodc functons generated by addton of
aues of any functon for e udfferent arguments. Let f be
any functon whate er perodc or non-perodc and et
P : f .................. 25
cc
whch ma es P P ..................... 26 .
Let the ourer harmonc e panson of P be e pressed as
foows:
P A A cos a A cos 2a A cos a where ac 2
sn a sn 2ca sn ... ...... 27 .
Denotng by any nteger we ha e by ourer s anayss
1 A dP cos.2.r .. 2

2 s
whch g es
- Coo f - oo c .27w -C00.27r
h I d f cos d f cos
00 r.2-r 0 -0.27rr
h Y d f sn d f sn2
- 0 0 -o ...... 29 .
16. Ta e now n 29 as by 19 20
f 0 -P .......... 0 .
Ths reduces a the s to ero reduces the A s to ero for e en
aues of and for odd aues of g es n rtue of 22
2 d b 0 cos . 1 .
Go bac now to 4 6 12 abo e and accordng to the
ast nes of 4 ta e
0 RSI 2 P / ....p.. . 2 .
/ t-
P
Hence for the harmonc e panson 24 of P 0 we ha e
4 C / C p .2wr 4 SRS C 2co.2wr
A d cos - R d - cs
P -Co / t ...... .
. I . 2
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54 A ES N ATER 6
The magnary form of the ast member of ths e uaton factates
27r
the e auaton of the ntegra. Instead of cos n the ast

factor substtute.2w . 2w 27r .27-r : 277- 2n

cosy L sn or e 4 .
The aternat e ma es no dfference n the summaton f__ d
because the sne term dsappears for the same reason that the
sne terms n 29 dsappear because of 0 . Thus becomes
0 T 2 22 n L
4 2
A - RH d 5... 5
0 t
put now t to
d
whence 2do- and t . 6 .
/ t
sng these n 5 we may omt the nstructon RS because
nothng magnary remans n the formua: thus we fnd
88 // 2 0 _r _ 2r 2 r 8 2 _2
A gt 0f dae 2 2 C A
2 7r 8
A.... 7 .
The transton n 7 s made n rtue of Lapace s ceebrated
00 mc2 7./
dsco ery fdo oem
17. E uaton 7 aows us ready to see how near to a
cur e of snes s the graph of P- 0 for any partcuar aue of
/ . It shows that
8 -7 4-rr 4r
A A/A 1A e 1 A5/A .e.
Suppose for e ampe 4 we ha e
47r
CA 04 04 214 A /A 02495 A /A -0 47... 9 .
Thus we see that A. s about _ of A and A about -L of A .
Ths s a far approach to snusodaty but not ute near enough
for our present purpose. Try ne t 2 we ha e
8
A -04 214 C- 001867 A /A -001078... 40 . /
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1904 N THE R NT AND REAR A REE PR CESSI N 55
Thus As s about a thousandth of A1 and A about 1 10-6 of
A. Ths s a ute good enough appro maton for our present
purpose: A5 s mperceptbe n any of our cacuatons: A s
neggbe though perceptbe f ncuded n our cacuatons
whch are carred out to four sgnfcant fgures : but t woud
be uttery mperceptbe n our dagrams. Henceforth we sha
occupy ourse es chefy wth the free surface and ta e h the
heght of 0 the orgn of coordnates abo e the undsturbed e e
of the water.
18. To fnd the water-surface at any tme t after beng eft
free and at rest dspaced accordng to any perodc functon P
e pressed ourer-wse as n 27 ta e frst for the nta
motoness surface-dspacement a smpe snusoda form
- r0 A cos m - c .................. 4 .
Gong bac to 2 and 4 abo e et w t be the downwards ertca component of dspacement. e thus ha e as the
dfferenta e uatons of the moton
dw d2
dcw dcw
-- 0 t..................... 42
d2 d 0 ........ 4 .
d 2 d 2
These are satsfed by
- w Ce-m cos nm - c cos t /g n............ 44
whch e presses the we- nown aw of two-dmensona perodc
wa es n nfntey deep water. And formua 44 wth Ce-m A
and t 0 agrees wth 41 . Hence the addton of soutons 44
wth m for r wth A success ey put e ua to A A2...
1 ... and wth c 0 for the A s and - r for the s g es
us for tme t the ertca component-dspacement at depth - h
beow the surface f at tme t 0 the water was at rest wth ts
surface dspaced accordng to 27 . Thus wth 8 and 44 we
ha e P t .
19. Loo ng to 44 and 27 and puttng m 27r/ we see
that the component moton due to any one of the A s or s n the
nta dspacement s an endess nfnte row of standng wa es
ha ng wa e-engths e ua to / and tme-perods e pressed by
27r /27r 45 .
T - -. / -....................
2/gm 12. .g
2 -2
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56
A ES N ATER
6
The whoe moton s not perodc because the perods of the
consttuent motons beng n ersey as / are not commensurabe.
ut by ta ng 2h as proposed n 17 whch accordng to
40 ma es As for the free surface ony a tte more than 1/1000
of A1 we ha e so near an approach to snusodaty that n our
ustratons we may regard the moton as beng perodc wth
perod 45 for 1. Ths ma es r /7 when as n 5 we
wthout oss of generaty 10 smpfy our numerca statements
by ta ng g 4 and h 1 whch ma es the wa e-ength 2.
20. Toward our probem of front and rear remar now
that the nfnte number of parae straght standng snusoda
wa es whch we ha e started e erywhere o er an nfnte pane of
orgnay undsturbed water may be deay reso ed nto two
processons of snusoda wa es of haf ther heght tra eng n
contrary drectons wth e ua eoctes 2//7r.
Instead now of co erng the whoe surface wth standng wa es
co er t ony on the negat e sde of the ne not shown n
our dagrams Y Y that s the eft sde of 0 the orgn of
coordnates and ea e the water pane and motoness on the rght
sde to begn. At a great dstances on the eft sde of 0 there
w be n the begnnng standng wa es e u aent to two trans
of progress e wa es of wa e-ength 2 tra eng rghtwards and
eftwards wth eocty 2//7r. The smooth water on the rght
of 0 s ob ousy n aded by the rghtward processon.
21. ur n estgaton pro es that the e treme perceptbe
rear of the eftward processon mar ed R n fg. 10 beow does
not through the space R on the eft sde of 0 broadenng wth
tme nor anywhere on the rght of 0 perceptby dsturb the
rghtward processon.
22. ur n estgaton aso pro es that the surface at 0 has
smpe harmonc moton through a tme. It farther shows that
the rghtward processon s ery appro matey snusoda wth
smpe harmonc moton through a space fg. 9 to the rght
of 0 broadenng wth tme and that at any partcuar dstance
rghtwards from 0 ths appro maton becomes more and more
neary perfect as tme ad ances. hat I ca the front of the
rghtward processon s the wa e dsturbance beyond the pont
at a not strcty defned dstance rghtwards from 0 where the
appro maton to snusodaty of shape and smpe harmonc
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1904 N THE R NT AND REAR A REE PR CESSI N 57
uaty of moton s ony ust perceptby at faut. e sha fnd
that beyond the wa es are as shown n fg. 9 ess and ess hgh
and onger and onger at greater and greater dstances from 0
at one and the same tme but that the wa e-heght does not at
any tme or pace come abrupty to nothng. The propagatona
eocty of the begnnng of the dsturbance s n reaty nfnte
because we regard the water as nfntey ncompressbe.
2 . Thus we see that the front of the rghtward processon
wth snusoda wa es foowng t from 0 s smpy g en by the
cacuaton for post e aues of of the moton due to an nta
motoness confguraton of snusoda furrows and rdges on the
eft sde of 0. g. 8 represents a statc nta confguraton
whch we denote by 0 appro matey reasng the condton
stated n 20. g. 9 represents on the same scae of ordnates
the surface dspacement at the tme 25r n the subse uent
moton due to that nta confguraton whch for any tme t we
denote by t defned as foows: t t - 1 t 2 t -... ad nf.... 46
where s the functon defned by 17 wth 1 and g 4.
24. The wa e-heght at a dstances so far eftward from 0
that the nfuence of the rear of the eftward processon has not
yet reached them at any partcuar tme t after the begnnng
s smpy the P t of 1 cacuated accordng to 18 17
and the moton there s st merey standng wa es deay
reso abe nto rghtward and eftward processons. Let I
beyond the eftward range of fg. 10 be the pont of the deay
e tended dagram not precsey defned where the eftward
processon at any partcuar tme t becomes sensby nfuenced
by ts own rear. etween I and R the whoe moton s transtona
n character from the reguar snusoda moton P t of the
water on the eft sde of I to reguar snusoda moton of wa eheght 2P t from R to 0 and on to of fg. 9 the begnnng
of the front of the dsturbance n the rghtward processon. Hence
to separate deay the eftward processon from the whoe dsturbance due to the nta confguraton we ha e ony to subtract
P t from t cacuated for negat e aues of . Thus
the e presson for the whoe of the eftward processon s
t - P t for negat e aues of ...... 47 .
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58
A ES N ATER
6
g. 10 represents the free surface thus found for the eftward
processon aone at tme t 25r.
25. The functon D t whch appears n 1 as an tem
n one of the modes of summng shown for P 0 n 19 and
ndcated for P t at the end of 1 and whch has been used
n some of our summatons for t s represented n fgs. 6
and 7 for t 0 and t 25r respect ey.
26. E cept for a few of the ponts of fg. 6 representng
D 0 the cacuaton has been performed soey for ntegra
aues of . It seemed at frst scarcey to be e pected that a far
graphc representaton coud be drawn from so few cacuated ponts
but the cur es ha e actuay been drawn by Mr therngton wth
no other nowedge than these ponts e cept nformaton as to a
eros cur e cuttng the ne of abscssas through the whoe range
of each cur e. The cacuated ponts are mar ed on each cur e:
and t seems certan that wth the nowedge of the eros the
true cur e must e ery cose n each case to that drawn by
Mr therngton.
27. The cacuaton of t for post e ntegra aues
of s greaty eased by the foowng arrangements for a odng
the necessty for drect summaton of a suggshy con ergent
nfnte seres shown n 46 by use of our nowedge of P t .
e ha e by 46 and 19
0 t - 0 t - 1 t 2 t -... ad. nf.... 48
-oo
P t - t ............... 49 .
- oo
Hence n rtue of b - t b t
P t 2 0 t ..................... 50 .
Agan gong bac to 46 we ha e
t t - t 2 t - c t ...
1 t 1 t - 2 t t -...
y addng these we fnd
1 t t g t - 1 t D t ... 51 .
y success e appcatons of ths e uaton we fnd
2 t - 2 t - -1 D t ... D - t ...... 52 .
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1904 N THE R NT AND REAR A REE PR CESSI N 59
0 .

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60 A ES N ATER 6
b.I
/-t I -
1- 1I
/ s
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2
I
- I-
0
.h

t
Td
0
02
01 -0
I
15
g. 8 0 and a porton of the cur e of snes whch ery appro matey agrees wth t at great eftward dstances.
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r an
0 . 9 a an of r / G o f 1 f
- 5 40- 4
c
g. 9 Head and front of rghtward processon. Graph of 46 for t 25T r.
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1904 N THE R NT AND REAR A REE PR CESSI N 6
-- . _ _ __
Ca
. .-4 -II
I-1
- r t

g -I -I
o - 0
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64
A ES N ATER
6
Hence by puttng 0 and usng 50 we fnd fnay
2 t - p 0 t - - y1 D 0 t ... D - 1 t 5 .
Ths s thoroughy con enent to cacuate 1 t 2 t ...
success ey for pottng the ponts shown n fg. 9.
28. or fg. 10 nstead of assumng as n 47 the cacuaton
of t for negat e aues of a ery troubesome affar we
may now e auate t thus. e ha e by 46
t t- 4 1 t - 2 t -...
- t 2 - t - - t - 2 t -....
Hence
t - t t - 1 t 2 t -...
-4 - t - 2 t -......... 54 .
Now by the property of p used n the frst term of 54 that ts
aue s the same for post e and negat e aues of we ha e
b - t - t . Hence 54 may be wrtten
-o
t - t 2 - 1 gt t P t 55 .
- co
Hence - t P t - t ............... 56 .
sng ths n 47 we fnd
P t - t ..................... 57
for the ee aton of the water due to the eftward processon
aone at any pont at dstance from 0 on the eft sde beng
any post e number ntegra or fractona. Ha ng pre ousy
cacuated t for post e ntegra aues of we ha e found
by 57 the cacuated ponts of fg. 10 for the eftward processon.
29. The prncpes and wor ng pans descrbed n 11-28
abo e afford a ready means for understandng and wor ng out n
deta the moton from t 0 to t co of a g en fnte processon
of wa es started wth such dspacement of the surface and such
moton of the water beow the surface as to produce at t 0 a
processon of a thousand or more wa es ad ancng nto st water
n front and ea ng st water n the rear. To show the desred
resut graphcay e tend fg. 10 eftwards to as many wa e-engths
as you pease beyond the pont I descrbed n 24. In ert the
dagram thus drawn reat ey to rght and eft and ft t on to the
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1904 N THE R NT AND REAR A REE PR CESSI N 65
dagram fg. 9 e tended rghtwards so far as to show no perceptbe
moton say to 200 or 00 of our scae. The dagram thus
compounded represents the water surface at tme 25r after a commencement correspondngy compounded from fg. 8 and another
smar fgure drawn to represent the rear of the fnte two-ended
processon whch we are now consderng.
0. Drect attac on the probem thus ndrecty so ed
g es for the case of 1000 wa e-crests n the begnnng the
foowng e pct souton
2000
- 2 - - t ............... 58
o
where r s a functon found accordng to the prncpes ndcated
n 4 abo e to e press the same surface-dspacement as our
functon of 12 and the proper eoctes beow the surface
to g e n the sum a rghtward processon of wa es. ur present
souton shows how rapdy the nta snusodaty of the head
and front of a one-ended nfnte processon tra eng rghtwards
s dsturbed n rtue of the hydro netc crcumstances of a processon n adng st water. ur souton and the tem towards
t represented n fgs. 6 and 7 and n fg. 2 of 6 abo e show how
rapdy fresh crests are formed. The whoe n estgaton shows
how ery far from fndng any defnte group- eocty we are
n any ntay g en group of two three four or any number
howe er great of wa es. I hope n some future communcaton
to the Roya Socety of Ednburgh to return to ths sub ect n
connecton wth the energy prncpe set forth by sborne
Reynods and the nterferenta theory of Sto est and Rayegh
g ng an absoutey defnte group- eocty n ther case of an
nfnte number of mutuay supportng groups. ut my frst
hydro netc duty the performance of whch I hope may not be
ong deferred s to fuf my promses regardng shp-wa es and
crcuar wa es tra eng n a drectons from a pace of dsturbance n water.
1. The foowng tabes show some of the most mportant
numbers whch ha e been cacuated and whch may be usefu
n farther prosecuton of the sub ect of the present paper.
Nature o. . 1877 pp. 4 -4.
t Smth s Pr e Paper Carmb. n . Caendar 1876.
Sound ed. 1 o. . 1877 pp. 246-7.
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66
66 A ES N ATER
6
TA LE 1.
t 0 p 0 /p D 0 ob -o 1 0 .
p
o 0 - D 0 o 0 I D
-1I
0
1
2

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2
24
25
26
27
28
29
0
1
2

1-0987
1 4142
1-0987
-8045
-6452
-5490
-484 .4 75
-4018. 7 4
- 502
- 08 142
-2999
2874
276
266
257 4
249
-2420
2 52
-2290
-22 2
-2179
-2129 2082
-20 9
-1998
-1959
-192
-1888
-1855 1824 1795
-1767
- 155
- 155
-2942
-159
-0962
-0647
-0468
-0 57
-0284 02 2
-0194
-0166
-014
-0125
-0111
0100
-0089
-0081
007 0068
-0062
-0058
005
-0050
-0047
-004
-0041 00 9
-00 6
-00 5
-00
-00 1
-0029
-0028
-0027
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
41
42
4
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
5
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
6
64
65
66
67
-1740
1714
-1689
-1666 164
-1621
1600 1580
-1561
-1542 1524
-1507 1490
-1474 1458
-144
-1428
1414
-1400
-1 86 1 7
-1 60 1 48
-1 6
-1 24
-1 1
-1 02 1291 1280
-1270
-1260
-1250
-1240
-12 1
-0026
-0025
-002
-002
-0022
-0021
-0020
0019
-0019
-0018
-0017
0017
-0016
-0016
0015
0015
-0014
0014
-0014
-001
001
-0012
0012
-0012
0011
0011
0011
0011
0010
0010
0010
0010
0009
0009
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1904 N THE R NT AND REAR A REE PR CESSI N 67
TA LE II.
o E 2 2 25 D1 2T
15 47r 1 4 -0002 0000 0001
16 97r 0 41 0005 - 0001 - 0002
17 67r 161 1 -0011 0001 - -0002
18 47r 157 22 0024 000 0006
19 7r 11 0044 - -000 0020
20 17- 77 25 0075 - -002 -.0018
21 297r 171 2 -0118 - -0005 - -0055
22 287r 109 24 0174 0050 0117
2 277r 68 20 0246 - -0067 - 01 6
24 267r 450 -0 -0069 0146
25 257r 9 6 -04 4 - 0077 - 0188
26 247r 46 8 -0550 -0111 0281
27 2 7r 67 0 -0679 - 0170 - 0 86
28 227r 98 45 -0820 0216 0 77
29 27r 1400 41 -0917 - -0161 -.0101
0 217r 11 47 -11 1 - -0060 - 0 72
1 2 r 710 11 P 1299 0 12 0558
2 1 97r 1 80 6 -1472 - -0246 - -00 2
197r 1 50 -1651 - -0214 - 0626
4 18wr 111I 49 -18 2 0412 0267
5 187r 17 29 -2016 0145 06 7
6 177 108 2 -2201 - -0492 - 0266
7 177r 240 6 -2 85 - -0226 - 071
8- 167r 124 14 -2569 0487 0021
9 16 rr 48 27 2752 0466 0728
40 157r 1560 27 29 4 - 0262 0425
41 15Tr 87 58 - 112 - -0687 - 041 0
42 157r 22 44 287 - -0277 - -0751
4 47r 1400 2 - 459 0474 - 0290
44 147r 81 8 629 0764 04 4
45 47r 24 24 - 794 -0 0 0741
46 1 7r 1500 6 956 - 0411 0429
47 r 98 9 -4112 - 0840 - 10190
48 7r 48 20 4267 - -0650 - 0642
49 1 7r 0 2 -4416 - -0008 - -0657
50 27r 1 40 40 -4560 0649 - 0282
51 127r 90 6 -4702 - 09 1 0224
52 1 27r 48 10 4840 0707 0582
5 127r 7 25 -497 0125 064
54 7r 1480 9 -5101 - -0518 0417
55 117r 110 18 5226 - -09 5 00 5
56 11br 7 48 5 48 - 0970 - -0 2
57 r 8 5 -5464 - -06 8 - -0556
58 17r 4 4 5580 - 0082 - 0578
59 107r 15 4 -5690 0496 - 0421
60 10r 119 57 -5797 0917 - 0152
61 107r 89 14 -5900 1069 0141
62 107r 59 0 -6001 0928 0 7
6 107r 0 4 -6098 -0555 0501
64 07 2 50 -619 0054 0506
65 97w 155 48 6284 - 0452 040
66 97r 1290 5 6 72 - 08 55 0226
67 97r 104 9 -6459 - -1081 0022
68 9w r 7 9 28 6540 - 110
I
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68
7
7. DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES.
rom the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh une 20 1904
Ph. Mag. o. . une 1905 pp. 7 -757.
2-64. Cana Shp- a es.
2. To a od the somewhat cumbrous tte Two-dmensona
I now use the desgnaton Cana a es to denote wa es n
a cana wth hor onta bottom and ertca sdes whch f
not two-dmensona n ther source become more and more
appro matey two-dmensona at greater and greater dstances
from the source. In the present communcaton the source s
such as to render the moton two-dmensona throughout the
two dmensons beng respect ey perpendcuar to the bottom
and parae to the ength of the cana: the cana beng straght.
. The word deep n the present communcaton and
ts two predecessors 1- 1 s used for bre ty to mean
nfntey deep or so deep that the moton does not dffer
sensby from what t woud be f the water beng ncompressbe
were nfntey deep. Ths condton s practcay fufed n
water of fnte depth f the dstance between e ery crest pont
of ma mum ee aton and neghbourng crest on ether sde s
ess than one-haf or one-thrd of ts dstance from the bottom.
4. y shp-wa es I mean any wa es produced n open
sea or n a cana by a mo ng generator and for smpcty I
suppose the moton of the generator to be rectnea and unform.
The generator may be a shp foatng on the water or a submarne
shp or a fsh mo ng at unform speed beow the surface or
Ths desgnaton does not ncude an nterestng cass of cana wa es of whch
the dynamca theory was frst g en by eand n the Trans. Roy. Soc. Edn. for
18 9 the case n whch the wa e ength s ery ong n comparson wth the depth
and breadth of the cana and the trans erse secton s of any shape other than
rectanguar wth hor onta bottom and ertca sdes.
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N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES
69
as suggested by Rayegh an eectrfed body mo ng abo e the
surface. or cana shp-wa es f the moton of the water cose
to the source s to be two-dmensona the shp or submarne
must be a pontoon ha ng ts sdes or a submerged bar ha ng
ts ends pane and fttng to the sdes of the cana wth freedom
to mo e hor ontay. The submerged surface must be cyndrc
wth generatng nes perpendcuar to the sdes.
5. The case of a crcuar cyndrc bar of dameter sma
compared wth ts depth beow the surface mo ng hor ontay
at a constant speed s a mathematca probem whch presents
nterestng dffcutes worthy of serous wor for anyone who
may care to underta e t. The case of a foatng pontoon s much
more dffcut because of the dscontnuty between free surface of
water and water-surface pressed by a rgd body of g en shape
dspacng the water.
6. Choosng a much easer probem than ether of those I
ta e as wa e generator a forc e consstng of a g en contnuous
dstrbuton of pressure at the surface tra eng o er the surface
at a g en speed. To understand the reaton of ths to the
pontoon probem magne the rgd surface of the pontoon to
become fe be and magne apped to t a g en dstrbuton II
of pressure e erywhere perpendcuar to t. Ta e 0 any pont at
a dstance h abo e the undsturbed water-e e draw parae
to the ength of the cana and ertcay downwards. Let
A T be the dspacement-components of any partce of the water
whose undsturbed poston s . e suppose the dsturbance
nfntesma by whch we mean that the change of dstance
between any two partces of water s nfntey sma n comparson
wth ther undsturbed dstance and that the ne onng them
e perences changes of drecton whch are nfntey sma n
comparson wth the radan. or bera nterpretaton of ths
condton see 61 beow. ater beng assumed frctoness ts
moton started prmary from rest by pressure apped to the
free surface s essentay rrotatona. ut we need not assume
ths at present: we see mmedatey that t s pro ed by our
e uatons of moton when n them we suppose the moton to be
orc e s a ery usefu word ntroduced after carefu consutaton wth
terary authortes by my brother the ate Prof. ames Thomson to denote any
system offorce.
I .
24
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70
A ES N ATER
7
nfntesma. The e uatons of moton when the densty of the
ud s ta en as unty are
d2.d d _dp
dt2 d d d . ............... 59
dt2 d d d /
where g denotes the force of gra ty and p the pressure at t .
Assumng now the ud to be ncompressbe we ha e
do d 0........................ 60 .
7. The moton beng assumed to be nfntesma the second
and thrd terms of the frst members of 59 are neggbe and
the e uatons of moton become
d___ dp
dt2 - d..... 61 .
d2__ dp
dt2 d
Ths by ta ng the dfference of two dfferentatons g es
dt .................... 2
whch shows that f at any tme the moton s ero or rrotatona
t remans rrotatona for e er.
8. If at any tme there s rotatona moton n any part of
the ud t s nterestng to now what becomes of t. Lea ng
for a moment our present restrcton to cana wa es magne
ourse es on a ery smooth sea n a shp ept mo ng unformy
at a good speed by a tow-rope abo e the water. Loo ng o er the
shp s sde we see a ayer of dsturbed moton showng by dmpes
n the surface nnumerabe tte whrpoos. The thc ness of
ths ayer ncreases from nothng perceptbe near the bow to
perhaps 10 or 20 cms. near the stern more or ess accordng to
the ength and speed and smoothness of the shp. If now the
water suddeny oses scosty and becomes a perfect fud the
dynamcs of orte moton tes us that the rotatonay mo ng
water gets eft behnd by the shp and spreads out n the more
and more dstant wa e and becomes ost wthout howe er
It now seems to me certan that f any moton be g en wthn a fnte porton
of an nfnte ncompressbe ud orgnay at rest ts fate s necessary dss
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1904
N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES
71
osng ts netc energy whch becomes reduced to nfntey
sma eoctes n an nfntey arge porton of ud. The shp
now goes on through the cam sea wthout producng any more
eddes aong ts sdes and stern but ea ng wthn an acute ange
on each sde of ts wa e smooth shp-wa es wth no eddes or
turbuence of any nd. The dea annument of the water s
scosty dmnshes consderaby the tenson of the tow-rope but
by no means annus t t has st wor to do on an e er ncreasng
assembage of reguar wa es e tendng farther and farther rght
astern and o er an area of 19 28 tan- /- on each sde of
md-wa e as we sha see n about 80 beow. Returnng now
to two-dmensona moton and cana wa es: we n rtue of
62 put
d p do
d C d............ 6
where denotes what s commony caed the eocty-potenta
whch when con enent we sha wrte n fu t . th
ths notaton 61 g es by ntegraton wth respect to and
-p g C ..................... 64 .
And 60 g es d 0.......................... 65 .
oowng ourer s method ta e now
t - e-n sn m - t ............ 66
whch satsfes 65 and e presses a snusoda wa e-dsturbance
of wa e-ength 27r/m tra eng -wards wth eocty .
9. To fnd the boundary-pressure I whch must act on the
water-surface to get the moton represented by 66 when mn
are g en we must appy 64 to the boundary. Let 0 be the
undsturbed surface and et d denote ts depresson at o t
beow undsturbed e e that s to say
d t o t d f t m sn m - t ... 67
paton to nfnte dstances wth nfntey sma eoctes e erywhere whe the
tota netc energy remans constant. After many years of faure to pro e that
the moton n the ordnary Hemhot crcuar rng s stabe I came to the concuson that t s essentay unstabe and that ts fate must be to become dsspated
as now descrbed. I came to ths concuson by e tensons not htherto pubshed
of the consderatons descrbed n a short paper entted: n the stabty of
steady and of perodc fud moton n the Ph. Mag. for May 1887. Reprnted
supra pp. 166 se .
24-2
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72
A ES N ATER
7
whence by ntegraton wth respect to t

d - cos m - t .................... 68 .

To appy 64 to the surface we must n g put d and n

df/dt we may put 0 because d are nfntey sma uanttes
of the frst order and ther product s negected n our probem of
nfntesma dspacements. Hence wth 66 and 68 and wth
II ta en to denote surface-pressure 64 becomes
m cos m - t g cos m - t - I gC... 69

whence wth the arbtrary constant C ta en 0

II -m cosm - t ............ 70
and emnatng by 68 we ha e fnay
g m 2 d..................... 71 .
Thus we see that f /gm we ha e I 0 and therefore we
ha e a tran of free snusoda wa es ha ng wa e-ength e ua to
27r/m. Ths s the we- nown aw of reaton between eocty
and ength of free deep-sea wa es. ut f s not e ua to /g/m
we ha e forced wa es wth a surface-pressure g -nm 2 d whch
s drected wth or aganst the dspacement accordng as
t or gt g/m.
40. Let now our probem be:-g en I a sum of snusoda
functons nstead of a snge one as n 70 -re ured d the
resutng dspacement of the water-surface. e ha e by 71
and 70 wth propery atered notaton
n : cos m - t ................................... 72
d g I 2cos m - t Acos f - t y 7
g - m 2 2
where m / are g en constants ha ng dfferent aues n the
dfferent terms of the sums and s a g en constant eocty.
The ast term of 7 e presses wth two arbtrary constants
A y a tran of free wa es whch we may supermpose on any
souton of our probem.
41. It s ery nterestng and nstruct e n respect to the
dynamcs of water-wa es to appy 72 to a partcuar case of
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1904
N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES.7
ourer s e panson of perodc arbtrary functons such as a
dstrbuton of aternate constant pressures and eros on e ua
success e spaces tra eng wth eocty . ut ths must be
eft undone for the present to et us get on wth shp-wa es and
for ths purpose we may ta e as a case of 72 7
- 1 e2
II -c g e cos 0 e2 cos 20 etc. gc 2 2 c e
2 e c- 2e cos 0 e 2......... 74
e e1
d c o- cos -2 cos0 etc.......... 75
where 0 _ 27r - t / ..................... 76
a
2_ g a ga.. _a. 77
-2r 7- 27 ..............7
27r 5 2n r 2
and e may be any numerc t 1. Remar that when 0 oo
and we ha e by 75 and 74 d /g whch e pans our unt of
pressure.
42. To understand the dynamca condtons thus prescrbed
and the resutng moton:-remar frst that 74 wth 76
represents a space-perodc dstrbuton of pressure on the surface
tra eng wth eocty and 75 represents the dspacement
of the water-surface n the resutng moton when space-perodc
of the same space-perod as the surface-pressure. Any moton
whate er conse uent on any nta dsturbance and no subse uent appcaton of surface-pressure may be supermposed on the
souton represented by 75 to consttute the compete souton
of the probem of fndng the moton n whch the surface-pressure
s that g en n 74 .
4 . To understand thoroughy the consttuton of the
forc e-datum 74 for 1 t s hepfu to now that n denotng
any post e or negat e nteger we ha e
n o ba
27r e cos 0 e2 cos 20 etc. S b7 na 78
f b a og /e .
27 79 .
2a 0ooooooo ooo
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74
A ES N ATER
7
Ths we fnd by appyng 15 abo e to the perodc functon
represented by the second member of 78 .
The e uaty of the two members of 78 s ustrated by fg. 11
0.4 - 4.5 6 9 C
S g. 11 e -5.
n whch for the case e 5 and conse uenty by 79 b/a 110
the hea y cur e represents the frst member and the two ght
cur es represent two terms of the second member whch are as
many as the scae of the dagram aows to be seen on t. There
s a somewhat cose agreement between each of the ght cur es
and the part of the hea y cur e between a ma mum and the
mnmum on each sde of t. Thus we see that e en wth e so
sma as 5 we ha e a not ery rough appro maton to e uaty
between success e haf perods of the frst member of 78 and a
snge term of ts second member. If e s t 1 by an nfntey
sma dfference ths appro maton s nfntey neary perfect.
It s so neary perfect for e 9 that fg. 12 cannot show any
de aton from t on a scae of ordnates one-tenth of that of fg. 11.
The tendency to agreement between the frst member of 78 and
a snge term of ts second member wth aues of e approachng
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19041
N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES
75
to 1 s we shown by the foowng modfcaton of the ast
member of 74 : -e 2 y- 1 - e2
12e cos 0 e2 -C 1-e 2 4e sn2 0
0 of It. 54 C 8 9 9

0
40
g. 12 e -9.
Thus we see that f e 1 II s ery great when 0 s ery sma
and II s ery sma uness 0 s ery sma or ery neary 27r .
Thus when e- 1 we ha e
I n- 1 2 8
go -e 2 e2................. 81
whch means e pressng II appro matey by a snge term of the
second member of 78 .
44. Return to our dynamca souton 75 and remar that
f s an nteger one term of 75 s nfnte of whch the
dynamca meanng s cear n 70 . Hence to ha e e ery term
of 75 fnte we must ha e 8 where s an nteger and
8 s t 1 and we may con enenty wrte 75 as foows:
1 e cos 0 e2 cos 20 e cos 0
8 1 -2
e cos 1 0 e 2 cos 2 0 _ ad nf. .. 82
or d ........................ 8
where and c/denote fnte and nfnte seres shown n 82 .
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76
A ES N ATER
7
45. e are gong to ma e 8 - and n ths case can be
summed n fnte terms as foows. rst mutpy each term by
e 8 e- - and we fnd
1- e2-8
- c 8 e cos 1 0 2 cos 2 0 etc.
-c 8 e de e-8 cos 1 e- cos 2 0 etc.
- 8 e de e- RS 1 e e2 2 etc.
where denotes e1L and as n abo e RS denotes
reasaton by ta ng haf sum for t. Summng the nfnte
seres and performng fde for the case 8 a we fnd
-c e RS 2 og............... 84
I - / e
c e R og 1 e cos 0 e sn 10
0 tan-1. e- r 2 gt 2 2 tan21 mu-210. 85
and therefor 1 - e cos I n - t /e sn 0
1 2 e cos 0 e
-- 1 e 2 og
- c e g 1- 2 e cos 10 e
2
where ae sn 0 tan 2-e8 n 86
n or our present case of t- 82 g es
a1 e os 1 -e 0 e cos.
and therefore 8 g s tanhe son of o
p-er
Hence fnay
c e cos 0og - 2 e cos e
sn 0 tan- 2 e sn. 86 .
2 c 1-e
or our present case of 8 82 g es
1 e cos 0 e2 cos20 e Cos
2 2 1 ...
th and 9 thus e pressed 8 g es the souton of our
probem.
46. In a the cacuatons of 46-61 I ha e ta en e 9
as suggested for hydro netc ustratons n Lecture . of my
atmore Lectures pp. 11 114 from whch fg. 12 and part of
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1904
N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES
77
fg. 11 abo e are ta en. Resuts cacuated from 8 86 87
are represented n fgs. 1 -16 a for the same forc e 74 wth
e 9 and for the four dfferent eoctes of ts tra e whch
correspond to the aues 20 9 4 0 of . The wa e-engths
of free wa es ha ng these eoctes are 77 abo e 2a/41
2a/19 2a/9 and 2a. The eoctes are n ersey proportona
to /41 /19 /9 /1. Each dagram shows the forc e by one
cur e a repetton of fg. 12 and shows by another cur e the
depresson d of the water-surface produced by t when tra eng
at one or other of the four speeds.
47. Ta ng frst the ast beng the hghest of those speeds
we see by fg. 16 that the forc e tra eng at that speed produces
ma mum dspacement upwards where the downward pressure s
greatest and ma mum downward dspacement where the pressure
e erywhere downward s east. udgng dynamcay t s easy
to see that greater and greater speeds of the forc e woud st
g e dspacements abo e the mean e e where the downward
pressure of the forc e s greatest and beow the mean e e where
t s east but wth dmnshng magntudes down to ero for
nfnte speed.
And n 75 we ha e for a post e aues of t 1 a seres
aways con ergent though suggshy when e 1 by whch the
dspacement can be e acty cacuated for e ery aue of 0.
48. Ta e ne t fg. 15 for whch 44 and therefore by
77 ga/97r and a/4 5. Remar that the scae of
ordnates s n fg. 15 ony 1/2 5 of the scae n fg. 16 and see how
enormousy great s the water-dsturbance now n comparson wth
what we had wth the same forc e but three tmes greater speed
and nne tmes greater wa e-ength /ga/7r 2a . thn
the space-perod of fg. 15 we see four compete wa es ery
appro matey snusoda between M M two ma mums of
depresson whch are amost e acty but ery sghty ess than
uarter wa e-engths between C and C. Imagne the cur e to be
e acty snusoda throughout and contnued snusoday to cut
the ero ne at CC.
e shoud thus ha e n CC a tran of 4- snusoda wa es
and f the same s contnued throughout the nfnte processon... CC... we ha e a dscontnuous perodc cur e made up of
contnuous portons each 44 perods of snusoda cur e begnnng
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78 A ES N ATER
0
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#
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1904
N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES
79
0-
11_. -
T_- _7 gt
b
I
w :
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#
p
d
80
A ES N ATER
7
II
11
-5
ur
AD .-I
T o
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p
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1904 N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES 81
II D
u..
p
IL
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p
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82
A ES N ATER
7
and endng wth ero. The change at each pont of dscontnuty
C s merey a haf-perod change of phase. A sght ateraton
of ths dscontnuous cur e wthn 60 on each sde of each C
con erts t nto the contnuous wa y cur e of fg. 15 whch
represents the water-surface due to moton of speed ga/9wr of the
pressura forc e represented by the other contnuous cur e of
fg. 15.
49. E ery word of 48 s appcabe to fgs. 14 and 1 e cept
references to speed of the forc e whch s /a/197r for fg. 14 and
ga/417r for fg. 1 and other statements re urng modfcaton
as foows:
or 41 perods or wa es n respect to fg. 15 substtute
91 n respect to fg. 14 and 20 n respect to fg. 1 .
or depresson n defnng MM n respect to fgs. 15 14
substtute ee aton n the case of fg. 1 .
50. How do we now that as sad n 48 the formua
8 86 87 g es for a wde range of about 120 on each
sde of 0 180
d 0 - d 180 . sn 0......... 88
whch s merey 48 49 n symbos t beng understood that
s any nteger not t 4 and that e s 99 or any nunerc between
9 and 1 I wsh I coud g e a short answer to ths ueston
wthout hep of hydro netc deas Here s the ony answer I
can g e at present.
51. Loo at fgs. 12-16 and see how n the forc e defned
by e -9 the pressure s amost whoy confned to the spaces
0 t 60 on each sde of each of ts ma mums and s ery neary
nu from 0 60 to 0 00 . It s ob ous that f the pressure
were perfecty annued n these ast-mentoned spaces whe n
the spaces wthn 60 on each sde of each ma mum the pressure
s that e pressed by 74 the resutng moton woud be sensby
the same as f the pressure were throughout the whoe space
CC 0 0 to 0 60 e acty that g en by 74 . Hence we
must e pect to fnd through neary the whoe space of 240 from
60 to 00 an amost e acty snusoda dspacement of watersurface ha ng the wa e-ength 60 / 2 due to the transatona
speed of the forc e.
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1904
N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES
8
52. I confess that I dd not e pect so sma a dfference from
snusodaty through the whoe 240 as cacuaton by 8 86
87 has pro ed and as s shown n fgs. 18 19 20 by the
D-cur e on the rght-hand sde of C whch represents n each
case the aue of
D 0 d - - d 180 .sn ...... 89
beng the dfference of d 0 from one contnuous snusoda cur e.
The e ceedng smaness of ths dfference for dstances from
C e ceedng 20 or 0 and therefore through a range between
CC of 20 or 00 s ery remar abe n each case.
5 . The dynamca nterpretaton of 88 and fgs. 18 19 20
s ths:-Supermpose on the souton t 8 86 87 a free
wa e souton accordng to 7 ta en as
- - 1 d 180 . sn ............. 90 .
Ths appro matey annus the appro matey snusoda porton
between C and C shown n fgs. 1 14 15 and appro matey
doubes the appro matey snusoda dspacement n the correspondng portons of the spaces CC and CC on the two sdes of
CC. Ths s a ery nterestng souton of our probem 6 and
though t s curousy artfca t eads drect and short to the
determnate souton of the foowng genera probem of cana
shp-wa es:
54. G en as forc e the soated dstrbuton of pressure
defned n fg. 12 tra eng at a g en constant speed re ured
the steady dstrbuton of dspacement of the water n the pace
of the forc e and before t and behnd t whch becomes estabshed after the moton of the forc e has been ept steady for
a suffcenty ong tme. Pure synthess of the speca souton
g en n 1-10 abo e so es not ony the probem now proposed
but g es the whoe moton from the nstant of the appcaton
of the mo ng forc e. Ths synthess though easy put nto
formua s not easy wor ed out to any practca concuson. n
the other hand here s my present short but compete souton of
the probem of stabe steady moton for whch we ha e been
preparng and wor ng out ustratons n 2-5 .
Contnue eftward ndefntey as a cur e of snes the D-cur e
of each of fgs. 18 19 20 ea ng the forc e cur e soated
as shown aready n these dagrams. r anaytcay stated:
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84
A ES N ATER
7
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p
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N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES
85
LL
C
Ca.0
cp
hb
I
I
. I .
25
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86
A ES N ATER
7
n 89 cacuate the e ua aues of d 0 for e ua post e and
negat e aues of 0 from 0 to 40 or 50 by t 8 86 87 1
and for a arger aues of 0 ta e
d - d 180 sn 0............ 91
where d 180 s cacuated by 8 86 87 . Ths used n
89 ma es D 0 0 for a post e aues of 0 greater than 40
or 50 and ma es t the doube of 91 for a negat e aues of
0 beyond - 40 or - 50 .
55 56. Rgd Co ers or Pontoons ntroduced to appy the g en
forc e pressure on the water-surface .
55. In any one of our dagrams showng a water-surface
magne a rgd co er to be f ed fttng cose to the whoe watersurface. Now oo at the forc e cur e on the same dagram
and where er t shows no sensbe pressure remo e the co er.
The moton non-moton n some parts of the whoe water remans
unchanged. Thus for e ampe n fgs. 1 14 15 16 et the
water be co ered by stff co ers fttng t to 60 on each sde of
each C and et the surface be free from 60 to 00 n each of
the spaces between these co ers. The moton remans unchanged
under the co ers and under the free portons of the surface. The
pressure II consttutng the g en forc e and represented by the
cur e n each case s now automatcay apped by the co ers.
56. Do the same n fgs. 18 19 20 wth reference to the
soated forc es whch they show. Thus we ha e three dfferent
cases n whch a snge rgd co er whch we may construct as
the bottom of a foatng pontoon ept mo ng at a stated eocty
reat ey to the st water before t ea es a tran of snusoda
wa es n ts rear. The D cur e represents the bottom of the
pontoon n each case. The arrow shows the drecton of the
moton of the pontoon. The cur e shows the pressure on the
bottom of the pontoon. In fg. 20 ths pressure s so sma at - 2
that the pontoon may be supposed to end there and t w ea e
the water wth free surface amost e acty snusoda to an
ndefnte dstance behnd t nfnte dstance f the moton has
been unform for an nfnte tme . The cur e shows that n
fg. 19 the water wants gudance as far bac as - and n fg. 18
as far bac as - 8 to eep t snusoda when eft free beng n
each case the uarter wa e-ength.
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1904
N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES
87
57-60. Shapes for a eess Pontoons and ther orc es.
57. Ta ng any case such as those represented n fgs. 18 19
20 we see ob ousy that f any two e ua and smar forc es
are apped wth a dstance between correspondng ponts and
f the forc e thus consttuted s caused to tra e at speed e ua to
N/g /27r beng accordng to 77 abo e the eocty of free wa es
of ength the water w be eft wa eess at rest behnd the
tra eng forc e.
58. Ta ng for e ampe the forc es and speeds of fgs. 18 19
20 and dupcatng each forc e n the manner defned n 57 we
fnd by proper addtons of two numbers ta en from our tabes
of numbers cacuated for fgs. 18 19 20 the numbers whch g e
the depressons of the water n the three correspondng wa eess
motons. These resuts are shown graphcay n fg. 21 on scaes
arranged for a common eocty. The free wa e-ength for ths
eocty s shown as 4 n the dagram.
59. The three forc es and the three wa eess water-shapes
produced by them are shown n fgs. 22 2 24 on dfferent scaes
of wa e-ength and pressure chosen for the con enence of each
case.
60. As most nterestng of the three cases ta e that der ed
from 9 of our orgna n estgaton. y oo ng at fg. 2 we
see that a pontoon ha ng ts bottom shaped accordng to the
D cur e from - to 1 free wa e-engths w ea e the
water sensby fat and at rest f t mo es aong the cana at the
eocty for whch the free wa e-ength s 4 . And the pressure
of the water on the bottom of the pontoon s that represented
hydrostatcay by the cur e.
61. Imagne the scae of abscssas n each of the four dagrams
fgs. 21-24 to be enarged tenfod. The greatest steepnesses of
the D cur e n each case are rendered suffcenty moderate to
aow t to fary represent a rea water-surface under the g en
forc e. The same may be sad of fgs. 15 16 18 19 20 and of
fgs. 1 14 wth abscssas enarged twentyfod. In respect to
mathematca hydro netcs generay t s nterestng to remar
that a ery bera nterpretaton of the condton of nfntesmaty
6 abo e s practcay aowabe. Incnatons to the hor on
of as much as - of a radan 5 7 or say 6 n any rea case of
25-2
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88 A ES N ATER 7
c1

cur- r
II I.T
0r
coII c
C d

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1904
N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES
89
water-wa es or dsturbances w not serousy tate the mathematca resut.
62. g. 17 represents the cacuatons of d 0 and
-1 d 180 for twenty-nne ntegra aues of 0 1 2 ... 19 20 0 40 ... 90 100 from the foowng formuas found
by puttng 0 0 and 0 180 and wth e 9 n each case
and c 1
d 2 1 e - e og 1 - ..
e- 1 e-. 92
27:_-1 2 2 1
2 e e-1 e-2
d 180 -1 2 1 e tan- --- 1
e- 1 e-
_ 1 - 2-_- -1 2 1... 9
The asymptote of d 0 shown n the dagram s e paned by
remar ng that when s nfntey great the tra eng eocty of
the forc e s nfntey sma and therefore by end of 41 the
depresson s that hydrostatcay due to the forc e pressure.
Ths at 0 0 s e ua to
e 1 9
1 c c 95.c.
6 . The nterpretaton of the cur es of fg. 17 for ponts
between those correspondng to ntegra aues of s e ceedngy
nterestng. e sha be ed by t nto an n estgaton of the
dsturbance produced by the moton of a snge forc e e pressed
by
gcb
gcb...... ....94
b 2.................. 94
but ths must be eft for a future communcaton when t w be
ta en up as a premnary to sea shp-wa es.
64. The pan of so ng by ad of perodc functons the twodmensona shp-wa e probem for nfntey deep water adopted
n the present communcaton was g en n Part III. of a seres
of papers on Statonary a es n owng ater pubshed n
the Phosophca Maga ne ctober 1886 to anuary 1887 wth
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90 A ES N ATER 7
anaytca methods suted for water of fnte depths. The annument of snusoda wa es n front of the source of dsturbance a
bar across the bottom of the cana by the superposton of a tran
of free snusoda wa es whch doube the snusoda wa es n the
rear was ustrated December 1886 by a dagram p. 295 supra
on a scae too sma to show the resdua dsturbance of the water n
front descrbed n 5 abo e and represented n fgs. 18 19 20.
In concuson I desre to than Mr . de Graaff Hunter for
hs nterested and eaous co-operaton wth me n a the wor of
the present communcaton and for the great abour he has g en
n the cacuaton of resuts and ther representaton by dagrams.
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1904
N DEEP ATER SHIP- A ES
91

amp

to
0
-I
a 4
ca

4 -C
r
0

M
S

Ca
CA
w_4.e 0
C . I
0
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-I
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92 A ES N ATER 7
rn
I I
4

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p
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Ce
tA
H
En

D
g. 24 4. Scae of abscssas s uarter-wa e-engths.
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94
8
8. DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES.
rom the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh uy 17 1905
Phosophca Maga ne o. . anuary 1906 pp. 1 25.
65. Referrng to. 6 we must for the present as tme
presses ea e detaed nterpretaton of the cur es of fg. 17:
merey remar ng that accordng to 44 f 8 0 whch means
that s an nteger the dsturbance d s nfntey great of
whch the dynamca meanng s cear n 70 of 9.
66. Let us now fnd the depresson of the water at dstance
from the orgn when the dsturbance s due to a snge forc e
e pressed by the formua
b2
I g 2..................... 95
tra eng unformy wth any eocty . If ths forc e were
apped steady to the surface of water at rest t woud produce a
steady depresson 1 II as we are ta ng the densty of the
water unty. Thus the forc e II woud shape the water to an
nfntey ong trough of cross-secton shown n fg. 25 representng
b2/ 2 b2 on the scae of 10 cm. and b 1 cm.
Ta ng g-1 d of 95 we fnd tan- /b . b . Hence the area
of fg. 25 s 2 tan- 8. b or 66. brb and the tota area of the
dagram e tended to nfnty on each sde s 7rb . Hence the area
of fg. 25 s - or -92 of the tota area. Ths tota area rb
I ca for bre ty the forc e area and rb I ca the mean
breadth of the forc e area. The breadth of the forc e where
8 as shown by the dotted ne n the dagram s b.
hat s denoted by n ths and foowng e pressons s the - t of
6-40 the orgn of co-ordnates beng now f ed reat ey to the tra eng
forc e.
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p
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C
LN
1905 N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES 95

C
LN -e L 0-
I C
mP bb
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p
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96
A ES N ATER
8
67. Now et the forc e be suddeny set n moton and ept
mo ng unformy wth any eocty n the rghtward drecton
of our dagrams. Ths w produce a great commoton settng
utmatey nto more and more neary steady moton through
greater and greater dstances from 0. The n estgaton of
1-10 abo e eb. 1904 and partcuary the resuts descrbed
n 5 6 and ustrated n fgs. 2 show that n our present case
the commoton howe er oent e en f ncudng spashes d des
tsef nto two parts whch tra e away n the two drectons from
0 utmatey at wa e-speed ncreasng n proporton to s uare
root of dstance accordng to the aw of fang bodes and
ea ng n ther rears through e er broadenng spaces what woud
be more and more neary absoute uescence f the forc e were
suddeny to cease after ha ng acted for any tme ong or short.
68. ut f the forc e contnues actng and tra eng rghtwards wth constant speed accordng to 67 the tra eng
away of the two parts of the nta commoton n the two
drectons from 0 tsef merey a pont of reference mo ng
unformy rghtwards ea es the water as shown by fg. 26 n a
state of more and more neary ute steady moton through an
e er broadenng space on the rear sde of 0 and through a sma
space n ad ance of 0 pro ded certan moderatng condtons
are fufed n respect to b .
69. To ustrate and pro e 68 frst suppose nfntey
sma. The water w be nfntey tte dsturbed from the statc
forc e-cur e shown n fg. 25 and descrbed n 66. Sma
enough eoctes w ma e ery sma dsturbance wth any fnte
aue of b.
70. ut now go to the other e treme and et be ery great.
It s cear on dynamca prncpes wthout cacuaton that
may be great enough to ma e but ery tte dsturbance of the
water-surface howe er steep be the statc forc e cur e. A
s ppng stone and a rcochettng cannon shot ustrate the
appcaton of the same dynamca prncpe n three-dmensona
hydro netcs. y mathematca cacuaton 79 beow we sha
see that when s great enough we ha e
h47rA/........................ 97
Howe er sudden and great the commoton s the moton of the ud s and
contnues to be rrotatona throughout.
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05 N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES 9
_o
Co
1/ I
/5 /
f
7
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p
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98 A ES N ATER 8
where h denotes the heght of crests abo e mean water-e e n
the tran of snusoda free wa es eft n the rear of the tra eng
forc e A denotes the area of the forc e cur e fg. 25 beng
g en n 66 by the e uaton
A 7rb ........................... 98 :
and g en 9 71 by
27r 2/g...................... 99
denotes the wa e-ength of free wa es tra eng wth eocty .
71. A ery mportant theorem n respect to shp-wa es s
e pressed by 97 . thout cacuaton we see that f s ery
great n comparson wth wrb the mean breadth of the forc e
cur e accordng to 66 h must be smpy proportona to A for
dfferent forc es tra eng at the same speed. Ths we see
because for the same aue of b h/ s the same and because
superposton of dfferent forc es wthn any breadth sma n
comparson wth g es for h the sum of the aues whch they
woud g e separatey. arther wthout cacuaton we can see
by magnng atered the scae of our dagrams that h /A must
be constant. ut wthout cacuaton I do not see how we coud
fnd the factor 47r of 97 as n 79 beow.
72. The effect of the condton prescrbed n 71 s ustrated
and e paned by consderng cases n whch t s not fufed.
or e ampe et two forc es be superposed wth ther mddes at
dstance they w g e h 0 that s to say no tran of wa es.
The dspaced water surface for ths case s represented n fg. 27.
r et ther dstance be or - the two w g e the same aue
of h as that g en by one ony. r et the two be at dstance
they w ma e h twce as great as one forc e ma es t.
7 . In fgs. 26 27 29 0 representng resuts of the cacuatons of 78 79 beow the abscssas are a mar ed accordng
to wa e-ength. The scae of ordnates corresponds n each of
fgs. 26 27 29 to 24 -89 and brb 10251.10- . . Ths
ma es by 98 and 97 A I and h t. g. 0 represents
the cur e of fg. 29 at the ma mum n the neghbourhood of 0
on a greaty magnfed scae: about 1720 tmes for the abscssas
and 9 tmes for the ordnates.
74. g. 26 shows on the rght-hand sde the water sghty
heaped up n front of the tra eng forc e whch s a dstrbuton
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1905
N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES
99
of downward pressure whose mdde s at . n the eft sde of
0 we see the water surface not dfferng perceptby from a cur e
of snes beyond haf a wa e-ength rearwards from 0. A sma
porton of a wa e-ength of a true cur e of snes n the dagram
shows how tte the water s surface dffers from the cur e of snes
at e en so sma a dstance from 0 as a uarter-wa e-ength.
It must be remembered that n reaty the water surface s
e erywhere ery neary e e and n consderng as we sha ha e
to do ater the wor done by the forc e we must nterpret
propery the enormous e aggeraton of sopes shown n the
dagrams. It s nterestng to remar that the statc depresson
whch the forc e f at rest woud produce s about 87 tmes
the ee aton actuay produced abo e 0 by the forc e tra eng
at the speed at whch free wa es of the wa e-ength shown n the
dagrams tra e. It s nterestng aso to remar that the mtaton to ery sma sopes s not bndng on the statc forc e cur e.
Thus for e ampe a dstrbuton of statc pressure e erywhere
perpendcuar to the free surface producng statc depresson
e acty agreeng wth fg. 25 woud f caused to tra e at a
speed for whch the free wa e-ength s ery arge n comparson
wth b produce a dsturbance represented by fg. 26 wth wa es
of moderate sopes: and as sad n 69 abo e woud produce no
dsturbance at a f the speed of tra eng were nfntey great.
75. g. 27 s nterestng as showng the wa eess dsturbance
produced by two e ua and smar forc es wth ther mddes
at dstance e ua to haf the wa e-ength. Ths dsturbance s
essentay symmetrca n front and rear of the mdde between
the two forc es. y dynamca consderatons of the e ubrum
of downward pressures we see that the area of fg. 27 porton
abo e ne of abscssas beng rec oned as negat e must be e acty
e ua to 2A the sum of the areas of the two forc es representng
ther ntegra amount of downward pressure. Ths area beng
27rb wth the numerca data of 7 s numercay that s
to say a rectange whose ength s I and breadth the unt of
our ertca scae. Appro mate mensuraton wth a ery rough
estmate of the area beyond the range of the dagram contnued
to nfnty on the two sdes erfes ths concuson.
76. g. 28 s desgned on the same pan as fg. 27 but wth
ee en haf-wa e-engths as the dstance between the two forc es
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p
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400 A ES N ATER 8
ItC..
-- -- _ _ .
co
C4
10
I
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g t It

bS
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p
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1905
N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES
401
nstead of one haf-wa e-ength. L e fg. 27 t s symmetrca on
the two sdes of the mdde of the dagram but nstead of beng
wa eess as s fg. 27 t shows four and a haf wa es a ery
appro matey snusoda wth two depressona ha es of wa es
at ther two ends and ee atons comng asymptotcay to ero
beyond the two ends of the dagram. The cur e represented by
fg. 26 s ery accuratey the rght-hand e treme of fg. 28: and
the same fgure turned rght to eft s the eft-hand e treme of
fg. 28. If we commence wth the water whoy at rest and start
the forc es at the proper speed wth force graduay or somewhat
suddeny ncreasng up to the prescrbed amount the moton
produced w be that represented by fg. 28 wth supermposed
upon t a dsturbance uc y dsappearng n e er engthenng
wa es of dmnshng amptude tra eng away n both drectons
from our fed. If now wth the reguar regme represented by
fg. 28 we suddeny cease to appy the forc es we ha e eft a
free processon of four and a haf ery appro matey snusoda
wa es between a front and a rear de atng from snusddaty as
shown n the dagram. rom the nstant of beng eft free the
front of ths processon and ts rear w rapdy become modfed:
whe for three perods the centra part of the processon w ha e
tra eed three wa e-engths wth ery tte de aton from snusodaty. ut after four or f e perods from the nstant of beng
eft free the whoe processon w ha e got nto confuson. After
twenty or thrty or forty perods the water w be sensby
uescent not ony through the space where the processon was
but through a consderabe part of the space o er whch t woud
ha e tra eed f ts front and rear had been ept guarded by the
contnued acton of the two tra eng forc es. At no tme after
the cessaton of the forc es can we reasonaby or con enenty
assgn a group eocty to the group or processon of wa es wth
whch we are concerned . A pre aent dea s I bee e that such
a group of deep sea wa es coud be regarded as tra eng wth haf
the wa e- eocty of wa es of the ength g en n the orgna
group. In 0 abo e reasons are g en for acceptng the theory
of group eocty ony n the case of mutuay supportng groups
g en by Sto es n hs Smth s Pr e e amnaton paper pubshed
n the Cambrdge n ersty Caendar for 1876: and for re ectng
t for the case of any snge group of wa es. In reaty the front
n ths sub ect see references on p. 04 supra.
. I .
26
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p
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402 A ES N ATER 8

I
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1905
N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES
40
of a group eft to tsef tra es wth acceerated eocty e ceedng
the eocty of perodc wa es of the g en wa e-ength nstead of
wth haf that eocty.
77. g. 29 shows the steady moton symmetrca n front and
rear of a snge tra eng forc e whch s a souton of our
probem but t s an unstabe souton as probaby are the
soutons of the probem of 45 abo e shown n fgs. 1 14 15 .
If any arge fnte porton of the water s g en n moton accordng
to fg. 29 say for e ampe 50 wa e-engths precedng 0 the
forc e and 50 wa e-engths foowng 0 the front of the whoe
processon to the rght of 0 w become dsspated nto nonperodc wa es tra eng rghtwards and eftwards wth ncreasng
wa e-engths and ncreasng eoctes and the appro matey
steady perodc porton of t w shrn bac wards reat ey to
the forc e. Thus before the forc e has tra eed ffty wa eengths the perodc wa es n front of t are a gone: but there
s st rreguar dsturbance both before and behnd t. After the
forc e has tra eed a hundred wa e-engths the whoe moton n
ad ance of t and the moton for perhaps 0 wa e-engths or more
n ts rear w ha e setted to neary the condton represented by
fg. 26 n whch there s a sma reguar ee aton n ad ance of
the forc e and a reguar tran of appro matey snusoda wa es
n ts rear these wa es beng of doube the wa e-heght g en
orgnay. Ths moton as sad abo e n 68 w go on ea ng
behnd the forc e a tran of steady perodc wa es ncreasng n
number and behnd these an rreguar tran of wa es shorter
and shorter and ess and ess hgh the farther rearward we oo
for them see R n fg. 10 of 26 27 abo e . It s an nterestng
but not at a an easy probem to n estgate the e treme rear
wth practcay motoness water behnd t of the tran of wa es
n the wa e of a forc e tra eng unformy for e er. I hope to
return to ths sub ect when we come to consder the wor done by
the tra eng forc e.
78. Pass now to the n estgaton of the formuas by the
cacuaton of whch fgs. 26 27 28 29 0 ha e been drawn and
the theorem of 97 s pro ed. Go bac to the probem of
41 abo e: but nstead of ta ng e 9 as n 46-61 ta e
e 1 - 10-4 and c 1/ 2 1 . y 86 and 87 of 45 we ha e
the foowng souton
d ........................ 100
26-2
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404
A ES N ATER
8
C
04
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1905 N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES 405 /
t t
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y -
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#
p
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406
A ES N ATER
8
where
. f ... 2 e sn 10
e sn - 0tan- 2 -esn
2/I 12 e cos 0 e
- cos og 1 - 2 ec... 101
and
I e cos 0 e2cos 2
2 I 2 2 e cos ... 102 .
2 1 2 -I 2 -
60
g. 29 has been cacuated by puttng 0 -. and ta ng
20. The e panaton s that as we sha see by 78 of 4
abo e 100 101 102 e press the water dsturbance due to an
nfnte row of forc es at consecut e dstances each e ua to
20- the e presson for each forc e beng
gcba/27r
b2 w na 2 ... 10
b2 - na 2................... 1
where n s ero or any post e or negat e nteger and by 79
we ha e
b 20-5. 10-4. /2r.................. 104 .
Thus we see that the pressure at 0 due to each of the forc es
ne t to 0 on the two sdes s 1/ 1 27r. 104 2 of the pressure
due to the forc e whose centre s 0. Thus we see that the
pressures due to a the forc es e cept the ast mentoned may
be negected through se era wa e-engths on each sde of 0: and
we concude that 100 101 102 e press to a ery hgh degree
of appro maton the dsturbance produced n the water by the
snge tra eng forc e whose centre s at 0.
79. To pro e 97 ta e 180 n 100 101 102 we
thus fnd
- d 180 e etan-1-e1 - e
2 -C I I . o .
2 -e . 2-1 ... 105 .
2 I
Instead now of ta ng e 1- 10-4 as we too n our cacuatons
for d 0 et us now ta e e 1. Ths reduces 105 to
- 1 d 180 1-... 1 ... 106 .
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1905
N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES
407
Lasty ta e an nfntey great odd or e en nteger and we fnd
d 180 -I 7r.................. 107 .
Now fg. 26 s as we ha e seen found by supermposng on the
moton represented by fg. 29 an nfnte tran of perodc wa es
represented by - ah. sn 27r / and therefore h r whch
pro es 97 .
80. To pass now from the two-dmensona probem of canashp-wa es to the three-dmensona probem of sea-shp-wa es we
sha use a synthetc method g en by Rayegh at the end of hs
paper on The form of standng wa es on the surface of runnng
water communcated to the London Mathematca Socety n
December 188 . In an nfnte pane e panse of water consder
two or more forc es such as that represented by 95 of 66 wth
ther hor onta meda generatng nes n dfferent drectons
through one pont 0 tra eng wth unform eocty n any
drecton. The superposton of these forc es and of the dsturbances of the water whch they produce each cacuated by an
appcaton of 100 101 102 g es us the souton of a threedmensona wa e probem whch becomes the shp-wa e-probem
f we ma e the consttuents nfntey sma and nfntey numerous.
Rayegh too each consttuent forc e as confned to an nfntey
narrow space and combated the conse uent troubesome nfnty by
ntroducng a resstance to be annued n nterpretaton of resuts
for ponts not nfntey near to 0. I escape from the troube n
the two-dmensona system of wa es by ta ng 95 to e press
the dstrbuton of pressure n the forc e and ma ng b as sma
as we pease. Thus as ndcated n 79 7 76 by ta ng
b 10 / 104. 7r we cacuated a fnte aue for d 0 . ut for
aues of consderaby greater than haf a wa e-ength we were
abe to smpfy the cacuatons by ta ng b 0.
81. or the three-dmensona system et n fg. 1 be
the ncnaton to of the rearward wa e-norma of one of
the consttuent systems of wa es. Ths s aso the ncnaton
to Y of the meda ne of the tra eng forc e to whch that
set of wa es s due. Ta e now for the forc e obtaned by the
Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 188 : repubshed n Rayegh s Scentfc Papers
o. . Art. 109.
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408
A ES N ATER
8
superposton of an nfnte number of consttuents as descrbed
n 80
1 H y fo b2
o y cos y sn 2 b2 108
where may be a functon of r and b s the same for a aues
of .
9
L
g. 1.
or the case of a crcuar forc e system we
constant and we fnd
must ta e
1 rrb - II r where r 2y2...... 109 .
g r2 b2
82. Let now the forc e whether crcuar or not be ept
tra eng n the drecton of negat e wth eocty : and
et denote the correspondng free wa e-ength g en by the
formua 27r 2/g. Ths s the wa e-ength of the consttuent tran
of wa es correspondng to r 0. or the -consttuent the
component eocty perpendcuar to the front s cos and the
wa e-ength s cos2. Loo ng now to fg. 26 wth cos2
Ths s opposte to the drecton of the moton of the forc e n fg. 26.
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1905
N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES
409
nstead of and to fg. 1 and to e uatons 97 98 we
see that the porton of the depresson at y due to the consttuent of forc e shown under the ntegra n 108 s
47r2b . d r sn 27T cos r y sn r . 110
cos2#s cos....
pro ded cos y sn s s consderaby greater than - cos2.
Hence for the depresson at y due to the whoe tra eng
forc e we ha e
d y sn d 27r cos y sn
ty n C S2
- _ 0 - cos......... 111 .
8 . The reason for choosng the mts - -r 7r-0 to r s
that each consttuent forc e g es a tran of snusoda wa es n
ts rear and no perceptbe dsturbance n ts front at dstances
from t e ceedng haf a wa e-ength. Loo now to fg. 1 and
consder the nfnte number of meda nes of the forc es
ncuded n the ntegras 108 111 a as nes passng through
0. our e ampes P Y Y L of these nes are shown
n the dagram: correspondng respect ey to - 7r- 0
r 0 r any post e acute ange r -7r. n each of the frst
three of these nes RR ndcates the rear. The fourth s
n the drecton of the moton and has nether front nor rear.
The ntegra 111 must ncude a and ony a the meda nes
whch ha e rears towards P. Hence P s one mt of r n
111 because t passes through P s the other mt because
t has nether front nor rear. Thus a the nes ncuded n the
ntegra e n the obtuse ange P . Thus the ntegra 111
e presses the depresson at P y due to the ont acton of a
the consttuent forc es because none e cept those whose meda
nes e n the ange P contrbute anythng to the dsturbance
of the water at P.
84. or nterpretng and appro matey e auatng the defnte
ntegra we may con enenty put
r y2 and u c....... 112
C S2.
and wrte 111 as foows:
d2 . d sn. 27rra
d y 472b2- sn... 11 .
- - cos
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410
A ES N ATER
8
Now f we suppose r/ ery great there w be e ceedngy
rapd transtons between e ua post e and negat e aues of
sn 27rru/ whch w cause canceng of a portons of the
ntegra e cept those f any there are for whch du/d r anshes.
e sha see presenty that there are two such aues 2 both
rea f tan 0 t /- u beng a ma mum u for one of them
and a mnmum 2 for the other and that when 0 has any
aue between tan-/ and 27r -tan- / the aues of 52
are both magnary. Consderaton of ths ast-mentoned case
shows that n the whoe area of sea n ad ance of two nes
through the centre of the tra eng forc e ncned at e ua
anges of tan- / or 19 28 on each sde of the md-wa e there
s no perceptbe dsturbance at dstances of much more than a
haf wa e-ength from the centre of the forc e. The man
dsturbance by shp-wa es therefore es n the rearward anguar
space between these two nes. It s ustrated by fg. 2 as we
now proceed to pro e by the proper nterpretaton of 11 .
E pandng the argument of the sn n 11 by Tayor s theorem
for aues of dfferng from 1 by sma fractons of a radan
we fnd
27rru 27rr r d2u . //.
u - d2 - 1 2 a- ... 114
where
27rru rr d2u
27 - and - d- ... 115 .
rom the second of 115 we fnd d d / 7r where
Ir d2 6 n
............. 116
Deang smary n respect to 2 and aues of t dfferng but
tte from t we ta e 2 nstead of the - 2 of 114 and
d2u/d f2 2 nstead of the - d2u/d 2 of 115 because u s the
ma mum and u2 the mnmum. Cang the aues of
correspondng to #2 and usng these e pressons propery n
11 we fnd for the depresson of the water at y
d y - / cos1 d sn a- 2
d s n .. 117 .
2 d 2 sn a . 117 .
/2 Cos 2 -00
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1905 N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES 411

C c
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412
A ES N ATER
8
The mts - 0 o are assgned to the ntegratons reat ey
to and because the greatness of r/ n 115 and the correspondng formua reat e to #2 ma es and 2 each ery great
post e or negat e for moderate propery sma post e or
negat e aues of - r and - # . Now as dsco ered by
Euer or Lapace see Gregory s E ampes p. 479 we ha e
d sn f d cos 2 /2
and usng these n 117 we fnd
2 /272b 1 sn a - cos a sn C S 2I
d 8 cos2 #/2cos2 2 ..... 118 .
Substtutng for a1 a2 aues by 1-15 we fnd
472 b /. 2w N
d y Isn ru -
L/ c052 1 8
A2. 2w 1
- - sn ura9 - . 8 .
2 C S2 2 8/
85. To determne the uanttes denoted by 8 / 2 n 116
- 118 we wrte 112 as foows:ru yt t2 where t tan ......... 119 .
Hence by dfferentaton on the supposton of y r constant we
fnd
r du t I 2 26..... 120 .
d2u
d #2 1 2t yt 5 t 6..... 121 .
y 120 we fnd for tn whch ma es t a ma mum or mnmum
t y I 2t2 0.............. 122
a uadratc e uaton whch when y/ 2 t - has rea roots as
foows
2
4y N/ L4 Y y t2 4 y 4y yI....... 12 .
And substtutng tm ether of these for t n 121 we fnd
r d 1 - t2 2yt 1 t 12...... 124
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1905
N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES
41
or wth smpfcaton by 119
r - 2rum - 1 tm2 2............ 124 .
Emnatng tn2 from the frst factor of 124 by 122 we fnd
r 1 t 2y 2 t. tm ... 124
whch wth m 1 and m 2 g es / and / by 116 .
86. sng 12 we see that d2u/d 2 M anshes when y 8
and that t s negat e for t and post e for t2 when gt y 8.
Hence t ma es d2u/dr2 negat e. Therefore u s the ma mum
and t2 ma es t post e. Therefore u2 s the mnmum and 119
g es for these ma mum and mnmum aues
ru1t yt / t 2 ru2 yt2 I t22... 125 .
y 122 12 we see that when y/ 0 we ha e - t oo
and -t2 0. If we ncrease y from 0 to / 8 - t1 fas
contnuousy from oo to / and -t2 rses contnuousy from
0 to /. Thus - t1 and - t become each of them / whch
s the tangent of 5 16 .
Geometrca dgresson on a system of autotomc monoparametrc co-ordnates . 87-90.
87. In 119 put ru a........................... 126
where a denotes the parameter of the cur e CC fg. 2
whch we are about to descrbe beng the cur e g en ntrnscay
by 119 and 122 wth suff m omtted from t. In the present
paper these cur es may be caed sophasas because the argument
of the sne n 1 0 beow s the same for a ponts on any one of
them.
So ng 119 and 122 for and y we fndt
1 2t2 -t
t y a t ............ 127 .
f ths nd of co-ordnates n a pane we ha e a we- nown case n the
eptc co-ordnates consstng of confoca epses and hyperboas.
t In the ecture on Shp- a es supra No. 2 p. 07 see Pop. Lect. II.
p. 482 a dagram of echeon cur es s g en e fg. 2 wth the ne of cusps
naturay at the same ncnaton 19 28 but the e uatons are dfferent from
127 as representng the effect of a dfferent tra eng dstrbuton of pressure.
See . H. Mche Ph. Mag. o. L . 1898 pp. 106-12 Lamb Hydrodynamcs rd ed. 1906 25 aso new matter n the German transaton and
T. H. Ha eoc Proc. Roy. Soc. Aug. 1908 as supra p. 04 who states that hs
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414
A ES N ATER
8
The argest of the eght cur es shown n fg. 2 has been
descrbed accordng to aues of y cacuated from these two
e uatons by g ng to - t aues tan 0 tan 10 tan 20 ... tan 90 .
The se en other sophasas partay shown n fg. 2 a smar
to the argest ha e been drawn to correspond to se en e udfferent smaer aues 19 18 ... 1 of the parameter a f we
ma e the argest e ua to 20 .
88. It s seen n the dagram that e ery two of these sophasas
cut one another n two ponts at e ua dstances on the two sdes
of . If we contnue the system down to parameter 0 e ery
pont wthn the ange C C s the ntersecton of two and ony
two of the cur es g en by 127 wth two dfferent aues of the
parameter a. If we are to compete each cur e agebracay we
must dupcate our dagram by an e ua and smar pattern on
the eft of 0: and the doubed pattern thus obtaned woud show
a system of wa es e ua and smar n the front and rear whch
77 abo e s possbe but nstabe. e are howe er at present
ony concerned wth the stabe shp-wa es contaned n the ange
19 28 on the two sdes of the md-wa e and we ea e the
agebrac e tenson wth ony the remar that a ponts n the
ange C C of the dagram and the opposte ange eftward of 0
can be specfed by rea aues of the parameter a: whe magnary
aues of t woud specfy rea ponts n the two obtuse anges.
89. y dfferentaton of 127 we fnd
d /dy -t -tan................ 128
whch pro es that tan- t s the ange measured ant-coc wse
from Y to the tangent to the cur e at any pont y n the
ower haf of the dagram. Emnaton of t between the two
e uatons of 127 g es as the cartesan e uaton of our cur e
2 y2 a2 8y4 - 20y2 - 4 6a4y2 0... 129 .
ut the mpct e uatons 127 are much more con enent
for a our uses. It s nterestng to erfy 129 for the case
- t / n 127 correspondng to ether of the two cusps
shown n the dagram.
90. Gong bac now to 86 and the contnuous aratons
consdered n t we see that -t and - t2 are respect ey the
e uatons of form are e u aent to Lord e n s. The orgna report of the
ecture ncuded modes e pressng the aw of amptude of the wa es whch are
not reproduced n the reprnt.
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1905
N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES
415
tangents of the ncnatons rec oned from Y coc wse of
portons of the ong arc C and of the short arc C n the upper
haf of the dagram. Thus f we carry a pont from 0 to C n the
ong arc and from C to n the short arc we ha e the change of
ncnatons to Y represented contnuousy by the decrease of
tan- - t from 90 to 5 16 whe y ncreases from 0 to /8
and the farther decrease of tan- - t from 5 16 to 0 whe y
dmnshes from /8 to 0 agan. The ncnaton to Y of the
two branches meetng n the cusp C s 5 16 or tan- I/ .
or any pont n the short arc C C of the cur e u or
cos # - 6 /cos2 A s a mnmum. In each of the ong arcs u s a
ma mum. At e ery pont of the cur e the aue of u whether
mnmum or ma mum s a/r. Hence for dfferent ponts of the
cur e u s n ersey proportona to the radus ector from 0.
91. Gong bac to 118 we now see that for a ponts on
any one of our cur es ru and ru2 ha e both the same aue beng
the parameter of the cur e. The frst part of 118 s one
consttuent of the depresson at any pont on ether of the ong
arcs and the second part of 118 s one consttuent of the
depresson at any pont on the short arc. Ta ng for e ampe
the argest of the cur es shown n fg. 2 we now see that for any
pont of ether of ts ong arcs the second consttuent of the
depresson of the water s to be cacuated from the second part of
118 whe for any pont of ts short arc the second consttuent
of the depresson s to be cacuated from the frst part of 118 .
92. E panng ute smary the determnaton of d y
for e ery pont of each of the smaer cur es whch we see n the
dagram cuttng the onger arcs of the argest cur e we arr e at
the foowng concusons as the compete souton of our probem.
The whoe system of standng wa es n the wa e of the
tra eng forc e s g en by the superposton of consttuents
cacuated accordng to 127 wth greater and smaer aues of
the parameter a wth nfntey sma success e dfferences.
Hence what we see n oo ng at the wa es from abo e s e acty
a system of crossng hs and aeys wth rdges and beds of
hoows a shaped accordng to the sophasa cur es shown n
fg. 2. Loo ng at any one of the short arc-rdges and foowng
t through the cusps we fnd t becomng the mdde ne of a
aey n each of the ong arcs of the cur e. And foowng a
short arc md- aey through the cusps we fnd n the contnuaton
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416 A ES N ATER 8
of the cur e two ong rdges. E ery rdge ong or short s
furrowed by aeys. A the cur ed rdges and aeys are parts
of one contnuous system of cur es ustrated by fg. 2 and
e pressed by the agebrac e uaton 129 .
th these e panatons we may wrte 118 as foows:
d y b sec s ru ..... 1 0
4 -
where / / d ................ 1 1 .
9 . An mportant perhaps the most mportant feature of the
wa e-system whch we actuay see on the two sdes of the mdwa e of a steamer tra eng through smooth water at sea or of a
duc ng swmmng as fast as t can n a pond s the steepness
of the wa es n two nes whch we now to be ncned at 19 28
to the md-wa e. The theory of ths feature s e pressed by
the coeffcent of the sne n 1 0 and s we ustrated by the
cacuaton of a-p sec for ee en ponts of any one of the
cur es of fg. 2 the resuts of whch are shown n coumn 6 of
the foowng tabe. They e press the depresson beow and
ee aton abo e md-e e due to one consttuent of the system of
Co. 1 Co. 2 Co. Co. 4 Co. 5 Co. 6
II r r d2a /a sec2 t
a a ad w d /
0 1-0000 0 0000 1 00000 1100000 10-000
10 1-0145 1685 972 9 9 782 1-0647
20 1-0497 201 -91587 -7 497 1- 210
0 1-0825 750 87290 2- 094
5 16 1-0887 849 86602 000000 oc
40 1-0826 77 87225 - 408 0 2-6660
50 1 0201 - 166 -9 624 - 1-84070 1-78 9
60 8750 -2165 1 10941 -- 50000 1 7888
70 -6441 1100 1-5 041 -14-0987 2-279
80 - 421 -0297 2-91222 -6 - 41 4-1672
90 0 0000 0 0000 oo -o o
In the case of e en the hghest speed attaned by a duc ng ths ange s
perhaps perceptby greater than 19 28 because of the dynamc effect of the
capary surface tenson of water. See atmore Lectures p. 59 etter to
Professor Tat of date 2 rd Aug. 1871 and pp. 600 601 etter to am roude
reprnted from Nature of 26th ct. 1871 .
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N DEEP SEA SHIP- A ES
417
crossng hs and aeys descrbed n 92. Coumn 1 s - .
Coumns 2 are ca and y/a cacuated from 127 . Coumn 4
s u cacuated by 126 from coumns 2 . Coumn 5 s
r/a. d2u/d 2 cacuated from 124 and coumns 2 4. Coumn 6
s /. se- r cacuated from 1 1 and coumn 1. u beng as
we ha e seen a mnmum for aues of - r from 0 to 5 16 and
a ma mum for aues from ths to 90 we see that the proper
suff n coumns 4 6 for the frst four nes of each coumn s 2
and for the ast s nes s 1.
94. In 1 0 s generay a functon of but f the forc e
s crcuar 81 abo e s a constant and for ponts on one of
the sophasa cur es a constant the ony arabe coeffcents of
the sne are sect2 r and -. ut for dfferent sophasa cur es
the coeffcent n 1 0 e pressng the magntude of the range
abo e and beow mean e e ares n ersey as /a. or mdwa e r 0 a s smpy the dstance from the forc e: and we
concude not merey for our pont-forc e but for a great shp
that the wa es at a ery arge number of wa e-engths rght
astern are smaer n heght n ersey as the s uare root of the
dstance from the forc e or from the mdde of the shp.
95. The nfnty for sr 5 16 represents a feature anaogous
to a caustc n optcs. There s n nature no nfnty for ether
case f the source s fnte and dstrbuted not nfntey ntense
and confned to an nfntey sma space. Accordng to the
methods foowed n 1-80 abo e we ha e n e ery case a fnte
ntensty of source or of forc e e cept n 80 where we ha e
supposed b nfntey sma n comparson wth and we a od
the nfnty shown n coumn 6: and can by great abour cacuate
a tabe of mtgated numbers rsng to a ery arge ma mum at
4 5 16 but not to nfnty and so arr e mathematcay
at an e presson for the ery hgh wa es seen on the two boundng
nes of the wa e-dsturbance ncned at 19 28 to the md-wa e.
ut t s nterestng to remember that we see n reaty a consderabe number of whte-capped wa es woud-be nfntes
before the we- nown arge gassy wa es whch form so nterestng
a feature of the wa e-dsturbances.
. I .
27
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418 A ES N ATER 8
80-95 of the present paper are merey a wor ng out of the
smpe probem of purey gra tatona wa es wth no surfacetenson on the prncpe g en by Rayegh n 188 for the much
more compe probem of capary wa es n front n whch
surface-tenson s the chef consttuent of the forc e and wa es
n the rear n whch the chef consttuent of the forc e s
gra tatona.
In a the wor arthmetca agebrac graphc of 2-95
abo e I ha e had much auabe assstance from Mr . de Graaff
Hunter who has ust now been apponted to a post n the
Natona Physca Laboratory.
Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. o. . pp. 69-78 188 reprnted n Lord
Rayegh s Scentfc Papers o. II. pp. 258-267.
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1906
419
9. INITIATI N DEEP-SEA A ES THREE CLASSES:
1 R M A SINGLE DISPLACEMENT 2 R M A GR P
E AL AND SIMILAR DISPLACEMENTS Y A PERI DICALLY
ARYING S R ACE- PRESS RE.
rom Proc. Roy. Soc. Edn. an. 22 1906 Ph. Mfag. o. III.
an. 1907 pp. 1- 6.
1 Dsturbance due to an Intatona orm more con enent than
that of - 1 of pre ous Papers on a es. 96-11 .
96. The n estgatons of 5- 1 ncudng the front and
rear of nfntey ong free processons of wa es n deep water
are a founded on ntatona dsturbances accordng to the
frst of two typca forms descrbed n 4. In ths form
the nta dsturbance s e erywhere ee aton or e erywhere
depresson and ts amount at great dstances from the orgn
ares n ersey as the s uare root of the dstance p from a
pont at a sma heght h abo e the water-surface n the mdde
of the dsturbance. In the present paper a new form of typedsturbance s der ed ndfferenty from ether the frst or
the second of the forms of 4: from the frst by doube
dfferentaton wth reference to tme t from the second by
snge dfferentaton wth reference to space .
97 beng a repetton of 1 2 sghty modfed wth respect
to notaton . Consder a frctoness ncompressbe ud caed
water for bre ty n a straght cana nfntey ong and nfntey
deep wth ertca sdes. Let t be dsturbed from ts e e by
any change of pressure on the surface unform n e ery ne
perpendcuar to the pane sdes and et t be eft to tsef under
constant ar pressure. It s re ured to fnd the dspacement
27-2
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420
A ES N ATER
9
and eocty of e ery partce of water at any future tme. ur
nta condton w be fuy specfed by a g en norma component of eocty and a g en norma component of dspacement
at e ery pont of the surface.
Ta ng 0 any pont at a dstance h abo e the undsturbed
water e e draw parae to the ength of the cana and
ertcay downwards. Let I be the dspacement components
and t the eocty components of any partce of the water
whose undsturbed poston s . e suppose the dsturbance
nfntesma by whch we mean that the change of dstance
between any two partces of water s nfntey sma n comparson wth ther undsturbed dstance and the ne onng
them e perences changes of drecton whch are nfntey sma
n comparson wth the radan. ater beng assumed ncompressbe and frctoness ts moton started prmary from rest
by pressure apped to the free surface s essentay rrotatona.
Hence we ha e
d d. c.. d d
f d- t C d d......... 1 2
where t or as we may wrte t for bre ty when con enent s a functon whch may be caed the dspacementpotenta and t s what s commony caed the eoctypotenta. Thus a nowedge of the functon for a aues of
t competey defnes the dspacement and the eocty of
the fud. And towards the determnaton of we ha e n rtue
of the ncompressbty of the fud
d2 d2
d ..................... 1 .
In rtue of ths e uaton the we- nown prmary theory of
Gauss and Green shows that f s g en for e ery pont of the
free surface of the water and s ero at e ery pont nfntey
dstant from t the aue of s determnate throughout the fud.
The moton beng nfntesma and the densty beng ta en as
unty an appcaton of fundamenta hydro netcs g es
_d2 d d2 .
p - n g -h - g - h - ... 1 4
dt2 g dt
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1906 N DIST R ANCE INITIATED R M A GI EN RM 421
where g denotes gra ty I1 the unform atmospherc pressure on
the free surface and p the pressure at the pont wthn
the fud.
98. Suppose now that t s a functon whch besdes
satsfyng 1 satsfes aso the e uaton
d d2
d - dt2............. 1 5
we see by 1 4 that the correspondng fud moton of whch
s the dspacement-potenta 1 2 has constant pressure o er
e ery surface g that s to say e ery surface whch was
e e when the water was undsturbed. Thus our probem of
fndng any possbe nfntesma rrotatona moton of the fud
n whch the free surface s under any constant pressure s so ed
by fndng soutons of 1 and 1 5 .
99. Now by dfferentaton we erfy that as found n
abo e
- gt2
- 2e4 ................... 1 6
satsfes 1 and 1 5 . y changng e nto - and by
ntegratons or dfferentatons performed on 1 6 accordng to
d
the symbo dt d d where are any ntegers post e or
negat e we can der e from 1 6 any number of magnary
soutons. And by addton of these wth constant coeffcents
we can fnd any number of reased soutons. If as n 97 we
regard any one of the formuas thus obtaned as a dspacementpotenta then by ta ng d/d of t we fnd the ertca
component dspacement whch we sha ta e as the most
con enent e presson n each case for the soutons wth whch
we are concerned. r we may f we pease ta e any souton of
1 5 as representng not a dspacement-potenta but a eoctypotenta or a hor onta component of dspacement or eocty
or a ertca component of dspacement or eocty.
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422
A ES N ATER
9
100. Thus t was that n 12 we too
- gt2
- RS 2 t -2 e4
t - os - e 1 7
where p / 22 2 and tan- /
and n a of 1- 1 ths notaton b and - was consstenty
used wth - to denote when post e upward dspacement of
the water represented by upward ordnates n the drawngs .
In the two cur es of 4 fg. 1 that whch has ts ma mum
o er 0 represents 1 7 for t 0. The other cur e of fg. 1
wth post e and negat e ordnates on the two sdes of 0
represents 1 7 wth - RD nstead of RS . The symbos
RS and RD were ntroduced n abo e RS to denote
a reasaton by ta ng haf the sum of what s wrtten after t
wth and tRD to denote a rea aton by ta ng 1/2t of the
formua wrtten after t mnus 1/2t of the same formua wth t
changed nto - t. A new cur e n whch the ordnates are
1d
numercay e ua to 12 - of the ordnates of the second of /2L C
the od cur es of fg. 1 s now g en n the accompanyng dagram
fg. and cose abo e t the frst of the od cur es of fg. 1 s
reproduced wth ordnates reduced n the rato 2 /2 to 1 for
the sa e of comparson wth the new cur e. Ths new cur e
represents the more con enent ntatona form referred to n
the tte of the present paper.
Its e uaton found by ta ng t 0 n 1 9 or n 144 most
easy from the magnary form of 1 9 s as foows:
I / P 2 2 p 2 - p ......... 1 8 .
101. The orgna der aton of the new partcuar souton
whch we sha ca from the prmary 1 6 as ndcated n
100 s shown by the foowng formua:
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1906 N DIST R ANCE INITIATED R M A GI EN RM 42
d -1 -gt2
dr 2/ E4 - 1
t RD d
d 4
1 2 gt2 - -1 g cos _ 4p2
2p 4p2 p 4p2
where p / 2 2 and tan- / ......... 1 9 .
An e u aent formua for the same der aton whch w be
found more con enent n 1 5-157 beow s as foows:
172 d2 1 -9gt _1 dC2
I I 0 IRS1 4 It - __ 0 .... t
t RS dt2 2 t dt......... 140 .
The e u aence of 1 9 and 140 s easy pro ed by remar ng
that by 1 and 1 5
d d L d2 .
d d g dt
and therefore
cd -1 -It 172 _ -gt
RD d 6 4 RS -g - C L ... 142 .
d L 9 dt I t
102. Loo now to fg. and see wthn how narrow a space
say from - 2 to 2 n the new cur e the man nta
dsturbance s confned whe n the od cur e t spreads so far
and wde that at 20 t amounts to about -16 of the ma mum
dsturbance n the mdde and accordng to the aw of n erse
proporton to s uare root of dstance whch hods for arge aues
of for the od cur e at 80 t woud st be as much as -1 of
the ma mum. The comparat e narrowness of the nta dsturbance represented by the new cur e and the utmate aw of
decrease accordng to - nstead of - 2 for the od cur e are
great ad antages of the new cur e n the appcatons and ustratons of the theory to be g en n 1 5-157 beow.
10 . Remar aso that the tota area of the od cur e from
- oo to oo s nfntey great whe t s ero for the new cur e.
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d- T d /- Ta. d - a no addy -c 1
T d / I
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p
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426
A ES N ATER
9
Remar aso that the potenta energy of the nta dsturbance
beng
g d 0 2................ 14
-00
s nfntey great for the od cur e whe for the new t s fnte.
104. E uaton 1 9 may be wrtten n the foowng modfed
form whch s more con enent for some of our nterpretatons
and graphc constructons:
gt2
t I H t2 - 2 4 p2
2t - C S cos A...... 144
where A -gt2 -tan- gt2 sn
where A -tan- s ..... 145 .
4y2 2/ gt2 cos - 2p
105. The man cur es whch for bre ty we sha ca watercur es n the accompanyng s dagrams of fg. 4 represent the
surface dspacements accordng to our new souton r t for
the s aues of t respect ey 0 2 /wr 7r 4 r 8 7r.
The formuas are smpfed by ta ng g 4. Ths s merey
e u aent to ta ng as our unt of ength haf the space descended
n one second of tme by a body fang from rest under the
nfuence of gra ty. or smpfcaton n the wrtng of formuas
we ta e 1 for the undsturbed e e of the water-surface. The
subsdary cur es e paned n 107 beow are caed argumentcur es as they represent the argument of the cosne n 144 .
106. ne e ceedngy curous and ery nterestng feature of
these cur es s the ncreasng number of aues of for whch the
dspacement s ero as tme ad ances and the arge fgures
s teen and s ty-four whch t reaches at the tmes 4 / r and
8 /7 of the ast two dagrams. These eros for any aue of t
are g en by the e uaton
A 2 1 r..................... 146 .
107. Notwthstandng the hghy compcated character of the
functon represented n 145 the eros are easy found by tracng
an argument-cur e wth A as ordnate and as abscssa as shown
on the -post e ha es of the s dagrams on two dfferent scaes
chosen merey for ustraton not for measurement and drawng
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1906 N DIST R ANCE INITIATED R M A GI EN RM 427
paraes to the abscssa ne at dstances from t representng
-r-t- 2rr 2r 5T etc. A parae at dstance -17 s an
asymptote to each of the argument-cur es and s shown n
dagrams 2 4 on one scae of ordnates. The parae correspondng to dstance -1 -r s shown n the ffth and s th
dagrams on the smaer scae of ordnates used n ther argumentcur es.
108. The frst dagram shows eros at / of whch that
at - / s mar ed 1. In the second dagram the argumentcur e ndcates eros for the - rr and -- r paraes whch are
seen dstncty on the water-cur e. The ero correspondng to
the - I- parae was formed at the orgn at the tme when gt2
was e ua to that s when t was 1/ 2 or 707. It s a
concdence of two eros for -post e and -negat e.
Dagram No. shows that shorty before ts tme a ma mum
has come nto e stence n the argument-cur e whch st ndcates
ony two eros. These are mar ed by crosses.
Dagram No. 4 shows that n the nter a between ts tme and
the tme of No. two eros of the water-cur e for -post e ha e
come nto e stence. These and the correspondng eros for
-negat e are seen dstncty on the water-cur e and ther
ndcatons for -post e are mar ed by four crosses on the
argument-cur e.
Dagram No. 5 shows that between ts tme and that of No. 4
twe e fresh eros ha e come nto e stence on each sde of
one par of whch s ndcated for e ampe on the argument-cur e
by the parae - T. Nne ony out of a the s teen eros on
ether sde are perceptbe on the water-cur e. The se en
mperceptbe eros on each sde a e between 0 and
.
Dagram No. 6 shows that between ts tme and that of No. 5
forty-eght fresh eros for -post e ha e come nto e stence one
par of whch s ndcated by the parae - rr. ourteen ony out
of a the s ty-four eros on each sde are perceptbe on the
water-cur e. Thrty-one of the ffty mperceptbe eros on each
sde e between 0 and 1.
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428
A ES N ATER
9
109. After the tme 1//2 the eros orgnate n pars on the
two sdes of the orgn -post e and -negat e : those on the
post e sde by the two ntersectons of one of the paraes
correspondng to 2 1 r/2 wth the argument-cur e. The
ma mum of the argument-cur e tra es sowy n the outward
drecton towards 1 as tme ad ances to nfnty. At tmes
4 /7 and 8 / r of dagrams 5 and 6 t has reached so cose to
1 that ths pont has been regarded as the actua poston of
the ma mum both for the purpose of drawng the cur e and for
the determnaton of the tota number of eros.
110. Each ero whch orgnates accordng to an ntersecton
on the outward sde of the argument-cur e tra es outwards wth
ncreasng eocty to nfnty as tme ad ances. Each of the
others of the pars of eros that s to say each ero orgnatng
accordng to an ntersecton on the nward sde of the argumentcur e tra es ery sowy nwards wth eocty dmnshng to
nothng as tme ad ances to nfnty. Thus the moton of the
water n the space between - 1 and 1 becomes more and
more neary an ncreasng number of nward tra eng wa es
wth engths sowy dmnshng to ero and as we see by the
e ponenta factor n 144 wth amptudes and wth sopes aso
sowy dmnshng to ero: as tme ad ances to nfnty.
111. The sem-perod of one of these uas standng wa es s
as we fnd from 1 9 appro matey e ua to -2p when the tme
gt
s so far ad anced that #gt2 s ery great n comparson wth p.
Thus we see that the perod s nfnte at the orgn. Ths agrees
wth the hstory of the whoe moton at the orgn whch as we
see by puttng 0 n 1 9 wth 1 and g 4 s e pressed
by the formua
- . 1 - 2t2 e-t2................ 147 .
The moton of the water n the space between - 1 and 1
s of a ery pecuar and nterestng character. Towards a fu
If we contnue the argument-cur e to the sde of the orgn for -negat e we
must ncude arge negat e aues of n 146 : but for smpcty we ha e confned
the argument-cur e to post e aues of .
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1906 N DIST R ANCE INITIATED R M A GI EN RM 429
understandng of t t may be con enent to study the smpfed
appro mate souton
t2 t 2 t2
-y - / cos -t 5tan- - e p2.......... 148
whch the reased part of 1 9 g es when Igt2 s ery arge n
comparson wth p.
112. The outward tra eng eros on the two sdes beyond
the dstances 1 from the orgn d de the water nto consecut e parts n each of whch t s whoy ee ated or
depressed. These parts we may ca haf-wa es. They tra e
outwards wth e er-ncreasng ength and propagatona eocty.
Each of the haf-wa es de eoped after t / r as t tra es
outward ncreases at frst to a ma mum ee aton or ma mum
depresson and after that dmnshes to ero as tme ad ances
to nfnty.
11 . It s nterestng to trace the progress of each of the eros
n the nter as between the tmes of our s dagrams. Ths s
factated by the numbers mar ed on se era of the eros n the
dfferent dagrams. Thus confnng our attenton to the eft-hand
sde of fg. 4 we see n dagram 1 a snge ero numbered 1.
The future eros are to be numbered n the order of ther comng
nto e stence 2 4 4 ... 10 10 ... ...a n
pars after ero 2. Thus dagram 2 shows ero 1 consderaby
ad anced eftwards that s outwards and ero 2 begnnng ts
outward progress. Dagram shows eros 1 and 2 each ad anced
farther outwards 1 farther than 2. Dagram 4 shows a the eros
whch ha e come nto e stence at tme /7r. These are eros 1
and 2 both farther outwards than at tme w/7r and a par
whch ha e come nto e stence shorty before the tme - /Tr.
The outer of these two tra es outwards and the nner nwards.
Some tme ater 4 4 come nto e stence between and : ater
st 5 5 come nto e stence between 4 and 4.
In dagram 5 ero 1 has passed out of range eftwards: but
we see dstncty the outward eros 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 and ndcatons of the nward eros 9 8. The whoe tran of eros for
tme 4 /7r shown and deay contnued to the mdde by numbers
s 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 8 7 6 5 4 s teen n a.
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4 0
A ES N ATER
9
ero has passed out of the range of dagram 6 but we see n
t dstncty the outward eros 4 5 ... 12 and an ndcaton of the
par whch has come nto e stence before the tme 8 /ar.
The whoe tran of eros for tme 8 /T ndcated by numbers s
1 2 ... 2 2 ... 4 s ty-four n a.
2 Iustratons of the Indefnte E tenson and Mutpcaton of
a Group of Two-Dmensona Deep-Sea a es Intay nte
n Number. 114-117.
114. The water s eft at rest and free after beng ntay
dspaced to a confguraton of a fnte number of snusoda
mountans and aeys-f e mountans and four aeys n the
dagrams paced before the Socety. The nta group of wa es
shown n dagram 1 of fg. 5 s formed by pacng sde by sde
at dstances e ua to ta en as unty nne of the cur es of
dagram 1 fg. 4 aternatey post e and negat e. Dagrams
2 and of fg. 5 are made by correspondng superpostons of
the cur es of dagrams 5 and 6 of fg. 4. Thus what accordng
to the nown aw of deep-sea perodc wa es 19 abo e woud
be defntey and precsey the wa e-ength f the numbers of
crests and hoows were nfntey great woud be 2 and as we
are ta ng g 4 the perod woud be /7r and the propagatona
eocty woud be 2/ /7r.
115. Immedatey after the water s eft free the dsturbance
begns anaysng tsef nto two groups of wa es seen tra eng
n contrary drectons from the mdde ne of the dagram. The
perceptbe fronts of these two groups e tend rghtwards and eftwards from the end of the nta snge statc group far beyond
the hypothetca fronts supposed to tra e at haf the wa e eocty whch accordng to the dynamcs of sborne Reynods
and Rayegh n ther mportant and nterestng consderaton of
the wor re ured to feed a unform processon of water-wa es
woud be the actua fronts f the free groups remaned unform.
How far ths f s from beng reased s ustrated by the
dagrams of fg. 5 whch show a great e tenson outwards n each drecton far beyond dstances tra eed at haf the wa e eocty. he there s ths great e tenson of the fronts
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t o. u -. /M..
t r. 5/.
t gr. amp w9/ramn .
N -s - -p 1 5 10 10 5S

g. 5. Inta group of f e ee atons and four depressons emergng as two groups tra eng n opposte drectons.
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4 2
A ES N ATER
9
outward from the mdde we see that the two groups after
emergence from co-e stence n the mdde tra e wth ther rears
ea ng a wdenng space between them of water not perceptby
dsturbed but wth ery mnute wa eets n e er-augmentng
number foowng sower and sower n the rear of each group.
The e treme perceptbe rear tra es at a speed cosey correspondng to the haf wa e- eocty found by Sto es as e acty
the group- eocty of hs unform successon of groups produced
by the nterference of two co-e stent nfnte processons of
snusoda wa es ha ng sghty dfferent wa e-engths.
116. ur fary unform rear eocty s ustrated n dagrams
1 and of fg. 5. In dagram 1 R ndcates the perceptbe
rear of the component group commencng ts rghtward progress
at t 0. In dagram R shows the poston reached at tme
8 rw eght perods by an dea pont tra eng rghtwards from
the R of dagram 1 at a speed of haf the wa e- eocty. Ths
R of dagram corresponds to a fary we-mar ed perceptbe
rear of the rghtward tra eng group.
Loo now to n the three dagrams of fg. 5 and f f
n dagrams 2 and . In dagram 1 mar s a perceptbe front
for the rghtward tra eng component group. In dagrams 2 and
f show dea ponts tra eng rghtwards from t at speeds
respect ey the haf wa e- eocty and the wa e- eocty. e
see a manfest wa e-dsturbance far n ad ance of and ery
sma but st perceptbe wa e-dsturbance n front off f. Thus
the perceptbe front tra es at speed actuay hgher than the
wa e- eocty and ths perceptbe front becomes more and more
mportant reat ey to the whoe group wth the ad ance of tme
as we may udge from fg. 9 of 20 abo e.
117. It s nterestng to see by these dagrams how neary the
hypothetca group- eocty s found n the rears: whe the fronts
ad ance wth much greater and wth e er-ncreasng eocty.
The more eaborate cacuatons and graphca constructons of
20-29 abo e ed to correspondng concusons n respect to the
front and rear of a processon g en ntay as an nfntey great
number of reguar snusoda wa es tra eng n one drecton.
The dagrams fgs. 9 and 10 showed respect ey at twenty-f e
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1906
N THE GR TH A TRAIN A ES
4
perods after a snusoda commencement a front e tendng
forward ndefntey and a perceptbe rear aggng scarcey two
wa e-engths behnd a pont tra eng from the nta poston
of the rear at a speed of haf the wa e- eocty.
The Intaton and Contnued Growth of a Tran of TwoDmensona a es due to the Sudden Commencement of a
Statonary Snusoday aryng Surface-Pressure. 118
-158.
118. A forc e consstng of a fnte snusoday aryng
pressure s apped and ept through a tme apped to the
surface of the water wthn a fnte practcay mted space on
each sde of the mdde ne of the dsturbance. In the begnnng
the water was e erywhere at rest and ts surface hor onta. The
probem so ed s to fnd the ee aton or depresson of the water
at any dstance from the md-ne of the wor ng forc e and at
any tme after the forc e began to act.
119. As a premnary 119-126 et us consder the energy
n a unform processon of snusoda wa es n a straght cana
nfntey ong and nfntey deep wth ertca sdes. If the
water s dsturbed from rest by any pressure on ts upper surface
and afterwards eft to tsef under constant ar pressure we now
by eementary hydro netcs that ts moton w be rrotatona
throughout the whoe oume of the water: and f at any
subse uent tme the surface s brought to rest suddeny or
graduay a the water at e ery depth w come to rest at the
nstant when the whoe surface s brought to rest. Ths as we
now from Green s true e en f the nta dsturbance s so
oent as to cause part of the water to brea away n drops: and
t woud be true separatey for each porton of the water detached
from the man oume n the cana as we as for the water
remanng n the cana f stoppage of surface moton s made for
e ery detached porton before t fas bac nto the cana.
120. ecause the moton of the water s rrotatona we ha e
td dd
d . - 149
t d d ................ 149
where denotes the eocty-potenta ha ng been ta en as
. I . 28
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4 4
A ES N ATER
9
the dspacement-potenta 97 abo e . And by dynamcs for
nfntesma moton as n 64 of 8 abo e
p - t g - C .......... 150 .
To e press the surface condton et 1 be the undsturbed
e e and et denote the ertca component dspacement of a
surface partce of the water ta en post e when downwards
and et H denote constant surface-pressure and ta e - as the
aue of the arbtrary constant C. Thus 150 g es at the
dsturbed surface
d d
0 - t 1 t g -dt t 51 .
The e uaty between the second and thrd members of ths
formua s due to the dsturbance beng nfntey sma whch
ma es d 1 C t - d 1 t an nfntey sma uantty
dt dt
of the second order neggbe n comparson wth gt1 whch s an
nfntey sma uantty of the frst order.
121. or a snusoda wa e-dsturbance of wa e-ength 27r/m
tra eng -wards wth eocty we ha e as n 66 abo e
t - e-n - sn m - t ......... 152 .
or surface-e uaton 151 becomes
0 m cosm - t -g ............... 15 .
Ths g es as the e uaton of the free surface
h h cos m - t .................. 154
where h n /g........................ 155 .
Now by 149 and 152 wth 1 we fnd
- cos m - t .................. 156 .
Comparson of ths wth 154 g es
2 g/n g/2 rr..................... 157 .
122. Let us now fnd A act ty the rate of dong wor by
the pressure of the water on one sde upon the water on the other
sde of a ertca pane . e ha e
A f d p f d 4 - L g - 1 C ... 158 .
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1906 N THE GR TH A TRAIN A ES
4 5
Emnatng from ths and by 149 and 152 we fnd
A - m cos m - t d e-m - - m e-m -1 cos m - t
g - 1 ... 159 .
Hence performng the operatons d we fnd
A - m cos m - - t g - - 160 .
L 2 m2 m/
12 . Remar ng now that 27r /m s the perodc tme of the
wa e and denotng by the tota wor per perod done by the
water on the negat e sde of the pane upon the water on
the post e sde we ha e
dt.A -.. mT - 2f2...... 161 .
124. e are gong to compare ths wth the tota energy
netc and potenta P per wa e-ength. In the frst pace
we sha fnd separatey the netc energy and the potenta
energy P. e ha e the densty of the water beng ta en as
unty
r d d 2 2 ............ 1.62
P g d 2..................... 16
where denotes the surface dspacement.
y 149 and 152 we fnd
- t a e- - cos m - t ............ 164
4 my e -1 sn m - t ............... 165
cos m - t ............... 156 repeated.
f m 2
Hence -2 d ----2 2........ 166
o 2 m 2. 1 6 6
P g 2 1 I r .................. 167
where 2 s emnated by 157 .
125. Thus we see that the netc energy per wa e-ength
and the potenta energy per wa e-ength are each e ua to the
28-2
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4 6
A ES N ATER
9
wor done per perod by the water on the negat e sde upon the
water on the post e sde of any ertca pane perpendcuar
to the ength and sdes of the cana. Thus we arr e at the
remar abe and we- nown concuson that n a reguar processon of deep-sea wa es the wor done on any ertca pane
s ony haf the tota energy per wa e-ength. Ths s ony
haf enough to feed a reguar processon ad ancng to nfnty
wth abrupty endng front tra eng wth the wa e- eocty .
It s e acty enough to feed an dea processon of reguar perodc
wa es comng abrupty to nothng at a front tra eng wth haf
the wa e- eocty whch s sborne Reynods mportant
contrbuton to the dea doctrne of group- eocty.
126. The dynamca concuson of 125 s ery mportant and
nterestng n the theory of two-dmensona shp-wa es. It shows
that the appro matey reguar perodc tran of wa es n the rear
of a tra eng forc e n estgated n 48-54 and 65-79 abo e
cannot be as much as haf the space tra eed by the forc e from
the commencement of ts moton but that t woud be e acty
that haf-space f some modfyng pressure were so apped to
the water-surface n the rear as to cause the wa es to reman
unformy perodc to the end of the tran wthout on the whoe
ether dong wor on them or ta ng wor from them.
A correspondng statement s appcabe to our present sub ect
as we sha see n 156 157 beow.
127. Go bac to 118 and frst nstead of a snusoday
aryng pressure magne apped a seres of mpus e pressures
each of whch supermposes a certan eocty-potenta upon
that due to a the pre ous mpuses and et t be re ured to
fnd the resutng eocty-potenta at any tme t after some
or after a of the mpuses. Consder frst a snge mpuse at
tme t - that s to say at a tme precedng the tme t by an
nter a . Let the eocty-potenta at tme t due to that snge
mpuse apped at the earer tme t - be denoted by
................... 168 .
Accordng to ths notaton the nstantaneousy generated eoctypotenta s C 0 and the aue of ths at the boundng
Nature Aug. 1877 and rt. Ass. Report 1877.
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1906
N THE GR TH A TRAIN A ES
4 7
surface of the water s C 1 0 . Hence by eementary hydro netcs f I denotes the mpus e surface-pressure we ha e
I - C 1 ..................... 169 .
128. Consderng now success e mpuses at tme precedng
the tme t by amounts 1 2 ... and denotng by S t the
sum of the resutng eocty-potentas at tme t we fnd
S t C1 C 2 ... C ... 170 .
Supposng now the mpuses to be at nfntey short nter as of
tme we transate the formua 170 nto the anguage of the
ntegra cacuus as foows:S t d f t - ........ 171
where f t - denotes an arbtrary functon of t - accordng
to whch the surface-pressure arbtrary apped at tme t-
s as foows:n t- -f t- 1 0 ............ 172 .
Hence the pressure apped to the surface at tme t denoted by
1 1 t s as foows:
H 1 t -f t 1 0 ........... 17 .
129. The souton 170 or 171 g es the eocty-potenta
throughout the ud whch foows determnatey from the
dynamca data descrbed n . 127 128. rom t by dfferentatons wth reference to and and ntegratons wth respect to t
we can fnd the dspacement components I of any partce of
the ud whose co-ordnates were when the fud was g en
at rest. ut we can fnd them more drecty and wth consderaby ess compcaton of ntegra sgns by drect appcaton of
the same pan of summng as that used n 170 171 . Thus
f nstead of n 171 we substtute d and
d
agan d we fnd and. And f we ta e
fd and fd d ...... 174
n pace of n 171 we fnd the two components 4
ot the dspacement of any partce of the fud. Confnng our
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4 8
A ES N ATER
9
attenton to ertca dspacements and usng 179 beow we
thus fnd
t d f t- ...... 175 .
1 0. To ustrate the meanng of the notaton and anaytca
e pressons n 171 17 175 ta e the smpest possbe
e ampe f t - 1. Ths ma es II the same for a aues of t
and 17 becomes
n - 1 0 .................. 176
and by ntegraton 175 becomes
2 t g- t - 0 ...... 177 .
Puttng now n ths 1 and usng 176 we fnd
1 t g-I I t - 1 0 g- I t n ......... 178 .
The nterpretaton of ths as t ncreases from 0 to o s that
the sudden appcaton and contnued mantenance of a pressure
- 1 0 o er the whoe fud surface ntay pane and
e e produces a depresson g whch graduay ncreases from
0 at t 0 to ts hydrostatc aue 1I/g at t o. The gradua
subsdence of the dfference from the statc condton as tme
ad ances from 0 to oo s ustrated by the dagrams of fg. 4
for the case n whch we choose for 1 0 the 1 0 of
100-104 abo e.
1 1. To understand thoroughy the meanng of as
defned n 127 remar frst that t s the eocty-potenta of a
possbe moton of water under the nfuence of gra ty wth no
surface-pressure or wth merey a pressure unform o er ts nfnte
free surface. Ths s e u aent to sayng that fufs
the e uatons
d2 d2 T d d2
d 2 d 0 and - d......... 79
Secondy remar that at the nstant there s no surface
dspacement hence s the eocty-potenta at tme
due to an nstantaneous mpus e pressure - 1 0 apped
to the surface of the fud at rest and n e ubrum at tme 0.
Now aowng negat e aues of thn of a state of moton from
whch our actua condton of no dspacement and of eocty
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1906 N THE GR TH A TRAIN A ES
4 9
potenta e ua to 0 woud be reached and passed through
when passes from negat e to post e. It s cear that the
aues of are e ua for e ua post e and negat e
aues of . Hence when 0 we ha e
d 0 0.................. 180 .
1 2. Consderaton of the defned n 127 whch
aows 1 0 to be any arbtrary functon of but re ures
d /d to be ero when 0 suggests an aed hydro netc
probem:-to fnd fufng 179 wth n pace of and
at tme 0 ha ng 0 and d /d any arbtrary functon
of . e assume as s con enent for our present purpose that
for arge aues of
0 0 and 0 - 0......... 181 .
Ths mpes that for a aues of and arge or sma
but for arge aues of
. 0 and 0......... 182 .
1 . In the -probem the ntatona condton s:-dspacement ero and ntatona eocty rtuay g en throughout the
fud as the determnate resut of an arbtrary dstrbuted mpus e pressure on the surface.
In the -probem the ntatona condton s:-the fud hed
at rest wth ts surface ept to any arbtrary prescrbed shape by
fud pressure and then eft free by sudden and permanent annument of ths pressure.
thout gong nto the ueston of a compete souton of ths
probem for any arbtrary ntatona data we fnd a cass
of thoroughy con enent soutons n a formua orgnay g en n
the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh anuary 1887
repubshed n the Ph. Mag. ebruary 1887 and used n
and 99 abo e. e may now wrte that formua n the foowng
comprehens e reased e presson for or : RS or RD d e4
dt I t when s e en
t when s e odden
t when s odd
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440
A ES N ATER
9
y usng 179 we may nstead of 18 ta e the foowng as
e uay comprehens e:d I -t2
RS or RD -d t 1 e4
d d dt
t when s e en
t when s odd
1 4. Gong bac to 171 and 175 remar that ntegraton
by parts g es
fd f t - d f t -f t 0
t
df t - ... 184 .
Ths shows that f by uadrature or otherwse we ha e cacuated
the eocty-potentas S t as g en by 171 for both forms
of f t - n 186 beow we can fnd the ertca component
dspacements of any partce of the ud by 175 wthout
farther ntegraton. The formua 184 aso shows how by success e ntegraton by parts we can reduce
d f t- d- ............... 185
to the prmary ntegra S t as e pressed n 171 .
1 5. Gong bac now to 128 127 118: to ma e the apped
forc e a snusoday aryng pressure put
f t- s t- ............... 186
whch by 17 ma es
C S
II 1 t - 0 ............ 187 .
sn
And now et us arrange to fuy wor out our probem for two
cases of surface dstrbuton of pressure correspondng to the two
ntatona forms b gt f descrbed n 96-11 abo e. or ths
purpose ta e wth the notaton of 101
t t
1 d2
or t t - 0 ... 188 .
g 2 dt
or bre ty we sha ca these two cases case f and case .
Thus n these cases 171 and 175 e pressng respect ey the
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1906 N THE GR TH A TRAIN A ES
441
eocty-potenta at and the ertca component dspacement of
any pont of the fud at any tme become
t Cos
S t d sn a t- 0
S t d cos o t- ... 189 .0 sn
1 fo cos d
s t d n d t- -
h t - d sn o t - ... 190 .
1 6. The ustratons n fgs. 6 7 8 are tme-cur es n
whch the ordnates ha e been cacuated by contnuous uadrature
from one or other of the four formuas 189 190 .
1 7. The cur es n fg. 9 beng space cur es n whch the
ordnates are ertca component dspacements of the watersurface are therefore pctures of the water-surface greaty
e aggerated n respect to sopes of course and may be shorty
named water-surface cur es. Ther ordnates ha e been cacuated
by an anaytca method descrbed n 151 beow. They cannot
be cacuated contnuousy for success e aues of by the
method of contnuous uadratures f that were the method
empoyed the aue of the ordnate for each aue of woud
need to be cacuated by an ndependent uadrature d from
0 to the partcuar aue of t for whch the water-surface s
represented by the cur e. The aues of t chosen for fg. 9 are
respect ey t 1/8 7 2/8 7 /8 7 4/8 T where
s any ery arge nteger and r denotes 27r/o the perod of the
aryng surface-pressure to whch the fud moton consdered
s due.
In a our ustratons we ha e ta en co /Tr whch ma es
2 1/r and wth g 4 as n 105 ma es the wa e-ength
8.
1 8. In fgs. 6 and 7 a the cur es correspond to
cos c t- n the formuas. In fg. 8 a the cur es correspond to sn co t - n the formuas.
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nt of ordnates scae.
01 -0 -r-
I0 -Go
0 -

/ / c
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_ _ _ _ ___
c:.H
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444
A ES N ATER
9
In fg. 9 the nscrptons of tmes correspond to cos o t-
n the formuas. The same cur es wth the nscrptons atered
to 2/8 /8 r 4/8 T 5/8 6/8 correspond
to sn w t - n the formuas.
1 9. In fg. 6 representng eocty-potentas and a surface
dspacement none of the cur es shows any perceptbe de aton
from snusodaty e cept wthn perod 1. Towards the end of
perod 1 the numbers found by the uadratures show de atons
from snusodaty dmnshng to about 1/10 per cent. and mperceptbe n the drawngs. Ths pro es that snusodaty s e act
wthn 1/10 per cent. through a tme after the end of the frst
perod.
It s nterestng to see n perod 1 how neary the rse
from the nta ero foows the same aw for S 0 1 t and
S. 0 1 t : notwthstandng the ast dfference n the aw of
ntatng surface-pressure represented by 188 for these two
cases. In fg. 6 the ntatng surface-pressure commences
suddeny at ts negat e ma mum aue - /2 for case and
- 5 for case r of whch the former s 2 8 tmes the atter.
The sem-amptudes of the subse uent aratons of eoctypotenta shown n the frst and thrd cur es are 954 for case
and 18 for case of whch the former s 00 tmes the atter.
140. The frst thrd and ffth cur es of fg. 7 show at a
dstance of one wa e-ength from the orgn the compete hstory
of eocty-potenta and of surface dspacement through a tme
from the begnnng of appcaton of pressure to the surface. The
ery appro matey accurate snusodaty of each of these three
cur es through perods 6 7 8 shows that the contnuaton through
endess tme s n each case snusoda.
In remar abe contrast wth the nta agreement between
S 0 1 t and S. 0 1 t to whch we auded n 1 9 we fnd
ery nstruct ey a remar abe contrast between S. 8 1 t and
So 8 1 t throughout the whoe of the frst perod. Rememberng
that n a ud of unt densty the pressure s e ua to mnus the
rate of augmentaton of the eocty-potenta per unt of tme
and remar ng that the dspacement p 0 1 t s as s shown
n ts cur e ery neary ero throughout the frst perod and that
C 0 1 t s certany st more neary ero throughout the frst
perod though we ha e no cur e to represent t we see that the
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1906 N THE GR TH A TRAIN A ES
447
negat es of the tangents of the sopes n the cur es for S 8 1 t
and So 8 1 t represent ery neary the aues of the apped
surface-pressures durng the whoe of the frst perod . Loo now
to fg. see how near to ero s 8 1 0 and how far from
ero s b 8 1 0 and we see dynamcay how t s that S. 8 1 t
s ery neary ero throughout the frst perod and S 8 1 t s
ery far from ero and s somewhat near to beng snusoda.
141. e ha e aso a ery nstruct e comparson between
8 1 t and S 8 1 t . In the b case for aues of as arge
as 8 or arger we approach somewhat neary to the case of a
snusoday aryng unform surface-pressure o er an nfnte pane
area of water n whch there woud be no surface dspacement and
the pressure at and beow the surface woud be at e ery nstant
e ua to the apped surface-pressure pus the gra tatona augmentaton of pressure beow the surface. Thus we see why t s
that wth a great perodc araton of apped surface-pressure at
8 there s scarcey any rse and fa of the surface e e there
unt after a perod and a haf from the begnnng of the moton
as shown n the cur es for 8 1 t .
142. The second fourth and s th cur es of fg. 7 represent
the arr a of three casses of dsturbance S . A So at 2
four wa e-engths from the orgn. If the front of the dsturbance
tra eed at e acty the wa e- eocty the dsturbances of the
dfferent nds woud a commence suddeny at the end of perod 4.
In the cases of S. 2 1 t and 2 1 t the dagram shows that
they are ute mperceptbe at the end of perod 4 and begn to
be consderabe at the end of perod 8 whch woud be the e act
tme of arr a f there was a defnte group- eocty e ua to
haf the wa e- eocty. The argeness of So 2 1 t appro matey
unform throughout the frst four perods s e paned n g 140.
Its gradua augmentaton through perods 5 6 7 8 depends on
the wa e propagaton of dsturbances from the orgn as shown for
S 2 1 t and A 2 1 t n the second and fourth cur es.
14 . The 0 1 t cur e of fg. 8 may be compared wth
the cur e of the same desgnaton n fg. 6. They dffer because
of a uarter perod dfference n the phase of commencement of
the dsturbng pressure whch commences suddeny at ts
Remember that downward ordnates n a the cur es of fgs. 6 7 8 9
correspond to post e aues of the uanttes represented.
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448
A ES N ATER
9
ma mum for a the cur es of fg. 6 and commences at ero
for a the cur es of fg. 8. If the S S cur es for ntatng
pressure commencng at ero were drawn they woud dffer from
the frst and thrd cur es of fg. 6 n beng at the commencement
tangenta to the ne of abscssas nstead of beng ncned to t
n the post e drecton as shown n fg. 6. The cur es are
a ntay tangenta to the ne of abscssas but the tangency
s ony of the frst order n fg. 6 whe t s of the second order
n fg. 8.
144. The thrd and fourth cur es of fg. 8 show the whoe
hstory for the ponts 0 and of the surface dspacement
e pressed by the formuas whch e p s 1 t he surfac d asnc nt d e to s1 ... 191
whch e presses the surface dspacement due to surface-pressure
e pressed by
II 1 t - sn t 1 0 ............ 192 .
The ffth cur e of fg. 8 shows the hstory after perod to
amost haf a perod after perod 9 of the dsturbance at the
pace 2. The dsturbance has not yet become snusoda but
woud certany become amost e acty snusoda after a few more
perods.
145. In fg. 9 two sets of f e cur es show for case b and
case the perodcay aryng water-surface on each sde of the
mdde at any ong enough tme after the begnnng of the
moton to g e a reguar regme of snusoda braton as far as
two or three wa e-engths on each sde of the mdde. The thrd
cur e n each case s a cur e of snes. The frst cur e represents
the surface at the begnnng of a perod from r to 1 r. The
ffth cur e beng the frst cur e n erted represents the watersurface at the mdde of the perod. The other two cur es may
be descrbed as components of the frst and thrd accordng to the
foowng formua:
r 1 t P sn wt- cos act............ 19
where P - A cos 27r / ................. 194
The scae of ordnates of the thrd fourth and ffth cur es of fg. 8 s doube
that of the frst and second ndcated on the fgure.
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1906
N THE GR TH A TRAIN A ES
449
and s a contnuous transcendenta functon of ha ng e ua
aues for e pressed by 195 for post e or negat e aues
of e ceedng a wa e-ength.
or post e - A sn 27r / .. 195
for negat e A sn 27r / ....
where A denotes the sem-amptude of the braton at any tme
ong enough after the begnnng and pace far enough from the
mdde of the dsturbance to ha e ery appro matey snusoda
moton. The determnaton of the transcendenta functon and
the cacuaton of A for both P and w be rtuay wor ed
out n 151 beow.
146. e ha e now an e ceedngy nterestng and suggest e
anayss of the crcumstances represented n fg. 9. Consder
separatey the two motons correspondng to P sn cot aone and to
- cos cot aone. The moton P sn cot f at any nstant g en
from - oc to co woud contnue for e er as an nfnte
seres of standng wa es wthout any surface-pressure. Hence our
appcaton of surface-pressure s ony re ured for the -moton:
and f ths moton be at any nstant g en from - o to o
t w go on for e er pro ded the pressure - cos cot 1 0 s
apped and ept apped to the surface.
147. The pan of 146 may be generased as foows:Dspace the water accordng to the formua 19 wth P omtted
and wth any arbtrary functon of for moderatey great
post e or negat e aues of graduay changng nto the
formua 195 for post e and negat e aues outsde any
arbtrary chosen ength M N M not necessary e ua to N .
nd mathematcay the snusoday aryng surface-pressure
cos ot re ured to cause the moton to contnue accordng to
ths aw. Supermpose upon the moton thus guded by surfacepressure the moton - A cos 27r / . sn cot whch needs no surfacepressure. In the moton thus compounded we ha e e ua
snusoda wa es tra eng outwards n the two drectons beyond
MN sem-amptude A : and n the space MN we ha e a aryng
water-surface found by supermposng on the moton P sn cot an
arbtrary shape of surface aryng snusoday accordng to the
formua - cos cot.
. I . 29
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450
A ES N ATER
9
148. A curousy nterestng dynamca consderaton s now
forced upon us. The P-component of moton needs as we ha e
seen no surface-pressure. The -component of moton s ept
correct by the surface-pressure cos ot whch n a perod
does no tota of wor on the -moton but wor must be done to
suppy energy for the two trans of wa es tra eng outwards n
the two drectons. Hence ths wor s done by the act ty of
the surface-pressure upon the P-component of the moton.
149. Another curous ueston s forced upon us. ur souton
of 1 5-145 has g en us determnatey and unambguousy n
e ery arety of the cases consdered the moton of e ery partce
of the water throughout the space occuped. The synthetc
method of uadratures whch we ha e used coud ead to no other
moton at any nstant due to the apped surface-pressure but
now n 147 we ha e consdered a -moton aone ept correct
by the apped surface-pressure. oud ths moton be unstabe
and f unstabe woud t n a suffcenty ong tme subsde nto
the moton e pressed n the determnate souton of 1 5-145
The answer s Yes and No. At any nstant say at t 0 et the
whoe moton be the -component aone of 148. Let now the
surface-pressure cos cot be suddeny commenced and contnued for e er after. It w accordng to 1 5-145 produce
determnatey a certan compound moton P whch w be
supermposed upon the moton e stng at tme t 0 and ths
ast-mentoned moton g en wth ts nfnte amount of energy
dstrbuted from - o to oo and eft wth no surfacepressure woud ceary ne er come appro matey to uescence
through any range of dstance from 0 on the two sdes. Thus we
see that though the -moton aone of 148 s essentay unstabe
the condton of the fud does not subsde nto the determnate
souton of 1 5-145. It woud so subsde f t were g en
ntay ony through any fnte space howe er great on each sde
of . In fact any g en dstrbuton of dsturbance through any
fnte space howe er great on each sde of 0 eft to tsef wthout
any appcaton of surface-pressure becomes dsspated away to
nfnty on the two sdes and ea es as ustrated n 96-11
an e er-broadenng space on each sde of 0 through whch the
moton becomes smaer and smaer as tme ad ances.
150. It remans ony to oo nto some of the anaytca
detas concerned n the practca wor ng out of our soutons
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1906 N THE GR TH A TRAIN A ES
4C51
189 190 . Ta ng cos o t - n the formuas and ta ng case
we fnd by 190
S t P cosoat snot............ 196
where
P fd os wc and d sn w o ... 197 .
hen P and ha e been thus found by uadratures for a
aues of t and any partcuar aue of by ntegraton by parts
on the pan of 1 4 we ready fnd wthout farther uadratures
or ntegratons e pressons for the se en other formuas ncuded
n 189 190 .
151. Let us frst fnd P and for t oo. sng the
e ponenta form for 0 g en by 1 7 we fnd
P s 8m fd cos w e-m
and RS d sn w ecm 2........... 198
where M TY/ t .
Hence accordng to an e auaton g en by Lapace n 1810 we
fnd ta ng g 4
P- RS .................. 199 .
The defnte ntegra for s a transcendent functon of o and m
not e pressbe fntey n terms of trgonometrca functons or
e ponentas. y usng the seres for sn w n terms of a 2 1
and e auatng fd 2 1 6m 2 by ntegratons by parts we fnd the
foowng con ergent seres for the e auaton of for t oo
and g 4: RS112 Tn 2.1. 2r .1. .
2 . 1. .5.7 os metc
2 1. .5.I ... 2 0 0
60 P C I/ C S t IP C
A 1 22 o 2 2. 1. 2..
- p 7 C S 7 etc.
2 . 1. . 5.7 Y os t
where as n 100-11 abo e p / 2 2 and tan- / .
Memor es de unsttut 1810. See Gregory s E ampes p. 480.
29-2
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452
A ES N ATER
9
Ths seres con erges for e ery aue of o /p howe er great.
ut for aues of co /p greater than 4 t d erges to arge
aternatey post e and negat e terms before t begns to con erge. The argest aue of o /p for whch we ha e used t
s we p 50 correspondng to 8 and re urng for the
accuracy we desre twenty-one terms of the seres. ut for ths
aue of o /p and for a arger aues we ha e used the
utmatey d ergent seres 208 found n e pressng anaytcay not merey for t c as n 198 199 200 but for a
post e aues of t great and sma the growth to ts fna
condton when t Go of the dsturbance produced by our
perodcay aryng appcaton of pressure to the surface of the
water ntay t 0 at rest. The cur e for r n fg. 9 has
been actuay cacuated by 200 for aues of up to 8 and by
the utmatey d ergent seres for aues of from 5 to 10. The
agreement between those of the aues whch were cacuated
both by 200 and by the utmatey d ergent seres 208
was ute satsfactory: so aso was the agreement between
aues of found by uadratures for 1 and 8 wth aues
found by 200 for 1 and by 208 for 8. It s aso satsfactory that the aues of P found by uadratures for 1
and 8 agreed we wth ther e act aues g en by 199
for t o.
152. Gong bac now to the e pressons 197 for P and
we see that by an ob ous anaytca method of treatment we
can reduce them and therefore 150 a our other formuas to
e pressons n terms of a functon defned as foows:
E o- e- 2.....................201
a functon we nown to mathematcans through the ast
hundred and ffty or two hundred years n the mathematca
theory of Astronomca Refracton and n the theory of Probabtes. I ha e ta en E as an abbre aton of Gasher st notaton
Erfc sgnfyng what he cas Error uncton Compement
The beautfu mathematca dsco ery de- 2 /7r seems to ha e been
/o
made by Euer about 17 0.
Ph. Mag. ctober 1871.
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1906
N THE GR TH A TRAIN A ES
45
whch he uses n connecton wth hs name Error uncton
defned by
Erf o- do- 7 - Erfc a ....... 202 .
o sng the magnary e presson for b n 1 7 we fnd
P RS / 42 Itd Le 2 m - 2n 2 t 21
/7 o......... 20
1-2rn/ __ /2_ 2
RS d e _ 2......... 204
where m 1g/ t as n 151.
Ta ng ad antage now of the notaton 201 we reduce these
two e pressons to the foowng:P RS /2 e E t- - 2 E mnt 2 t
g L 2 m/ 2 m ......... 205
IRS1 e-w E Imt-6 2 4m -E Imt 6 2 m 2E 2 ... 206 .
15 . Remar frst n passng that when /nt s nfntey
great n comparson wth o/ 2 /m these two e pressons agree
wth the e pressons 198 for P and wth t o whch we
used n connecton wth the e panaton of fg. 9.
154. And now wth a ew to fndng P and for any chosen
aues of t we ha e the foowng nown seres :ca 1 o 1 cr 7
E o - 1.25 1.2. 7 27
- - 1. 2 - - 2 7 ...................... 207
1 - 1 - 1. 1. .5 -
2 -- 2 - 2 2 2 2 - 2 2 .. 208
See Gasher n a Cass of Defnte Integras Ph. Mag. ctober 1871
and urgess n the Defnte Integra -72 eft2dt Trans. Roy. Soc. Edn.
1898.
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454
A ES N ATER
9
The seres 207 con erges for a aues of a- great or sma rea
or magnary: 208 con erges n ts frst terms f 2c2 gt 2 -
moduus understood f a-2 s magnary and after that t
d erges the true aue beng ntermedate between the sum of
the con ergent terms and ths sum wth the frst term of the
d ergent seres added. The proper rue of procedure to fnd the
resut wth any desred degree of accuracy s to frst cacuate by
the utmatey d ergent seres and see whether or not t g es
the resut accuratey enough. If t does not use the con ergent
seres 207 whch by suffcent e pendture of arthmetca
abour w certany g e the resut wth any degree of accuracy
reso ed upon.
155. As a gude not ony for numerca cacuaton but for
udgng the character of the desred resut wthout cacuaton t
s con enent to fnd the moduuses of the three compe arguments of the functon E n 205 and 206 . They are as
foows:mod mt - 2/m / T-s t-
2 m 4p P 9 I
-t g o/ when oc...... 209
- t w I t g ta- 02P
mod nt 2 7 t/ - /
A/ 2 s/2 n 4p p g
t - o. when . o...... 210
4a - g
m od 2 o................................. 211 .
156. The ery nterestng uestons regardng the front of
the processon of wa es n ether drecton of whch we ha e
found ustratons n fgs. 6 7 8 and whch we had under
consderaton n 11- 1 114-117 abo e are now answerabe
n a thoroughy satsfactory mathematca manner by ad of the
formuas 205 206 209 210 211 . hen n the arguments of E n 205 and 206 /mt s ery great n comparson
wth o/ 2/mn the two added terms n 205 are appro matey
e ua and 206 s reduced appro matey to ts ast term and
a the soutons 189 190 become appro matey snusoda n
respect to t. Ths s the case when t /- s ery great n
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1906 N THE GR TH A TRAIN A ES
455
comparson wth unty and n comparson wth w/ as we see
by oo ng at the moduuses shown n 209 210 211 . Ths
aows us to negect w n the arguments of E n 205 206 and
ma es P and constant reat ey to t.
157. hen t s sma or arge and not so sma as to g e
preponderance to the frst terms of the moduuses 209 210
we ha e n 205 206 189 190 a fu representaton of the
whoe crcumstances of the wa e-front e tendng from o bac
to the argest aue of that aows preponderance of t / g
/
o er co - n the moduuses 209 210 . Let for e ampe
t 4-................... 212 .
/ 4
Ths g es
g haf the wa e- eocty tme...... 21 .
2ew
The mo ng pont thus defned s what n my frst paper to the
Roya Socety of Ednburgh anuary 1887 n the ront and
Rear of a ree Processon of a es n Deep ater I caed the
Md- ront defned n 45 of that paper whch agrees wth our
present 21 . The foowng passage was the concuson of that
od paper:- The rear of a whoy free processon of wa es may
be ute ready studed after the consttuton of the front has
been fuy n estgated by supermposng an annung surfacepressure upon the orgnatng pressure represented by 12 abo e
ths s a case of 17 of our present paper after the orgnatng
pressure has been contnued so ong as to produce a processon of
any desred number of wa es. The nstructon thus g en wth
reference to the reaton between front and rear has been rtuay
foowed though wth some dfferences of deta n 20-24 of
my second Roya Socety paper on the same sub ect and under
the same tte une 20 1904 t. That second paper contaned a
frst nstament of the cacuatons and graphc representatons
promsed n the od frst the present paper contans n fgs. 5
6 7 8 a further nstament of such ustratons.
158. Throughout my wor 96-157 I ha e had most
No. 1 supra-tte ony.
No. 6 supra.
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456
A ES N ATER
9
auabe assstance from Mr George Green not ony n the ery
ong and aborous cacuatons and drawngs whch ha e been
whoy made by hm but aso n many nterestng and dffcut
uestons whch occurred n the fundamenta mathematcs of the
sub ect .
e hope to appy before ong the method of 128 to cacuate
by ad of the formua d - t - the ntaton and
contnued growth of Cana Shp-wa es due to the sudden
commencement and contnued appcaton of a mo ng steady
surface-pressure f 1 0 . e hope aso to appy 1 9 of the
present paper to the fufment of my od promse 0 une 20
1904 R.S.E. to dea wth the beautfuy aryng processon seen
crcng outwards from the pace of a stone thrown nto deep
water.
The features of the arous graphs cacuated n these papers as representng
the spread of dfferent types of dsturbance ha e been anaysed and erfed n
deta by Mr G. Green from the pont of ew of group eocty or Lord e n s
prncpe of statonary phase supra p. 04 n two papers n Group eocty
and on the Propagaton of a es n a Dspers e Medum Proc. R. S. Edn.
o. . 1909 pp. 445-470 and n a es n a Dspers e Medum resutng
from a Lmted Inta Dsturbance Proc. R. S. Edn. o. . 1909 pp. 1-12.
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1876 457
40. PHYSICAL E PLANATI N THE MAC EREL S Y.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1876 Pt. II. p. 54 reprnted from Symons s
Monthy Meteoroogca Maga ne o. . 1876 p. 1 1.
SIR M. TH MS N e paned the reaton of the couds and
ther mo ements and that t was not essenta to the formaton of
a mac ere s y that there shoud be two dfferent temperatures.
A that was essenta was that portons of ar shoud be mo ng
up and down and further that the up and down moton shoud
seem as though t resuted from the sppng of one stratum of ar
upon another and the producton thereby of wa es and the second
essenta was that one or other of the two portons of ar shoud
be ery near the pont of saturaton-that t woud be cear when
down at ts owest pont and coudy when up at ts hghest .
Cf. Hemhot eber atmospharsche ewegungen 1888 and foowng
papers n hs Coected Papers o. III. p. 289 se .
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458 41
GENERAL DYNAMICS.
41. N S ME INEMATICAL AND DYNAMICAL THE REMS.
rom the Proceedngs of the Roya Socety of Ednburgh o. .
Apr 6 186 pp. 11 115.
IN the course of n estgatons whch the author had been ed
to ma e n connecton wth a Treatse on Natura Phosophy
whch he and Professor Tat are about to pubsh he met wth
some remar abe theorems whch appear to be new and of
consderabe mportance. As the detas of the n estgatons w
soon be pubshed a ery bref s etch ony s g en here.
I. Twst of a wre. If a straght wre of unform secton
ha e a sde ne of reference traced on ts surface parae to ts
a s and f a perpendcuar to ths ne from any pont of the
a s be caed a trans erse the amount of torson or twst of the
wre when bent nto any form may be determned by the foowng
constructon:Parae to the tangent to the a s of the wre at a pont
mo ng aong t et a radus of an unt sphere be drawn cuttng
the spherca surface n a cur e. rom ponts of ths cur e draw
paraes to the trans erses at the correspondng ponts of the bar.
The e cess of the change of drecton from one pont to the other
n the cur e abo e the ncrease of ts ncnaton to the trans erse
s e ua to the twst n the correspondng part of the wre .
rom ths some ery curous conse uences foow of whch one
s as foows:-If a wre be bent aong any cur e on a spherca
surface so that a sde ne of reference es a aong n contact
See Thomson and Tat s Yatura Phosophy 12 .
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186 INEMATICAL AND DYNAMICAL THE REMS
459
wth the sphere t ac ures no twst so that when an appe
supposed spherca s peeed there s no twst n the pee.
Agan f an nfntey narrow rbband be ad on a surface
aong a geodetc ne ts twst s at e ery pont e ua to the
tortuosty of ts a s.
II. G en any matera system at rest and sub ected to an
mpuse of any g en magntude and n any specfed drecton t
w mo e off so as to ta e the greatest amount of netc energy
whch the specfed mpuse can g e t.
C R. If a set of matera ponts be struc ndependenty by
mpuses each g en n amount more netc energy s generated
f the ponts are perfecty free to mo e each ndependenty of a
the others than f they are connected n any way.
III.t G en any matera system at rest. Let any parts of t
be set n moton suddeny wth g en eoctes the other parts
beng nfuenced ony by ther connectons wth those whch are
set n moton the whoe system w mo e so as to ha e ess
netc energy than beongs to any other moton fufng the
g en eocty condtons.
See Thomson and Tat s Nat. Ph. 11.
See Thomson and Tat s Nat. Ph. 12.
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460
42
42. N A NE RM CENTRI GAL G ERN R.
rom the Inst. of Engneers n Scotand Transactons o. II. No . 25
1868 pp. 67-69.
THE most ob ous dea for a centrfuga go ernor s to use the
ncrease of centrfuga force produced by ncrease of.speed wthout
change of radus as the force to produce the re uste reguatng
acton. And the smpest way of usng ths force for the purpose
s to ma e t the norma pressure for a frctona arrangement
drecty and smpy resstng the rotatory moton.
The go ernor now shown to the Insttuton s of ths perfecty
rudmentary type and presents no no ety e cept n some detas
as to arrangement and proporton of ts parts. It conssts of two
hea y ead masses MM see Pate III. each suspended from a
stff hor onta frame H attached to the shaft S and turnng wth
t round ts a s whch s ertca. These masses are pre ented
from fyng out by centrfuga force by a stout rng of gun meta
R of 12 nches nterna dameter f ed hor ontay at about the
e e of ther centres of nerta. ut the greater part of the
centrfuga force s baanced by powerfu sprngs P drawng the
masses nwards towards the a s. rm stops are paced e e
wth ther centres of nerta to pre ent them beng drawn nwards
by more than about -L of an nch from the poston whch they
occupy when rubbng on the gun meta rng. hen the machne
s set n moton wth ncreasng eocty the go ernng masses do
not fy out from ther stops unt the centrfuga force upon them
begns to o erbaance the force of the sprngs. A ery sma
ncrease of eocty abo e that whch frst detaches them from
ther stops causes them to press aganst the gun meta rng and
g es rse to frctona resstance mpedng further augmentaton
of speed. The bearng sprngs of each mass are at a ery consderabe dstance apart 5 nches n the nstrument e hbted to
Not reproduced here.
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1868 N A NE RM CENTRI GAL G ERN R
461
the Insttuton n a pane perpendcuar to the hor onta ne
from ts centre of nerta to the a s. Ths g es greater frmness
to the e ubrum of the suspended mass ery neary as f t were
hung by a rgd hor onta shaft but wthout the frcton whch
such a mode of mountng woud enta. It aows the hor onta
force of frcton to act upon the ead mass wthout sensby
twstng t out of poston and to be transmtted to the rgd
rotatng frame so as to resst ts moton. The sprng whch draws
each mass towards the a s s made up of two peces of stout
sheet stee each cur ed and tempered propery paced wth ther
con e sdes towards one another and pressed aganst one another
by forcng ther ends together and untng them by stout camps.
It acts e a coach sprng adapted for pung nstead of pushng.
In the nstrument shown to the Insttuton each mass amounts to
26 pounds. The sprngs are set by an ad ustng screw so that
ether mass aone the other beng ted n by a cord begns to
press on the rng when one and the same speed s reached. Ths
speed was 120 turns n a mnute n the nstrument as ad usted
when shown to the Insttuton and therefore as the centre of
nerta of each mass s about 41 nches from the a s ts centrfuga
force s about 184 tmes ts weght or 48 pounds weght whch
was therefore the force wth whch the sprng was ad usted to
pu. If now the speed s ncreased by a sma percentage abo e
that re ured to cause the go ernng mass to begn to press upon
the rng the force wth whch each w press w e ceed the force
of the sprng by doube the same percentage. Thus f the speed
e ceed by - per cent. that at whch the go ernor begns to act
each mass w press on the rng wth a force of 19 of a pound
whch w g e rse to frctona resstance of.0 of a pound force
f the coeffcent of frcton be 105. Thus the whoe frctona
resstance due to the two masses w be a- of a pound actng at
the dstance of haf a foot from the a s and consumng therefore
4 of a foot pound per second. To ncrease the speed further by
one per cent. re ures so much ncrease of dr ng power as to
consume 1 foot pounds per second more. These fgures g e a
suffcent dea of the power of ths go ernor when used smpy to
consume n frcton the addtona wor done by addtons to the
dr ng power wthout more than a sma ncrease of speed. The
condtons to be fufed are that the greatest admssbe percentage
of ncrease of speed sha g e frctona resstance amountng to
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462
GENERAL DYNAMICS
42
more than the greatest permtted change of dr ng power and
that the part of the dr ng power spent n frcton on the p ots
of the go ernor s sma n proporton to the atter. It was
desgned and constructed for msceaneous aboratory purposes
and ecture ustratons n whch appro matey unform speed
s re ured. The same pan may be usefu for chronoscopes n
genera and for teegraphc apparatus whether for g ng unform
moton to the rece ng rbbon of paper as n the Morse and other
recorders or for mechanca sendng nstruments.
A smpe modfcaton aows a pan n ented by Professor
eemng en n and ntroduced by hm n connecton wth
another form of centrfuga go ernor to be apped to the present
by whch t w be con erted nto a powerfu steam go ernor.
Ths conssts n unf ng the gun meta rng and supportng t so
as to g e t freedom to rotate round the same ertca a s as the
man shaft of the apparatus. y any con enent mechansm a
rotaton of ths rng n the same drecton as that of the go ernor
may shut off steam and rotaton n the contrary drecton augment
the uantty of steam used and a sprng or weght apped to
g e t rotaton n the atter drecton when t s not carred
the other way by frcton of the go ernng masses. Thus the
nstrument e hbted at the Insttuton g es the means of
brngng 14 foot pounds per second of wor to act n cuttng off
steam f at any tme the speed augments by one per cent.
In the after dscusson
Professor Mac uorn Ran ne sad that ths was a go ernor of
a ery smpe nd ndeed as Sr m. Thomson had sad t was
constructed on the smpest of a prncpes that coud be apped
to a go ernor-to ma e the re o ng masses press aganst the
nsde of a rng whch chec ed the speed when t became too
great. Notwthstandng that the prncpe on whch the go ernor
acted was so smpe t had not pre ousy been apped n practce .
There was no doubt of ts effcacy n preser ng an amost unform
eocty. He had no doubt that t woud be practcabe to adapt
t to steam engnes though not precsey n ts present form but
by carryng out certan modfcatons t coud be adapted to that
purpose and mght be made the means of reguatng the speed
wth that remar abe precson whch they had heard stated and
E cept n Semens dfferenta go ernor.
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1868 N A NE RM CENTRI GAL G ERN R
46
whch he hoped they shoud see before the meetng bro e up.
He had had opportuntes at the n ersty n Sr am
Thomson s Physca Laboratory of seeng contr ances of ths
nd and had seen that they ga e resuts as to unformty of
speed such as those whch they had heard descrbed n the paper.
In ts present form whch they saw on the tabe the go ernor
used up the surpus power n frcton. It was easy to understand
that by sutabe modfcatons t mght be made to act upon a
reguatng a e or the cut-off of a steam engne.
Sr am Thomson sad that wth the appance to whch
he referred the steam coud be reguated wth ery great precson for nstance easy so as to eep the speed wthn a haf
per cent. of perfect unformty. In reference to what Professor
Ran ne had sad as to the possbty of ths go ernor beng
sutabe for marne engnes a go ernor gong at doube the eocty
woud he thought not be sensby dsturbed by the rong of the
shp.
Professor Ran ne supposed that n usng ths as a steam
go ernor an nner rng woud be re ured for the re o ng
masses to press aganst when the speed fe short n order to act
n the opposte drecton upon the reguator.
Sr am Thomson sad there were sprngs and stops whch
rtuay acted n that way. He mght do ether what Dr Ran ne
suggested or there mght be a frctona acton of the go ernor to
cut off steam and a sowy descendng weght aways throwng on
steam e cept when the frctona acton baances or o ercomes t.
r the admsson mght be effected by a whee carred round
frctonay by a shaft. He thought a weght woud be the most
con enent way whch woud be runnng down unt the fu
steam was et on but before fu steam was admtted the speed
of the go ernor woud cause the masses to press aganst the rng
whch woud pre ent the weght from runnng down any further
and so pre ent any more steam from gettng n.
4 . N A NE ASTR N MICAL CL C AND A PEND L M
G ERN R R NI RM M TI N.
Roy. Soc. Proc. o. II. une 10 1869 pp 468-470. Reprnted n
Popuar Lectures and Addresses . pp. 87- 94.
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44
44. N THE PERT R ATI NS THE C MPASS PR D CED
Y THE R LLING THE SHIP.
Read n Secton A of the rtsh Assocaton at efast 1874 from the
Phosophca Mfaga ne o. L III. No . 1874 pp. 6 - 69.
THE heeng-error whch has been n estgated by Ary
and Archbad Smth s the de aton of the compass produced
by a steady hee as a constant ncnaton of the shp round a
ongtudna a s appro matey hor onta s caed . It depends
on a hor onta component of the shp s magnetc force ntroduced
by the ncnaton whch compounded wth the hor onta component e stng when the shp s uprght g es the atered
hor onta component when the shp s ncned. Regardng ony
the error of drecton and dsregardng the change of the ntensty
of the drectng force we may defne the heeng-error as the
ange between the drectons for the shp uprght and for the
shp ncned of the resutant of the hor onta magnetc forces
of earth and shp at the poston of the compass. These suppostons woud be rgorousy rea ed wth the compass supported
on a pont n the ordnary manner f the bearng-pont were
carred by the shp unformy n a straght ne. They are neary
enough rea ed n a arge shp to render nconsderabe the
errors due to want of perfect unformty of the moton of the
bearng-pont f ths pont s paced anywhere n the a s of
rong t for n a arge shp the compass howe er paced s not
consderaby dsturbed by ptchng or by the ne uates of the
ongtudna transatory moton caused by wa es. Hence supposng the compass paced n the a s of rong the perturbaton
produced n t by the rong w be soey that due to the
See obtuary notce of Archbad Smth Proc. Roy. Soc. 1874 to be reprnted n a ater oume aso an artce n Popuar Lectures and Addresses o. III.
p. 228 1874 whch formed the begnnngs of compass n estgatons.
ne way probaby the best n practce of fndng by obser aton the poston
of the a s of rong s to hang penduums from ponts at dfferent e es n the
pane through the ee perpendcuar to the dec t one s found whch ndcates
the same degrees of rong as those found geometrcay by obser ng a graduated
scae or batten seen aganst the hor on.
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1874 PERT R ATI NS THE C MPASS Y R LLING
465
araton of the hor onta component of the shp s magnetc
force. Such a poston of the compass woud-ha e one great
ad antage-that the appcaton of proper magnetc correctors
ad usted by tra to do away wth the rong-error woud
perfecty correct the heeng-error. To set off aganst ths
ad antage there are two practca dsad antages:-one that the
a s of rong beng aways beow dec woud not be a con enent poston for the ordnary modes of usng the compass
the other far more serous that at a e ents n shps wth ron
dec s the magnetc dsturbance produced by the ron of the shp
woud probaby be so much greater at any pont of the a s of
rong than at sutaby chosen postons abo e dec as to more
than counterbaance the grand netc ad antage of the a a
poston. ut carefu tras n shps of arous casses ought to
be made and t may be found that n some cases the compass
may wth preponderatng ad antage be paced at the a s of
rong. Htherto howe er ths poston for the compass has not
been used n shps of any cass and as we ha e seen t s not
probabe that t can e er be generay adopted for shps of a
casses. It s therefore an nterestng and mportant practca
probem to determne the perturbatons of the compass produced
by oscatons or other non-unform motons of the bearngpont.
The genera netc probem of the compass s to determne
the poston at any nstant of a rgd body consstng of the
needes framewor and fy-card whch for bre ty w be caed
smpy the compass mo abe on a bearng-pont when ths pont
mo es wth any g en moton. Let the bearng-pont e perence
at any nstant a g en acceeraton a n any g en drecton.
Let be the mass or weght of the compass and g the
force of gra ty upon t rec oned n netc unts. The poston
of netc e ubrum of the compass at that nstant s the
poston n whch t woud rest under the magnetc forces and
a force of apparent gra ty e ua to the resutant of g and a
force a n the drecton opposte to that of a. Now the weght
of the compass s so great and ts centre of gra ty so ow that
the e e of the card s scarcey affected sensby by the greatest
magnetc coupe e perenced by the needes . Hence n netc
Generay no ad ustng counterpose for the compass s re ured when a shp
goes from e treme north to e treme south magnetc attudes.
. I . 0
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466
GENERAL DYNAMICS
44
e ubrum the pane of the compass-card s sensby perpendcuar
to the drecton of the apparent gra ty defned abo e and
the magnetc a s of the needes s n the drecton of the
resutant of the components n ths pane of the magnetc forces
of earth and shp. Hence t s smpy through the apparent
e e at the pace n the shp occuped by the compass dfferng
from the true gra taton-e e that the probem of the netce ubrum poston of the compass n a rong shp dffers from
the probem of the heeng-error referred to abo e. That we may
see the essenta pecuartes of our present probem et there
be no magnetc force of the shp hersef or cargo. The netce ubrum poston of the magnetc a s of the compass w be
smpy the ne of the component of terrestra magnetc force n
the pane of the apparent e e. Let be the ncnaton of ths
pane to that of the true gra taton-e e and b gt the a muth
not greater than 90 from magnetc north of the ne LL of
the ntersecton of the two panes a dagram s unnecessary
aso et H and be the hor onta and ertca components of
the terrestra magnetc force. The component of ths force n
the pane of apparent e e w be the resutant of H cos / aong
LL and H sn cos / sn perpendcuar to LL and therefore f gt denote the ange at whch t s ncned to LL we ha e
H sn 6 cos sn sn Ic
tan tan cos IC r-.
HcosH cos H o
If as usua n compass uestons we rec on the drectons as of
forces on south magnetc poes or the northern ends of the
compass-needes the drecton of H cos b s aong LL northwards
and the drecton of sn when the shp s anywhere north of
the magnetc e uator s downwards n the pane of the apparent
e e.
Now as we are ony consderng the effect of rong the
drecton of the g en acceeraton of the bearng-pont w
aways be n a pane perpendcuar to the shp s ength and
therefore LL w be parae to the ength. It w n fact be
the ne through the ubber-ponts of the compass-bow.
Hence and as compass anges are ordnary read n the pane
of the fy-card the netc e ubrum-error of the compass s
e acty e ua to c - b. hen fc s a sma fracton of 57
the radan as the ange whose arc s e ua to radus has
been caed by Professor ames Thomson whch s the case
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1874 PERT R ATI NS THE C MPASS Y R LLING
467
e cept n e treme degrees of rong when the compass s propery
paced we ha e appro matey

- C Hos.
The drecton of ths error s for the northern ends of the needes
n the northern magnetc hemsphere or for the southern ends
n the southern hemsphere towards the sde on whch the apparent
e e s depressed-that s as practcay the compass s aways
abo e the a s of rong towards the ee ated sde of the shp. It
has ts ma mum aue
/H
when 0 0 that s to say when the shp heads north or south
magnetc. To estmate ts amount consder perfecty reguar
rong whch n genera fufs appro matey the smpe harmonc aw so that we may put
I sn nt
where denotes the ncnaton of the shp at tme t and n and
I constants. Let h denote the heght of the bearng-pont of the
compass ertcay abo e the a s of rong when the shp s
ertca. or the amount of ts acceeraton we ha e
a d2 h /dt - n2h.
Now f I denote the ength of a smpe penduum sochronous
wth the rong of the shp we ha e
n2 g
and therefore a - gh/. .
The drecton of a beng tangenta to the crce descrbed by
the bearng-pont s appro matey hor onta and therefore the
drecton of apparent gra ty w be appro matey that of the
resutant of
g ertca
and gh/. hor onta.
Hence h. appro matey.
Hence when the shp heads north or south the amount of the
netc-e ubrum error s appro matey
h/HI. .
The mast-head compass perncousy used n too many merchant steamers
may n moderate enough rong e perence de atons of apparent e e amountng
to 20 or 0 on each sde of the true gra taton-e e.
0-2
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
44
Suppose for e ampe the perod of the rong to be 6 seconds
or three tmes the perod of the seconds penduum 1 w
be 29 feet or nne tmes the ength of the seconds penduum .
And suppose the compass to be 14- feet abo e the a s of rong.
e ha e c so that the range of apparent rong ndcated
by a penduum hung from a pont n the poston of the bearngpont of the compass s greater by haf than the true range of
the ro . n these suppostons the netc-e ubrum error
amounts to
/H. .
About the mdde of the rtsh Isands the magnetc dp s 70
and therefore /H beng the natura tangent of the dp s e ua
to 2 75 neary. Hente the netc-e ubrum error for the
supposed case amounts n ths ocaty to about a degree and
three eghths for e ery degree of ro.
In an ron shp the e ubrum aue of the rong-error w
be appro matey the sum of the netc error n estgated abo e
and a heeng-error found by an n estgaton ready wor ed
out from that of Archbad Smth n the Admraty Compass
Manua edt. 1869 Secton I . pages 82-89 and Append
pages 1 9-150 wth modfcaton to ta e nto account the
de aton of the apparent e e at the pace of the compass from
the true gra taton-e e.
I ha e used the e presson netc-e ubrum error to
dstngush the error n estgated abo e from that actuay
e hbted by the compass. It s e acty the error whch woud
be shown by an dea compass wth nfntey short perod of
braton. A ght uc neede ether wth s -fbre suspenson
or supported on a pont n the ordnary way ha ng a perod of
not more than about two seconds shows the rong-error ery
beautfuy ta ng at e ery nstant amost e acty the poston
of netc e ubrum. I ha e thus found the rong and
ptchng errors so great n a sma wooden sang- esse that t
became ery dffcut to ma e e act obser atons wth the uc
compass ether n the rth of Cyde or out at sea on the Atantc
uness when the sea was e ceptonay smooth. The we- nown
Ths woud be the case for a shp of any s e e posed to reguar wa es of
ength 184 feet from crest to crest and f mo ng through the water mo ng n a
ne parae to the nes of crests.
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1874 PERT R ATI NS THE C MPASS Y R LLING
469
netc theory of forced oscatons s ready apped to cacuate
whether for a wooden or an ron shp the actua rong-error
of the compass from the netc-e ubrum error n estgated
abo e. Thus et
u be the de aton of the compass at any nstant from the
poston t woud ha e f the shp were at rest and uprght
T the perod of ts natura oscaton f unressted by any
scous nfuence the dampng effect of copper ntroduced by Snow Harrs and used wth good effect n the
Admraty standard compass beng ncuded n ths
category
2f a coeffcent measurng the amount of scous resstance
E the e treme e ubrum aue of the rong-error
T the perod of the rong.
or bre ty put n 2r/T and n 27r/T . The dfferenta
e uaton of the moton s
d2n du
dt2 2fd n2u n2E cos n t.
The ntegra of ths proper to e press the effect of reguar
rong s
- n2 cos n t e
/t n 2-n2 2 4n2f-2
where e tan-1 2n f
n2 n2
It woud e tend the present communcaton too far to enter
on detas of ths souton. or the present t s enough to say
that no admssbe degree of scous resstance can ma e the
rong-error sma enough for practca con enence uness aso
the perod of the compass s onger than that of any consderabe rong to whch the shp may be sub ected. Probaby a
perod of from 15 to 0 seconds such as an ordnary compass
has may be found necessary for genera use at sea and t
becomes an mportant practca ueston how s ths best to be
obtaned consstenty wth the smaness of the compass-needes
necessary for a thoroughy satsfactory appcaton of the system
of magnetc correctors by whch Ary proposed to cause the
compass n an ron shp to pont correct magnetc courses on a
ponts
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45
45. N A NE RM AS rR N MICAL CL C ITH REE
PEND L M AND INDEPENDENTLY G ERNED NI RM M TI N
R ESCAPEMENT- HEEL.
The man part of paper No. 42 1869 supra Popuar Lectures and Addresses
o. II. pp. 87- 94 s reproduced wth the foowng addton. rom
rt. Assoc. Report 1876 Pt. . pp. 49-52.
I AM sorry to say that the hope here e pressed has not htherto
been reased. Year after year passed producng ony more or ess
of radca reform n arous mechanca detas of the go ernor and
of the fne mo ement unt about s months ago when for the
frst tme I had a e cept the penduums n appro matey satsfactory condton. y that tme I had dsco ered that my choce
of nc and patnum for the temperature compensaton and ead
for the weght of the penduums was a msta e. I had faen nto
t about ten years ago through beng nformed that n Russa the
grdron penduum had been re erted to because of the dffcuty
of gettng e uaty of temperature throughout the ength of the
penduum and wthout stoppng to perce e that the rght way
to dea wth ths dffcuty was to face t and ta e means of securng
practca e uaty of temperature throughout the ength of the
penduum whch t s ob ous may be done by smpe enough
appances I de sed a penduum n whch the compensaton s
produced by a stff tube of nc and a patnum wre paced neary
parae each to the other throughout the ength of the penduum
and the two penduums of the coc shown to the rtsh Assocaton
were constructed on ths pan. Now t s cear that the materas
chosen for compensaton shoud of a those not otherwse ob ectonabe be those of greatest and of east e pansbty. Therefore
certany gass or patnum ought to be one of the materas and
the stee of the ordnary astronomca mercury penduum s a
msta e. Mercury ought to be the other ts cubc e panson
beng s tmes the near e panson of nc uness the capary
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N A NE RM ASTR N MICAL CL C
471
uncertanty of the mercury surface ead to rreguar changes n
the rate of the penduum. The weght of the penduum ought to
be of matera of the greatest specfc gra ty attanabe at a
e ents uness the whoe s to be mounted n an ar-tght case
because one of the chef errors of the best e stng penduums s
that dependng on the aratons of barometrc pressure. The
e pense of patnum puts t out of the ueston for the weght of
the penduum e en athough the use of mercury for the temperature compensaton dd not aso g e mercury for the weght.
Thus e en though as good compensaton coud be got by nc and
patnum as by any other means mercury ought on account of ts
superor specfc gra ty to be preferred to ead for the weght of
the penduum.
I ha e accordngy now made se era penduums for tdegauges wth no other matera n the mo ng part than gass and
mercury wth rounded nfe-edges of agate for the f ed support
and I am on the pont of ma ng four more for two new coc s
whch I am ha ng made on the pan whch forms the sub ect of
ths communcaton. I ha e had no opportunty htherto of testng
the performance of any of these penduums but ther acton seems
ery promsng of good resuts and the ony untoward crcumstance
whch has htherto appeared n conne on wth them has been
brea ages of the gass n two attempts to ha e one carred safey
to Genoa for a tde-gauge made by Mr hte to an order for the
Itaan Go ernment.
As to the accuracy of my new coc t s enough to oo at the
penduum bratng wth perfect steadness from month to month
through a range of haf a centmetre on each sde of ts mdde
poston wth ts paets ony touched durng -0 of the tme by
the escapement-tooth to fee certan that f the best ordnary
astronomca coc owes any of ts rreguartes to aratons of
range of ts penduum or to mpuses and frcton of ts escapementwhee the new coc must when tred wth an e uay good
penduum pro e more reguar. I hope soon to ha e t tred wth
a better penduum than that of any astronomca coc htherto
made and f t then shows rreguartes amountng to - of those
of the best astronomca coc s the ne t step must be to ncose t
n an ar-tght case ept at constant temperature day and nght
summer and wnter.
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46
46. ELASTICITY IE ED AS P SSI LY A M DE M TI N.
rom Roy. Insttuton Proc. o. I . March 4 1881 pp. 520 521 Popuar
Lectures and Addresses o. I. pp. 142-146 or pp. 149-15 n ater reprnt.
ITH reference to the tte of hs dscourse the spea er sad:
The mere tte of Dr Tynda s beautfu boo Heat a Mode of
Moton s a esson of truth whch has manfested far and wde
through the word one of the greatest dsco eres of modern
phosophy. I ha e aways admred t I ha e ong co eted t
for Eastcty and now by nd permsson of ts n entor I ha e
borrowed t for ths e enng s dscourse.
A century and a haf ago Dane ernou shadowed forth
the netc theory of the eastcty of gases whch has been accepted
as truth by oue spenddy de eoped by Causus and Ma we
rased from statstcs of the swayngs of a crowd to obser aton
and measurement of the free path of an nd dua atom n Tat
and Dewar s e panaton of Croo es grand dsco ery of the radometer and n the d reasaton of the od Lucretan torrents
wth whch Croo es hmsef has foowed up ther e panaton of
hs own earer e perments by whch ess than two hundred
years after ts frst dsco ery by Robert oye the Sprng of Ar
s ascertaned to be a mere statstca resutant of myrads of
moecuar cosons.
ut the moecues or atoms must ha e eastcty and ths
eastcty must be e paned by moton before the uncertan sound
g en forth n the tte of the dscourse Eastcty ewed as
possby a Mode of Moton can be rased to the gorous certanty
of Heat a Mode of Moton .
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ELASTICITY AS A M DE M TI N
47
The spea er referred to spnnng-tops the chd s rong hoop
and the bcyce n rapd moton as cases of stff eastc- e
frmness produced by moton and showed e perments wth
gyrostats n whch uprght postons uttery unstabe wthout
rotaton were mantaned wth a frmness and strength and
eastcty such as mght be by bands of stee. A fe be endess
chan seemed rgd when caused to run rapdy round a puey and
when caused to ump off the puey and et fa to the foor stood
stffy uprght for a tme t ts moton was ost by mpact and
frcton of ts n s on the foor. A mp dsc of ndarubber
caused to rotate rapdy seemed to ac ure the stffness of a
ggantc Rubens hat-brm. A tte wooden ba whch when
thrust down under st water umped up agan n a moment
remaned down as f embedded n ey when the water was caused
to rotate rapdy and sprang bac as f the water had eastcty
e that of ey when t was struc by a stff wre pushed down
through the centre of the cor by whch the gass esse contanng
the water was fed . Lasty arge smo e rngs dscharged from
a crcuar or eptc aperture n a bo were rendered sbe by
ad of the eectrc ght n ther progress through the ar of the
theatre. Each rng was crcuar and ts moton was steady when
the aperture from whch t proceeded was crcuar and when t
was not dsturbed by another rng. hen one rng was sent
ob uey after another the coson or approach to coson sent
the two away n greaty changed drectons and each bratng
seemngy e an ndarubber band. hen the aperture was
eptc each undsturbed rng was seen to be n a state of reguar
braton from the begnnng and to contnue so throughout ts
course across the ecture-room. Here then n water and ar was
eastcty as of an eastc sod de eoped by mere moton. May
not the eastcty of e ery utmate atom of matter be thus
e paned ut ths netc theory of matter s a dream and can
be nothng ese unt t can e pan chemca affnty eectrcty
magnetsm gra taton and the nerta of masses that s crowds
of ortces.
Le Sage s theory mght g e an e panaton of gra ty and of
ts reaton to nerta of masses on the orte theory were t not
for the essenta meootropy of crystas and the seemngy perfect
See supra p. 170.
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474 GENERAL DYNAMICS 46 47
sotropy of gra ty. No fnger-post pontng towards a way that
can possby ead to a surmountng of ths dffcuty or a turnng
of ts fan has been dsco ered or magned as dsco erabe.
eef that no other theory of matter s possbe s the ony ground
for antcpatng that there s n store for the word another
beautfu boo to be caed Eastcty a Mode of Moton.
47. STEPS T ARDS A INETIC THE RY MATTER.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report Montrea 1884 pp. 61 -622 Presdenta
Address to Secton A. Reprnted n Popuar Lectures and Addresses
o. I. pp. 218-252 or pp. 225-229 n ater reprnt.
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475
48. N A GYR STATIC R ING M DEL THE
MAGNETIC C MPASS.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1884 pp. 625-628.
IN my communcaton to the rtsh Assocaton at Southport
I e paned se era methods for o ercomng the dffcutes whch
had rendered nugatory I bee e a pre ous attempts to rease
oucaut s beautfu dea of dsco erng wth perfect defnteness
the earth s rotatona moton by means of the gyroscope. ne of
these whch I had actuay mysef put n practce wth partay
satsfactory resuts was a
Gyrostatc aance for Measurng the ertca Component of
the Earth s Rotaton.
It conssted of one of my gyrostats supported on nfe edges
attached to ts contanng case wth ther ne perpendcuar to
the a s of the nteror fywhee and abo e the centre of gra ty
of the fywhee and framewor by an e ceedngy sma heght
when the framewor s hed wth the a s of the fywhee and the
ne of nfe edges both hor onta and the nfe edges downwards
n proper poston for performng ther functon. The apparatus
when supported on ts nfe edges wth the fywhee not spnnng
may be deat wth as the beam of an ordnary baance. Let now
the framewor bear two sma nfe edges or nfe-edged hoes
e those of the beam of an ordnary baance g ng bearng
ponts for weghts n a ne cuttng the ne of the nfe edges as
neary as possbe and of course uness there s reason to the
No report of ths communcaton has so far as I now htherto appeared n
prnt. rt. Assoc. Report 188 p. 405 g es the tte Gyrostatc Determnaton
of the North and South Lne and the Lattude of any Pace.
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
48
contrary n the shape of the framewor appro matey perpendcuar to ths ne and for con enence of puttng on and off
weghts hang as n an ordnary baance two ery ght pans by
hoo s on these edges n the usua way. Now wth the fywhee
not runnng ad ust by weghts n the pans f necessary so that
the framewor rests n e ubrum n a certan mar ed poston
wth the a s of rotaton ncned sghty to the hor onta n
order that the a s of the fywhee whether spnnng or at rest
may aways sp down so as to press on one and not on the other
of the two end pates beongng to ts two ends. Now unhoo the
pans and ta e away the gyrostat and spn t repace t on ts
nfe edges hang on the two pans and fnd the weght re ured
to baance t n the mar ed poston wth the fywhee now rotatng
rapdy. Ths weght by an ob ous formua whch was paced
before the Secton at Southport g es an accurate measure of the
ertca component of the earth s rotaton .
Gyrostatc Mode of the Dppng Neede.
I aso showed at Southport that the gyrostatc baance descrbed abo e f modfed by f ng the nfe edges wth ther
ne passng as accuratey as possbe through the centre of
gra ty of the fywhee and framewor and wth the faces of the
n es so paced that they sha perform ther functon propery
when the a s of the fywhee s parae to the earth s a s of
rotaton and the rotaton of the fywhee n the same drecton as
the earth s w act ust as does an ordnary magnetc dppng
neede but showng attude nstead of dp and dppng the
South end of the a s downwards nstead of the end that s
towards the North as does the magnetc dppng neede. Thus
f the bearng of the nfe edges be paced East and est the
gyrostat w baance wth ts a s parae to the earth s a s and
therefore dppng wth ts South end downwards n northern
attudes and ts North end downwards n southern attudes.
If dspaced from ths poston and eft to tsef t w oscate
accordng to precsey the same aw as that by whch the magnetc
neede oscates.
The formua s g a-1 T 2 oy sn I where w denotes the baancng weght
gw the force of gra ty upon t a the arm on whch ths force acts the weght
of the fywhee ts radus of gyraton o ts anguar eocty y the earth s
anguar eocty and I the attude of the pace.
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1884 GYR STATIC R ING M DEL MAGNETIC C MPASS 477
If the bearngs be turned round n a muth the poston of
e ubrum w foow the same aw as does that of a magnetc
dppng neede smary deat wth. Thus f the ne of nfe
edges be North and South the gyrostat w baance wth the
a s of the fywhee ertca and f dspaced from ths poston
w oscate st accordng to the same aw but wth drect e
coupe e ua to the sne of the attude nto the drect e coupe
e perenced when the ne of nfe edges s East and est. Thus
ths pece of apparatus g es us the means of defntey measurng
the drecton of the earth s rotaton and the anguar eocty of
the rotaton.
These e perments w I bee e be ery easy performed
athough I ha e not mysef htherto found tme to try them.
Gyrostatc Mode of a Magnetc Conmpass .
At Southport I showed that a gyrostat supported frctonessy
on a f ed ertca a s wth the a s of the fywhee hor onta
or neary so w act ust as does the magnetc compass but wth
reference to astronomca North that s to say rotatona North
nstead of magnetc North. I aso showed a method of mountng
a gyrostat so as to ea e t free to turn round a truy ertca a s
mpeded by so tte of frctona nfuence as not to pre ent the
reasaton of the dea. The method howe er promsed to be
somewhat troubesome and I ha e snce found that the ob ect of
producng a gyrostatc mode of the magnetc compass may wth
a ery remar abe dynamca modfcaton be much more smpy
attaned by merey suspendng the gyrostat by a ery ong fne
wre or e en by foatng t wth suffcent stabty on a propery
panned foater. To n estgate the theory of ths arrangement
et us frst suppose a gyrostat wth the a s of ts fywhee
hor onta to be hung by a ery fne wre attached to ts framewor at a pont as far as can con enenty be arranged for abo e
the centre of gra ty of fywhee and framewor and et the upper
end of the wre be attached to a torson head capabe of beng
turned round a f ed ertca a s as n a Couomb s torson
baance. rst for smpcty et us suppose the earth to be not
rotatng. The fywhee beng set nto rapd rotaton et the
Gyrostatc arrangements ha e been n recent tmes tred e permentay n
the rench and German na es and are now n actua use.
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478
GENERAL DYNAMICS
48
gyrostat be hung by the wre and after beng steaded as carefuy as possbe by hand et t be eft to tsef. If t be obser ed
to commence turnng a muthay n ether drecton chec ths
moton by the torson head that s to say turn the torson head
genty n a drecton opposte to the obser ed a mutha moton
unt ths moton ceases. Then do nothng to the torson head
and obser e f a re erse a mutha moton super enes. If t does
chec ths moton aso by opposng t by torson but more genty
than before. Go on unt when the torson head s eft untouched
the gyrostat remans at rest. The process gone through w ha e
been undstngushabe from what woud ha e had to be performed
f nstead of the gyrostat wth ts rotatng fywhee a rgd body
of the same weght but wth much greater moment of nerta
about the ertca a s had been n ts pace. The formua for
the augmented moment of nerta s as foows. Denote by
the whoe suspended weght of fywhee and framewor
the radus of gyraton round the ertca through the
centre of gra ty of the whoe mass regarded for a
moment as one rgd body
w the mass of the fywhee
c the radus of gyraton of the fywhee
a the dstance of the pont of attachment of the wre abo e
the centre of gra ty of fywhee and framewor
g the force of gra ty on unt mass
w the anguar eocty of the fywhee the rtua moment
of nerta round a ertca a s s
a ....................
The proof s ery easy. Here t s. Denote by
- the ange between a f ed ertca pane and the ertca
pane contanng the a s of the fywhee at any tme t
0 the ange supposed to be nfntey sma and n the pane
of p at whch the ne a s ncned to the ertca at
tme t
H the moment of the tor ue round the ertca a s e erted
by the bearng wre on the suspended fywhee and
framewor .
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1884 GYR STATIC R ING M DEL MAGNETIC C MPASS 479
y the aw of generaton of moment of momentum round an
a s perpendcuar to the a s of rotaton re uste to turn the
a s of rotaton wth an anguar eocty dp/dt we ha e
w 2 Y a ..................... 2
because g a s the moment of the coupe n the ertca pane
through the a s by whch the anguar moton do/dt n the hor onta pane s produced. Agan by the same prncpe of
generaton of moment of momentum ta en n connecton wth
the eementary prncpe of acceeraton of anguar eocty we
ha e
w 2 co d 2 d- ................... .
dt dt
Emnatng 0 between these e uatons we fnd
2 d2 H.................. 4
whch pro es that the acton of H n generatng a mutha moton
s the same as t woud be f a snge rgd body of moment of
nerta g en by the formua 1 as sad abo e were substtuted
for the gyrostat.
Now to rease the gyrostatc mode compass: arrange a
gyrostat accordng to the precedng descrpton wth a ery fne
stee bearng wre not ess than 5 or 10 metres ong the onger
the better the oftest suffcenty shetered encosure con enenty
a aabe shoud be chosen for the e perment . Proceed precsey
as abo e to brng the gyrostat to rest by ad of the torson head
attached to a beam of the roof or other con enent support sharng
the earth s actua rotaton. Suppose for a moment the ocaty of
the e perment to be ether the North or South poe the operaton
to be performed to brng the gyrostat to rest w not be dsco eraby dfferent from what t was as we frst magned t when the
earth was supposed to be not rotatng. The ony dfference w
be that when the gyrostat hangs at rest reat ey to the earth
9 w ha e a ery sma constant aue so sma that the
ncnaton of a to the ertca w be ute mperceptbe uness
a were made so e ceedngy sma that the arrangement shoud
g e the resut to dsco er whch was the ob ect of the gyrostatc
mode baance descrbed abo e that s to say to dsco er the
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480
GENERAL DYNAMICS
48
ertca component of the earth s rotaton. In reaty we ha e
made a as arge as we con enenty can and ts ncnaton to
the ertca w therefore be ery sma when the moment of the
tenson of the wre round a hor onta a s perpendcuar to the
a s of rotaton of the fywhee s ust suffcent to cause the a s
of the fywhee to turn round wth the earth.
Let now the ocaty be anywhere e cept at the North or
South poe and now nstead of brngng the gyrostat to rest at
random n any poston brng t to rest by success e tras n a
poston n whch udgng by the torson head and the poston
of the gyrostat we see that there s no torson of the wre. In
ths poston the a s of the gyrostat w be n the North and
South ne and the e ubrum beng stabe the drecton of
rotaton of the fywhee must be the same as that of the component rotaton of the earth round the North and South hor onta
ne uness whch s a case to be a oded n practce the torsona
rgdty of the wre s so great as to con ert nto stabty the
nstabty whch wth ero torsona rgdty the rotatona
nfuence woud produce n respect to the e ubrum of the
gyrostat wth ts a s re ersed from the poston of gyrostatc
stabty. It may be remar ed howe er that e en though the
torsona rgdty were so great that there were two stabe
postons wth no twst the poston of gyrostatc unstabe e ubrum made stabe by torson woud not be that arr ed at: the
poston of stabe gyrostatc e ubrum rendered more stabe by
torson woud be the poston arr ed at by the natura process
of turnng the torson head aways n the drecton of fndng by
tra a poston of stabe e ubrum wth the wre untwsted by
manpuaton of the torson head.
Now by manpuatng the torson head brng the gyrostat nto
e ubrum wth ts a s ncned at any ange b to that poston
n whch the bearng wre s untwsted t w be found that the
tor ue re ured to baance t n any ob ue poston w be
proportona to sn b.
The chef dffcuty n reasng ths descrpton resuts from
the great augmentaton of rtua moment of nerta represented
by the formua 1 abo e. The paper at present communcated
to the secton contans cacuatons on ths sub ect whch throw
ght on many of the practca dffcutes htherto fet n any
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1884 GYR STATIC R ING M DEL MAGNETIC C MPASS 481
method of carryng out gyrostatc n estgaton of the earth s
rotaton and whch ha e ed the author to fa bac upon the
method descrbed by hm at Southport of whch the essenta
characterstc s to constran the frame of the gyrostat n such a
manner as to ea e t ust one degree of freedom to mo e. The
paper concudes wth the descrpton of a smpfed manner of
reasng ths condton for a gyrostatc compass-that s to say
a gyrostat free to mo e n a pane ether rgorousy or ery
appro matey hor onta.
. I .
1
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482
49
49. GYR STATIC E PERIMENTS.
rom Proceedngs of the efast Natura Hstory and Phosophca
Socety Apr 16 1889 pp. 89-91 Abstract . ...THERE are howe er other probems connected wth gyrostatcs whch are far more dffcut to so e. The ecturer ne t
ustrated the rotatory stabty of dfferent forms of gyrostats
ncudng proate obate and ordnary dsc and gmba-formed.
He aso ga e an amusng souton of Coumbus s probem how to
ma e an egg stand on end. If the egg s hard-boed t s
practcabe to spn t on end e a top whereas the scous fud
n the raw egg pre ents ts beng treated n a smar manner.
He bee ed f we are e er to so e the dffcut probem of
the eastcty of matter t w be by the ad of the phenomena of
rotaton. Acceptng the unduatory theory of ght we sha see
that araday s brant dsco ery demonstrates the gyrostatc
nfuence there. Nothng but the nfuence due to rotaton coud
produce the effect whch as araday dsco ered s produced by
the magnet upon ght passng through gass between the poes of
the magnet. Some years ago we were a tryng to fnd some nd
of assocaton between the bratons of ght and eectrcty and
a brant suggeston made by Professor t Gerad whom he was
ery peased to see present four years ago at Southport ga e the
ey to the souton of the ueston. He suggested the empoyment
of eectrc brators and that suggeston had been reased n
Hert s spendd wor wthn the past year and the gap whch we
so desred to f had been fed. It s amost mpossbe to go a
step n the study of physcs and dynamcs wthout the ad of
gyrostatcs and that s the reason the ecturer s nterested n
them-not merey because the phenomena they present are curous
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GYR STATIC E PERIMENTS
48
and nterestng n themse es. ut n studyng and reconcng
the aws of ght the aws of magnetsm the aws of eectrcty
and the aws of the eastcty of matter gyrostatcs pay an undoubtedy mportant part.
Sr am concuded wth a number of e perments tendng
to show the effect of gyrostatc domnaton n g ng stabty
where nstabty e sts etc. ne of the most nterestng e ampes
was the propuson of smo e wreaths or rngs demonstratng the
power of rotatory moton on so decate a medum. Another
curous effect obtaned was the mpartng of stabty to water by
means of rapd rotatory moton. In concuson he sad that
athough the theory of whch he had endea oured to g e some
e panaton s by no means compete yet t w doubtess n tme
be rendered so and meanwhe anythng that tends to ad ance
e en a step towards the desred end s worthy of our attenton.
1-2
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484
50
50. N S ME TEST CASES R THE MA ELL- LT MANN
D CTRINE REGARDING DISTRI TI N ENERGY .
rom Roy. Soc. Proc. o. L. une 11 1891 pp. 79-88 Nature
o. LI . pp. 55- 58.
1. MA ELL n hs artce Ph. Mag. 1860 n the
Coson of Eastc Spheres enuncates a ery remar abe
theorem of prmary mportance n the netc theory of gases
to the effect that n an assembage of arge numbers of mutuay
codng spheres of two or of se era dfferent magntudes the
mean netc energy s the same for e ua numbers of the spheres
rrespect ey of ther masses and dameters or n other words
the tme-a erages of the s uares of the eoctes of nd dua
spheres are n ersey as ther masses. The mathematca n estgaton g en as a proof of ths theorem n that frst artce on the
sub ect s ute unsatsfactory but the mere enuncaton of t
e en f wthout proof was a ery auabe contrbuton to scence.
In a subse uent paper Dynamca Theory of Gases Ph. Trans.
for May 1866 Ma we fnds n hs e uaton 4 Coected or s
p. 47 as a resut of a thorough mathematca n estgaton the
same theorem e tended to ncude cosons between osco ch
ponts wth mutua forces accordng to any aw of dstance pro ded ony that not more than two ponts are n coson that s
to say wthn the dstances of ther mutua nfuence smu In a dscusson ensung.on ths paper the poston of ot mann and Ma we was supported among others by Lord Rayegh Ph. Mag. o. II. 1892
pp. 56-9 Scentfc Papers o. II. pp. 554-7 cf. aso Ph. Mag. o. LI .
1900 pp. 98-118 Scentfc Papers o. . pp. 4 -451. The sub ect s dscussed
and argey ampfed by Lord e n n the second part of the Roya Insttuton
Lecture Nneteenth Century Couds o er the Dynamca Theory of Lght and
Heat as e panded ebruary 2 1901 reprnted as Append of atmore
Lectures cf. pp. 49 -527.
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1891 MA ELL- LT MANN PARTITI N ENERGY
485
taneousy. Tat confrms Ma we s orgna theorem for codng
spheres of dfferent magntudes n an nterestng and mportant
e amnaton of the sub ect n 19 20 21 of hs paper n the
oundatons of the netc Theory of Gases Trans. R. S. E. for
May 1866 .
2. ot mann n hs Studen tber das Gechgewcht der
ebendgen raft wschen bewegten matereen Pun ten St b.
. A ad. en ctober 8 1868 enuncated a arge e tenson of
ths theorem and Ma we a st wder generasaton n hs paper
n ot mann s Theorem on the A erage Dstrbuton of Energy
n a System of Matera Ponts Cambrdge Ph. Soc. Trans.
May 6 1878 repubshed n o. II. of Ma we s Scentfc Papers
pp. 71 -741 to the foowng effect p. 716 : In the utmate state of the system the a erage netc
energy of two g en portons of the system must be n the rato of
the number of degrees of freedom of those portons.
Much dsbeef and doubt has been fet as to the compete
truth or the e tent of cases for whch there s truth of ths
proposton.
. or a test case dfferng as tte as possbe from Ma we s
orgna case of sod eastc spheres consder a hoow spherca
she and a sod sphere-gobue we sha ca t for bre tywthn the she. I must frst dgress to remar that what has
htherto by Ma we and Causus and others before and after
them been caed for bre ty an eastc sphere s not an eastc
sod capabe of rotaton and of eastc deformaton and therefore
capabe of an nfnte number of modes of steady braton nto
whch of fner and fner degrees of noda sub-d son and shorter
and shorter perods a transatona energy woud f the ot mannMa we generased proposton were true be utmatey transformed by cosons. The smooth eastc spheres are reay
osco ch pont-atoms wth ther transatona nerta and wth
for aw of force ero force at e ery dstance between two ponts
e ceedng the sum of the rad of the two bas and nfnte
repuson at e acty ths dstance. e may use osco ch smary for the hoow she wth gobue n ts nteror and so do
away wth a ueston as to bratons due to eastcty of matera
whether of the she or of the gobue. Let us smpy suppose the
mutua acton between the she and the gobue to be nothng
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486
GENERAL DYNAMICS
50
e cept at an nstant of coson and then to be such that ther
reat e component eocty aong the radus through the pont of
contact s re ersed by the coson whe the moton of ther
centre of nerta remans unchanged.
4. or bre ty we sha ca the she and nteror gobue of
a doube moecue or sometmes for more bre ty a doubet.
The smooth eastc sphere of w be caed smpy an atom
or a snge atom and the radus or dameter or surface of the
atom w mean the radus or dameter or surface of the correspondng sphere. Ths e panaton s necessary to a od an
ambguty whch mght occur wth reference to the common
e presson sphere of acton of a osco ch atom.
5. Consder now a ast number of atoms and doubets
encosed n a perfecty rgd f ed surface ha ng the property
of re ersng the norma component eocty of approach of any
atom or she or doubet at the nstant of contact of surfaces
whe ea ng unchanged the absoute eocty of the centre of
nerta of the two. Let any eocty or eoctes n any drecton
or drectons be g en to any one or more of the atoms or of the
shes or gobues consttutng the doubets. Accordng to the
ot mann-Ma we doctrne the moton w become dstrbuted
through the system so that utmatey the tme-a erage netc
energy of each atom each she and each gobue sha be e ua
and therefore that of each doubet doube that of each atom.
Ths s certany a ery mar eous concuson but I see no reason
to doubt t on that account. After a t s not ob ousy more
mar eous than the seemngy we pro ed concuson that n a
m ed assembage of codng snge atoms some of whch ha e a
mon mon tmes the mass of others the smaer masses w
utmatey a erage a mon tmes the eocty of the arger. ut
t s not ncuded n Ma we s proof for snge atoms of dfferent
masses 4 of hs Dynamca Theory of Gases referred to
abo e and the condton that the gobues encosed n the shes
are pre ented by the shes from cosons wth one another
oates Tat s condton C of 18 of oundatons of . T.
Gases that there s perfecty free access for coson between
each par of partces whether of the same or of dfferent systems.
An ndependent n estgaton of such a smpe and defnte case
as that of the atoms and doubets defned n -5 s desrabe
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MA ELL- LT MANN PARTITI N ENERGY
487
as a test or woud be nterestng as an ustraton were test not
needed for the e ceedngy wde generasaton set forth n the
ot mann-Ma we doctrne.
6. Ne t nstead of ony a snge gobue wthn the she of
4 et there be a ast number. To f deas et the mass of the
she be e ua to a hundred tmes the sum of the masses of the
gobues and et the number of the gobues be a hundred mon
mon. Let two such shes be connected by a push-and-pu
massess sprng. Let a be g en at rest wth the sprng
stretched to any e tent and then eft free. Accordng to the
ot mann-Ma we doctrne the moton produced ntay by
the sprng w become dstrbuted through the system so that
utmatey the sum of the netc energes of the gobues wthn
each she w be a hundred mon mon tmes the a erage
netc energy of the she. The a erage eocty of the she
w utmatey be a hundred-month of the a erage eocty of
the gobues. A correspondng proposton n the netc theory
of gases s that f two rgd shes each weghng 1 gram and
contanng a centgram of monatomc gas be attached to the two
prongs of a massess perfecty eastc tunng for and set to
brate the gas w become heated n rtue of ts scous resstance to the braton e cted n t by the braton of the she
unt neary a the nta energy of the tunng for s thus spent.
7. Gong bac to the doube moecues of 5 suppose the
nterna gobue to be so connected by massess sprngs wth the
she that the gobue s urged towards the centre of the she wth
a force smpy proportona to the dstance between the centres of the
two. Ths arrangement whch I ga e n my atmore Lectures
n 1884 as an ustraton for bratory moecues embedded n
ether woud be e u aent to two masses connected by a massess
sprng f we had ony motons n one ne to consder but t has
the ad antage of beng perfecty sotropc and g ng for a
motons parae to any f ed ne e acty the same resut as f
there were no moton perpendcuar to t. hen a par of masses
connected by a sprng str e a f ed obstace or a mo abe body
wth the ne of ther centres not e acty perpendcuar to the
The a erage eocty of a partce rrespect ey of drecton s n the
netc theory of gases a con enent e presson for the s uare root of the tmes
a erage of the s uare of ts eocty.
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
50
tangent pane of contact t s caused to rotate. No such compcaton affects our sotropc doubet. An assembage of such
doubets beng g en mo ng about wthn a rgd encosng
surface w the utmate statstcs be for each doubet e ua
a erage netc energes of moton of centre of nerta and of
reat e moton of the two consttuents
8. If we try to answer ths ueston synthetcay we fnd a
compe and troubesome probem n the detas of a but the
ery smpest case of coson whch can occur whch s drect
coson between two not pre ousy bratng doubets or any
coson of one not pre ousy bratng doubet aganst a f ed
pane. In ths case f the masses of gobue and she are e ua
a compete coson conssts of two mpacts at an nter a of tme
e ua to haf the perod of free braton of the doubet and after
the second mpact there s separaton wthout braton ust as f
we had had snge spheres nstead of the doubets. ut n ob ue
coson between two not pre ousy bratng doubets e en f
the masses of she and gobue are e ua we ha e a somewhat
troubesome probem to fnd the nter a between the two mpacts
Ths mpes e ua a erage netc energes of the two consttuents and con ersey e ua a erage netc energes of the two consttuents e cept n the case of
ther masses beng e ua mpes the e uaty stated n the te t. Let u u be absoute component eoctes of two masses m m perpendcuar to a f ed pane
the correspondng component eocty of ther centre of nerta and r that of
ther mutua reat e moton. e ha e
u - u -................... 1 - t I..............
Lh c - mm 2 4mm
whence 71mu2 - 1 2 - n. r................ 2
Now suppose the tme-a erage of r to be ero. In e ery case n whch ths s
so we ha e by 2
Tme-a . m7u2 - m u 2 n- m Tme-a . 2 - m ...... .
Hence n any case n whch
Tme-a . m 2 Tme-a . m u 2........................... 4
we ha e m-m Tme-a . 2 I f 0..................... 5
and therefore e cept when m1 we must ha e
Tme-a . m m 2 Tme-a . ..................... 6
whch pro es the proposton because as we ready see from 1 tmme 2/ m m
s n e ery case the netc energy of the reat e motons u - and - u .
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1891 MA ELL- LT MANN PARTITI N ENERGY
489
when there are two and to fnd the fna resutng braton. hen
the component reat e moton parae to the tangent pane of the
frst mpact e ceeds a certan aue dependng on the radus of
the outer surface of the she the perod of free braton of the
doubets and the reat e eocty of approach there s no second
mpact and the doubets separate wth no reat e eocty perpendcuar to the tangent pane but each wth the energy of that
component of ts pre ous moton con erted nto bratona energy.
hen the mass of the she s much smaer than the mass of the
nteror gobue amost e ery coson w consst of a arge
number of mpacts. It seems e ceedngy dffcut to fnd how to
cacuate true statstcs of these chatterng cosons and arr e at
sound concusons as to the utmate dstrbuton of energy n any
of the ery smpest cases other than Ma we s orgna case of
1860 but f the ot mann-Ma we generased doctrne s true
we ought to be abe to see ts truth as essenta wth speca
cearness n the smpest cases e en wthout gong through the
fu probem presented by the detas. I can fnd nothng n
Ma we s atest artce on the sub ect Camb. Ph. Trans. May 6
1878 or n any of hs pre ous papers pro ng an affrmat e
answer to the ueston of 7.
9. Gong bac to 6 et the gobues be ntay dstrbuted
as neary as may be homogeneousy through the hoow et each
gobue be connected wth neghbours by massess sprngs and et
a the gobues whch are near the nner surface of the she be
connected wth t aso by massess sprngs. r et any number of
smaer shes be encosed wthn our outer she and connected by
massess sprngs as represented by the accompanyng dagram
ta en from a reprnt of my atmore Lectures now n progress.
Let two such outer shes g en at rest wth ther systems of
gobues n e ubrum wthn them be connected by massess
sprngs and be started n moton as were the shes of 6. There
w not now be the great oss of energy from
the braton of the shes whch there was n
6. n the contrary the utmate a erage
netc energy of the whoe two hundred
mon mon gobues w be certany sma
n comparson wth the utmate a erage netc energy of the snge she. It may be
because each gobue of 6 s free to wander that the energy
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
50
s ost from the she n that case and dstrbuted among them.
There s nothng ague n ther moton aowng them to ta e
more and more energy now when they are connected by the
massess sprngs. If we suppose the motons nfntesma or f
whate er ther ranges may be a forces are n smpe proporton to dspacements the eementary dynamca theorem of
fundamenta modes shows how to fnd determnatey each of
the 600 mon mon and s smpe harmonc bratons of
whch the moton resutng from the prescrbed nta crcumstances s consttuted. It tes us that the sum of the potenta
and netc energes of each mode remans aways of constant
aue and that the tme-a erage of the changng netc energy
durng ts perod s haf of ths constant aue. thout fuy
so ng the probem for the 600 mon mon and s coordnates t s easy to see that the gra est fundamenta mode of
the moton actuay produced n the prescrbed crcumstances
dffers but tte n perod and energy from the snge smpe
harmonc braton whch the two shes woud ta e f the gobues
were rgdy connected to them or were remo ed from wthn
them and the other nta crcumstances were those of 6. ut
ths concuson depends on the forces beng rgorousy n smpe
proporton to dspacements.
10. In no rea case coud they be so and f there s any
de aton from the smpe proportonaty of force to dspacement
the ndependent superposton of motons does not hod good.
e ha e st a theorem of fundamenta modes athough so far
as I now ths theory has not yet been n estgated -. or any
stabe system mo ng wth a g en sum E of potenta and
netc energes there must n genera be at east as many
fundamenta modes of rgorousy perodc moton as there are
freedoms or ndependent arabes . ut the confguraton of
each fundamenta mode s now not generay smar: for dfferent
aues of E and superposton of dfferent.fundamenta modes
whether wth the same or wth dfferent aues of E has now no
meanng. It seems to me probabe that e ery fundamenta mode
Sectons 10 to 17 added uy 10 1891.
Cf. howe er Poncare Mecan ue C6eeste or as uoted nfra p. 511.
It s smar for adynamc cases that s to say cases n whch there s no
potenta energy as for e ampe a partce constraned to reman on a surface and
mo ng aong a geodetc ne under the nfuence of no apped force.
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1891
MA ELL- LT MANN PARTITI N ENERGY
491
s essentay unstabe. It s so f Ma we s fundamenta
assumpton that the system f eft to tsef n. ts actua state
of moton w sooner or ater pass through e ery phase whch
s consstent wth the e uaton of energy s true. It seems to
me ute probabe that ths assumpton s true pro ded the
actua state of moton s not e acty as to poston and eocty
a confguraton of some one of the fundamenta modes of rgorousy
perodc moton and pro ded aso that the system has not any
e ceptona character such as those ndcated by Ma we for
cases n whch he warnst us that hs assumpton does not hod
good.
11. ut concedng Ma we s fundamenta assumpton I do
not see n the mathematca wor ngs of hs paper any proof of
hs concuson that the a erage netc energy correspondng to
any one of the arabes s the same for e ery one of the arabes
of the system. Indeed as a genera proposton ts meanng s
not e paned and seems to me ne pcabe. The reducton of
the netc energy to a sum of s uares ea es the se era parts
of the whoe wth no correspondence to any defned or defnabe
set of ndependent arabes. hat for e ampe can the meanng
of the concuson Ibe for the case of a onted penduum a system
of two rgd bodes one supported on a f ed hor onta a s and
the other on a parae a s f ed reat ey to the frst body
and both acted on ony by gra ty . The concuson s ute
ntegbe howe er but s t true when the netc energy
s e pressbe as a sum of s uares of rates of change of snge
co-ordnates each mutped by a functon of a or of some of
the co-ordnates. Consder for e ampe the st easer case of
these coeffcents constant.
12. Consder more partcuary the easest case of a moton
of a snge partce n a pane that s the case of ust two
ndependent arabes say y and netc energy e ua to
2 t2 y2 . The e uatons of moton are
d2 d d2y d
dt2- d dt2 dy
where s the potenta energy whch may be any functon of
Scentfc Papers o. II. p. 714. Ibd. pp. 714 715.
Ibd. pp. 716-726. Ibd. p. 722.
11 r of Ma we s b n p. 72 .
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492
GENERAL DYNAMICS
50
y sub ect ony to the condton re ured for stabty that t
s essentay post e ts east aue beng for bre ty ta en as
ero . It s easy pro ed that wth any g en aue E for the
sum of netc and potenta energes there are two determnate
modes of perodc moton that s to say there are two fnte
cosed cur es such that f m be pro ected from any pont of ether
wth eocty e ua to / 2 E - n the drecton etherwards
of the tangent to the cur e ts path w be e acty that cur e.
In a ery speca cass of cases there are ony two such perodc
motons but t s ob ous that there are more than two n other
cases.
1 . Ta e for e ampe
a 2 1f2y2 c 2y2 .
or a aues of E we ha e
a cos at - e
y 0 ad y b cos t-f
as two fundamenta modes. hen E s nfntey sma we ha e
ony these two but for any fnte aue of E we ha e ceary an
nfnte number of fundamenta modes and e ery mode dffers
nfntey tte from beng a fundamenta mode. To see ths et
m be pro ected from any pont N n n a drecton perpendcuar to wth a eocty e ua to / 2E- a2 N2 . After a
suffcenty great number of crossngs and re-crossngs across the
ne the partce w cross ths ne ery neary at rght
anges at some pont N . ary the poston of N ery sghty
n one drecton or other and re-pro ect m from t perpendcuary
and wth proper eocty t by proper tra and error method
a path s found whch after st the same number of crossngs
and re-crossngs crosses e acty at rght anges at a pont N
ery near the pont N . Let m contnue ts ourney aong ths
path and after ust as many more crossngs and re-crossngs t
w return e acty to N and cross there e acty at rght
anges. Thus the path from N to N s e acty haf an orbt
and from N to N the remanng haf.
14. hen cE/ a2cf2 s a sma numerc the part of the
potenta energy e pressed by _c 2y2 s ery sma n comparson
wth the tota energy E. Hence the path s at e ery tme ery
neary the resutant of the two prmary fundamenta notes formu
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1891 MA ELL- LT MANN PARTITI N ENERGY
49
ated n 1 and an nterestng probem s presented to fnd
by the method of the araton of parameters a e b f sowy
aryng functons of t such that
a sn at-e y-b sn /t-f
aa cos at -e y b/ cos t -f
sha be the rgorous souton or a practca appro maton to t.
Carefu consderaton of possbtes n respect to ths case
cE/ a2 2 ery sma seems thoroughy to confrm Ma we s
fundamenta assumpton uoted n 10 and that t s correct
whether cE/ a2I82 be sma or arge seems e ceedngy probabe
or ute certan.
15. ut t seems aso probabe that Ma we s concuson whch
for the case of a matera pont mo ng n a pane s
Tme-a . 2 Tme-a . y2................. 1
s not true when a2 dffers from 2. It s certany not pro ed.
No dynamca prncpe e cept the e uaton of energy
y E- .................... 2
s brought nto the mathematca wor of pp. 722-725 whch s
g en by Ma we as proof for t. Hence any arbtrary drawn
cur e mght be assumed for the path wthout oatng the
dynamcs whch enters nto Ma we s n estgaton and we may
draw cur es for the path such as to satsfy 1 and cur es not
satsfyng 1 but a tra ersng the whoe space wthn the
boundng cur e
1 . 22 y2 C2 c2 y2 E..................
and a satsfyng Ma we s fundamenta assumpton 10 .
16. The meanng of the ueston s ustrated by reducng t
to a purey geometrca ueston regardng the path thus:cang 0 the ncnaton to of the tangent to the path at any
pont y and the eocty n the path we ha e
cos 0 y sn 0................. 4
and therefore by 2 2 E- ........................ 5 .
Hence f we ca s the tota ength of cur e tra eed
f amp ddt f cos2 dt fS 2 E- cos2 ds...... 6
and the ueston of 15 becomes Is or s not
Sf ds 2 E- cos2 0 S ds 2 E- sn2 0 . 7
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
50
where S denotes so great a ength of path that t has passed
a great number of tmes ery near to e ery pont wthn the
boundary ery neary n e ery drecton.
17. Consder now separatey the parts of the two members
of 7 der ed from portons of the path whch cross an nfntesma
area do ha ng ts centre at y . They are respect ey
/ 2 E - da- Nd0 cos2 0 and 2 E- do- Nd0 sn2......... 8
where Nd denotes the number of portons of the path per unt
dstance n the drecton ncned T 7 0 to whch pass etherwards across the area n drectons ncned to at anges between
the aues 0- d0 and 0 2d0. The most genera possbe e presson
for N s accordng to ourer
N A0 A cos 20 A cos 40 amp c.
1 sn 20 2 sn 40 amp c.
Hence the two members of 8 become respect ey 2/2 E - d 7 - r Ao A1 and 2 E- do 1r A0- A1 ......... 10 .
Remar ng that A0 and A1 are functons of y and ta ng
do d dy we fnd from 10 for the two totas of 7 respect ey
7r ffd dy Ao A1 2 E- t. 1
and - ffd dy Ao- A1 / 2 E-
where ffd dy denotes ntegraton o er the whoe space encosed
by . These uanttes are e ua f and ony f ffd dyA
anshes t does so ceary f a / but t seems mprobabe
that e cept when a / t can ansh generay and uness t
does so our present test case woud dspro e the ot mannMa we genera doctrne.
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1892
495
51. N A DECISI E TEST-CASE DISPR ING THE MA ELL LT MANN D CTRINE REGARDING DISTRI TI N INETIC
ENERGY.
rom Roy Soc. Proc. o. LI. Apr 28 1892 pp. 97- 99 Ph. Mag.
o. III. pp. 466 467.
THE doctrne referred to s that stated by Ma we n hs
paper n the A erage Dstrbuton of Energy n a System of
Matera Ponts Camb. Ph. Soc. Trans. May 6 1878 repubshed n o. II. of Ma we s Scentfc Papers n the foowng
words: In the utmate state of the system the a erage netc
energy of two g en portons of the system must be n the rato
of the number of degrees of freedom of those portons.
Let the system consst of three bodes A C a mo abe
ony n one straght ne HL: beng a smpe brator controed by a sprng so stff that when at any tme t has ery
neary the whoe energy of the system ts e treme e cursons on
each sde of ts poston of e ubrum are sma: C and A e ua
masses: C unacted on by force e cept when t str es L a f ed
barrer and when t str es or s struc by : A unacted on by
force e cept when t str es or s struc by and when t s at
ess than a certan dstance H from a f ed repeent barrer
repeng wth a force aryng accordng to any aw or
constant when A s between and H but becomng nfntey
great when f at any tme A reaches and goes nfntesmay
beyond t.
The adty of the re onders made by ot mann Poncare and Rayegh
s admtted n atmore Lectures oc. ct. supra p. 504.
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
51
Suppose now A C to be a mo ng to and fro. The
cosons between and the e ua bodes A and C on ts two
sdes must e uase and eep e ua the a erage netc energy
of A mmedatey before and after these cosons to the a erage netc energy of C.
Hence when the tmes of A beng n the space
between H and are ncuded n the a erage
the a erage of the sum of the potenta and
netc energes of A s e ua to the a erage
netc energy of C. ut the potenta energy
of A at e ery pont n the space H s post e A
because accordng to our supposton the eocty
of A s dmnshed durng e ery tme of ts -- H
moton from H towards and ncreased to the
same aue agan durng moton from to H.
Hence the a erage netc energy of A s ess
than the a erage netc energy of C

Ths s a test-case of a perfecty representat e nd for the theory of temperature

and t effectuay dsposes of the assumpton
that the temperature of a sod or ud s
e ua to ts a erage netc energy per atom
whch Ma we ponted out as a conse uence
of the supposed theorem and whch bee ed
to be thus estabshed has been argey taught
and faacousy used as a fundamenta proposton n thermodynamcs.
It s n truth ony for an appro matey
perfect gas that s to say an assembage of
moecues n whch each moecue mo es for
comparat ey ong tmes n nes ery appro - L
matey straght and e perences changes of
eocty and drecton n comparat ey ery short tmes of
coson and t s ony for the netc energy of the transatory
motons of the perfect gas that the temperature s e ua to the
a erage netc energy per moecue as frst assumed by aterston
and afterwards by oue and frst pro ed by Ma we.
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497
52. N PERI DIC M TI N A INITE C NSER ATI E
SYSTEM.
rom Phosophca Maga ne o. II. ctober 1891 pp. 75- 8
December 1891 pp. 555-560.
1. IN a recent communcaton to the Roya Socety I suggested an e tenson to stabe systems n genera of the we- nown
theory of fundamenta modes for systems n whch the potenta
energy s a uadratc functon of coordnates and the netc energy
a uadratc functon of eoctes each wth constant coeffcents.
Ths e tenson s the sub ect of the present communcaton to the
rtsh Assocatont.
2. In ts tte fnte means that the number of freedoms
s fnte and that the dstance between no two ponts of the
system can ncrease wthout mt. Conser at e means that
the netc energy s aways atered by the same dfference when
the system passes from ether to the other of any two confguratons whate er be the amount g en to t when the system s
pro ected from any confguraton and eft to mo e off undsturbed.
y path of a system we sha understand n genera ed
dynamcs the successon of confguratons through whch the
system passes n any actua moton: or the group of snge nes
consttutng the paths tra ersed by a ponts of the system. y
an orbt we sha understand a crcuta path or a path of
whch e ery consttuent ne s a compete crcut and a mo ng
ponts are aways at correspondng ponts of ther crcuts at the
same tme.
. It w be con enent though not necessary to occasonay
use the e presson potenta energy of the system n any confguraton. hen used at a t sha mean the dfference by
Proceedngs une 1891 supra p. 490 .
1-10 and 17-22 ha ng been read before Secton A of the rtsh
Assocaton at ts recent meetng n Cardff.
. I . 2
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
52
whch the netc energy s dmnshed when the system passes
to the confguraton consdered from a confguraton or the confguraton such that passage to any other permtted confguraton
n o es dmnuton of the netc energy. y tota energy of
the system n any condton w be meant the sum of ts netc
and potenta energes.
4. Theorem of perodc moton. or e ery g en aue E
of the tota energy there s a fuy determnate orbt such that
f the system be set n moton aong t at any confguraton
of t wth the g en tota energy E t w crcuate perodcay
n t.
5. To pro e ths theorem suppose the number of freedoms
to be . Any confguraton s fuy specfed by g en aues
for the coordnates respect ey. Suppose now the system to pass
through some confguraton at two tmes separated by an
nter a T and to ha e the same eoctes and drectons of
moton at those tmes. The path thus tra eed n ths nter a:s an orbt and t s perodcay tra eed o er n success e
nter as each e ua to T. To fnd how to procure fufment of
our supposton et the system be started from any confguraton
wth any aues for the eocty-components or rates of
araton per unt-tme of the coordnates . To cause t to
return to after some un nown tme T we ha e - 1 e uatons
to be satsfed: and to cause -1 of ts eocty-components to
ha e the same aues at the second as at the frst passage through
we ha e - 1 e uatons to satsfy and n rtue of the e uaton
of energy the remanng eocty-component aso must ha e the
same aue at the two tmes. That the tota energy may ha e
the prescrbed aue E we ha e another e uaton. Thus we
ha e n a 2 - 1 e uatons among coordnates and eoctycomponents. Emnate among these the eocty-components
and there reman - 1 e uatons among the coordnates whch
are the condtons necessary and suffcent to secure that s a
confguraton of an orbt of tota energy E. eng - 1 e uatons
among coordnates they ea e ony one freedom that s to say
they fuy determne one path of whch n the anguage of
genera ed anaytca geometry they are the e uatons. The or
any path so determned s an orbt of tota energy E. Thus s
pro ed the Theorem of 4.
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PERI DIC M TI N A INITE SYSTEM
499
6. The souton of the determnate probem of fndng an
orbt whose tota energy has the prescrbed aue E s n genera
nfntey mutpe wth dfferent perods for the nfnte number
of dfferent orbts determned by t.
7. A smpe ustraton wth ony two freedoms w hep
to the fu understandng of 6 for e ery case of any number
of arabes. Consder a onted doube penduum consstng of
two rgd bodes A and : one A supported on a f ed hor onta a s I the other supported on a parae a s f ed
reat ey to A: and for smpcty et G the centre of gra ty of
A be n the pane of the two a es. Ca H the centre of gra ty
of . Let b be the ange between the pane I and the ertca
pane through I whch we sha ca I and et r be the ange
between the pane H and the ertca. The coordnates and
eoctes of the system n any condton of moton are p cb .
The potenta energy of the system n netc unts w be g
where denotes the sum of the masses and the heght of ther
centre of gra ty n any confguraton of the system abo e ts
owest. Suppose now A to be paced n any partcuar poston
p0 and et t be re ured to fnd what must be the poston
r0 of and wth what eoctes 40 40 we must start A and
n moton so that the frst tme 9p has agan the same aue d0
that s to say when A has made one compete turn n ether
drecton the system sha be whoy n the same poston 0 0
and mo ng wth the same eocty 0o 0 n the same drecton
understood as at the begnnng. Ths mpes ony two e uatons
- and ether f r 0 or t co because ether of these
mpes the other n rtue of the e uaton of energy . And we
ha e ust two dsposabes 0 and ether f0 or 0o the g en tota
energy E determnng ether 40 or 0o when the other s nown .
The souton of ths determnate probem s ceary possbe uness
E s too sma: but t s not generay un ue. e may ha e
soutons wth the eoctes of A and started each n the
post e drecton or each negat e or one negat e and the other
post e. If A s a fywhee of ery great moment of nerta and
a comparat ey sma penduum hung on a cran -pn attached
to t and f for smpcty we suppose the cran to be counterposed so that the centre of gra ty of A s n ts a s t s cear
that accordng to the greater or ess aue g en for E may
turn round and round many tmes before A comes agan to ts
2-2
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
52
prmt e poston 0o. ut t s cear that though not generay
un ue our probem of fndng perodc moton wth ust one
compete turn of A n ts perod has no rea souton uness E s
arge enough has many soutons for arge enough aues of E
but has not an nfnte number of soutons for any fnte aue
of E.
8. Agan et the condton be that not the frst tme but
the second tme A passes through ts nta poston both coordnates and both eoctes ha e ther prmt e aues. hen
the g en aue of the tota energy s not too great the perodc
moton whch we now ha e w be purey bratory and the
souton ceary dupe . ut f E be great enough A may st
merey brate whe may go round and round frst n one
drecton and then n the other wthn the perod of A s braton.
If the condton be that not at the frst and not at the second
but at the thrd transt of A across ts nta poston both coordnates and both eoctes ha e ther prmt e aues we may
wth suffcenty great tota energy ha e st wder acrobatc
performances both bodes gong round and round sometmes n
one drecton and sometmes n the other. St wth any fnte
aue for E there s ony a fnte number of modes for the moton
sub ect to the condton that the thrd transt of A through ts
nta poston competes the frst perod. der and wder
agares we ha e to thn of f the frst perod s competed at
the fourth transt of A and so on.
9. Ths terrbe ran ensten of a probem s a n o ed
n a ery smpe mathematca statement not ncudng any
decaraton that t s the frst or the second or the thrd or
other specfed transt of A that competes the frst perod. It w
probaby be con enent to arrange so as to fnd a transcendenta
e uaton whch w ha e an nfnte number of fnte groups of
roots e ua to the perods of the modes of the perodc motons.
10. The case of no gra ty presents a asty smper probem
of whch the man souton has no doubt been many tmes found
n terms of eptc functons n the Cambrdge Senate-house and
Smth s Pr e e amnatons. The character of the souton of
ths as of a adynamc probems s ndependent of the absoute
aue of the g en energy and of 0o. It depends ony on the
aue of the rato o0/4o whch of course may be ether post e
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PERI DIC M TI N A INITE SYSTEM
501
or negat e. In the genera souton f - s ceary a perodc
functon of the tme and our ueston of perodcty reat ey
to a f ed pane through I reso es tsef nto ths:-Durng the
perod of the araton of f - b s the change of ether ero or
a numerc commensurabe wth 27r A correspondng ueston
occurs for e ery case n whch our system s free n space
wthout any f ed gudes and wth no dsturbng force from other
bodes as for e ampe n the ueston of rgorous perodcty
of the moton of three bodes such as the earth moon and sun
or of any fnte number of mutuay attractng bodes such as the
soar system to be consdered presenty.
11. An dea ed ordnary coc wth weght and penduum
and dead-beat escapement affords an nterestng ustraton. or
smpcty et the cord be perfecty fe be and ne tensbe et
the cord-drum be rgdy f ed on the shaft of the escapementwhee et the escapement be rgdy f ed to the penduum
and et the penduum be a rgd body on perfect nfe-edge
bearngs. Thus we ha e rtuay two bodes each wth one
freedom: A the escapement-whee cord and weght the
escapement and penduum. Each mpact of tooth on escapement
s n e ery coc and watch foowed by a mutua reco. Ths
reco probaby n amost a practca cases goes so far as to
produce compete separaton foowed by se era more mpacts
and recos before the tooth escapes and the correspondng ne t
tooth fas on the other sde of the escapement. ut there s a
oss of energy by mpacts and sppng both on the non-wor ng
and on the wor ng faces of the escapement. The oss on the
wor ng faces coud be dspensed wth: but the oss on the nonwor ng faces s essenta to the gong of the coc . In our
dea ed coc we suppose each reco to e acty re erse the
reat e moton of tooth and escapement n the drecton perpendcuar to the common tangent pane of the two surfaces at ther
pont of mpact and we suppose the surfaces to be perfecty
frctoness so that the nfntey great mutua force at the nstant
of each mpact s e acty n that drecton. The umpng acton
thus produced woud eep stoppng the coc and ettng t go on
agan: and woud uttery pre ent any reguarty of gong. Therefore I add the foowng arrangement of energy-rece ers to annu
the shoc s on the non-wor ng faces of the escapement:-Proong
the shaft of the escapement-whee and f on t n heca order
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502 GENERAL DYNAMICS 52
s ty tte arms each carryng at ts end a ds wth ts front
face n a pane through the a s. Ad ust the escapement-whee
on ts shaft so that when each of ts thrty teeth str es one or
other of the two branches of the escapement the owest one of
those s ty ds s has ts front face ertca. n a hor onta
pane beow the proongaton of the shaft pace s ty tte bas
energy-rece ers n such postons that each sha be struc by a
ds ust before the correspondng tooth touches the correspondng
branch of the escapement. Let the mass of each ba be e ua to
the proper nerta-e u aent of A the escapement-whee amp c.
and dr ng-weght . Each ba struc by t rece es the whoe
netc energy whch A had before the mpact and ea es A
at rest wth a tooth of the escapement-whee pressng on a nonwor ng face of the escapement. s ty rgd stops to pre ent
the bas from n any crcumstances 1 -16 gong too far
behnd the postons n whch they are ntay paced. Each
of these stops must be sotted to aow the proper ds of the
escapement-shaft to str e the ba and afterwards pass cear
through wth ts carryng arm. or bre ty these for ed stops
w be caed the home-stops. aso s ty other stops fedstops we sha ca them n such postons that the bas sha
str e them a smutaneousy and at e acty the nstant 12
when the weght str es the bottom of the coc -case.
12. Suppose now the penduum of our dea coc wth ts
weght wound up ery neary to the top to be started wth
suffcent range to et t eep gong. or smpcty et ths
range be sma enough to secure that when the weght s run
down the augmented range of braton w st be wthn the
mts aowed for proper acton of the escapement mechansm.
Let the bottom of the coc -case be a rgd hor onta pane f ed
reat ey to the framewor bearng the whee and penduum n
e acty such a poston that when the weght n runnng down
str es t the penduum s at ether end of ts range. The
weght umps up after the mpact and the coc goes bac wards
the energy-rece ers return home from ther fed-stops at e acty
Let r be the radus of the cord-drum: T the dr ng-weght: the radus of
gyraton and w the weght of the whoe rotatng body consstng of cord-drum
escapement-whee shaft and 60 arms and ds s: a the ength of each arm
rec oned from the a s to the pont of ts ds whch str es the ba. The
proper nerta-e u aent s Tr2 w 2 /a2.
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PERI DIC M TI N A INITE SYSTEM
50
the rght tmes retracng e acty e ery step t the weght
wound up by the energy of the penduum and of the returnng
energy-rece ers passes through ts nta poston. If t s
aowed to go hgher t t str es aganst an unad usted stop
the coc may be stopped for a tme wth the penduum bratng
through a moderatey sma range and one tooth of the whee
chatterng aganst one wor ng facet of the escapement: but
sooner or ater ery soon the tooth w escape the coc
w agan go forward the weght w run down and agan str e
the bottom and ump from t ths tme not when the penduum
s ute e acty at ether end of ts range.
1 . Compcated but ute ordery acton w foow and
sooner or ater a tooth w be hoo ed up by the escapement
and the coc w go bac wards a beat or two but after a ery
few beats f more than one t w go forward t the weght
str es the bottom agan. Sooner or ater the bottom w be
struc at a tme when the penduum s ery neary at rest at
ether end of ts range and when se era energy-rece ers are n
such postons as to arr e home and str e ds s at rght tmes
and the coc w go bac wards for a good many beats.
14. Sooner or ater that s to say after some fnte number
of mons of mons of years the weght w str e the bottom
when the penduum s so ery neary at rest at ether end of ts
range and a the s ty bas so ery neary str ng each ts
fed-stop that the coc w be dr en bac wndng up the
weght t t agan str es the top stop and mmedatey or after
a ery few beats begns agan to go forward and et the weght
run down. ut our sub ect s not the fortutous concourse of
atoms. It s perodc moton of a fnte system.
15. Returnng therefore to the end of 12 et the top stop
be so ad usted that t s struc by the weght at an nstant when
the penduum s at one end of ts range. The coc nstanty
begns to go forward and goes on retracng e ery step and
repeatng e ery one of the numerous mpacts of ts frst forward
moton t the weght str es the bottom e acty when each of
the s ty bas s str ng ts fed-stop and when the penduum
s at one end of ts range the same end of ts range as when the
weght struc the bottom the frst tme. Thus aperfecty perodc
moton goes on for e er.
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
52
16. Durng any of the haf-perods n whch the coc s
gong forward and the weght runnng down any moderate
dsturbance such as a sght bow on the penduum or a hodng
of the escapement-whee stopped for some tme arge or sma
w ma e no notceabe dfference n the subse uent moton: t
the weght reaches the bottom of ts range when we fnd that
the perodcty s ost and the state of thngs descrbed n 1
14 super enes. ut any such dsturbance durng a haf-perod
when the coc s gong bac wards causes the bac ward moton
to cease and reguar forward moton to foow mmedatey or
after a few beats a greater or ess number accordng as the
dsturbance s e ceedngy nfntesma or but moderatey sma.
Ths s a true dynamca ustraton of the dsspaton of energy
and heps to show the anty of attempts whch ha e been made
to found Carnot s Prncpe or the Second Law of Thermodynamcs or theores of chemca acton on Lagrange s genera ed
e uatons of moton.
17. Consder the probem of the three bodes n two
aretes frst the Lunar Theory secondy the Panetary
Theory. ne body the Sun s n each case asty arger
than ether of the two others. In the frst case the two others
the Earth and Moon are so near one another n comparson
wth the Sun s dstance from ether that hs force produces but a
sma dsturbance of the reat e moton of the Earth and Moon
under ther own mutua attracton. In the second case two
panets mo e each chefy under the Sun s nfuence wth comparat ey sma dsturbance by ther own mutua attracton. In
each case we sha for smpcty negect the moton of the Sun s
centre of gra ty and consder hm as an absoutey f ed centre
of force.
18. Ta ng frst the unar theory suppose the centre of
gra ty I of Earth and Moon to mo e ery appro matey n
a crce round the Sun. Now wthout necessary consderng
that the Moon s much smaer than the Earth at an nstant
when the ne MIE passes through S g e e ua and opposte
momentums to M and E n the ne ME so as to annu ther
reat e moton n ths ne f they had any and to cause each to
mo e e acty perpendcuary to t. If the ne t tme ther ne
passes through S they are agan mo ng perpendcuary to ME
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PERI DIC M TI N A INITE SYSTEM
505
ther moton reat ey to SI s rgorousy perodc. Ths we see
by consderng that f both motons are re ersed at any nstant
M and E w e acty retrace ther paths and f such a re ersa
s made at an nstant of perpendcuary crossng the ne SI the
retraced paths are smar to the drect paths whch are traced
when there s no re ersa.
19. Hence f the three bodes be g en n ne SME we
secure rgorous perodcty of ther moton f we pro ect them
n contrary drectons perpendcuar to ths ne wth e acty such
eoctes that the ne t tme ME s agan n ne wth S now
SEM ther drectons of moton are agan perpendcuar to EM.
The probem of dong ths has three soutons n one of whch
the eoctes of pro ecton are so great that M and E are carred
far away from one another n opposte drectons round the Sun
t they agan come near one another and n ne on the far sde
of the Sun. E cudng ths case we ha e certany ony two
soutons eft. In these I descrbes e ceedngy neary a crce
round the Sun whe M and E mo e reat ey to the pont I
and the ne IS somewhat appro matey n crces but to a
second appro maton n the epses correspondng to the unar
perturbaton caed the araton and ute rgorousy n two
constant smar cosed cur es each dfferng ery tte from the
aratona epse. The centre of the aratona epse s at I:
ts ma or a s s perpendcuar to SI and e ceeds the mnor a s
by appro matey 1/179 6 beng the s uare of the rato 1/1 4
of the anguar eocty of SI to the anguar eocty of ME each
reat e to an absoutey f ed drecton. There are two soutons
of ths nd n one of whch as n the actua case of Earth
and Moon EM turns samewards as n the other contrary-wards
to St.
20. If ME were two or three tmes as great as t s when
the three bodes are n ne SME and other dmensons the
same we shoud st ha e a souton for perodcty correspondng
to that of 19 but wth the orbta cur es of M and E round I
dfferng ery argey from crces and argey from epses.
hen ME e ceeds a certan mt ths nd of souton becomes
mpossbe. It woud be not whoy unnterestng to foow the
character of the orbta cur es round I for ncreasng magntudes
of ME unt they are ost. The souton referred to and re ected
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
52
n 19 s st a aabe and becomes now more nterestng but
not so nterestng as the correspondng souton n whch M and
E now two panets are pro ected so as to re o e n the same
drectons round the Sun.
21. Rgorousy perodc moton of two panets. G en S E
n ne the Sun and two panets at dstances such as those of
enus and the Earth:-t s re ured to pro ect them wth such
eoctes that the subse uent moton s rgorousy perodc. A
frst souton s obtaned by pro ectng them perpendcuary to
S E wth such eoctes that ther perods of re outon round S
are appro matey e ua and e acty such that at the ne t tme
when E s agan n ne wth S the motons are rgorousy
perpendcuar to ths ne. The eoctes whch must be g en
to fuf ths condton must be such that the ma or a es of the
epses appro matey descrbed are appro matey e ua. Ths
souton howe er beongs rather to the Cometary than to the
Panetary Theory.
22. Pro ect the panets perpendcuary to S E wth such
eoctes that after some g en number of tmes of ther beng
n ne wth the Sun ther motons are for the frst tme agan
perpendcuar to S E. The determnate eoctes whch fuf
ths condton must I thn be such that the orbts are appro matey epses of eccentrctes not dfferng much from those
re ured to ma e the ma or a es such that the perods ha e the
proper commensurabty to render the ne of the three bodes
at the second perpendcuar crossng appro matey concdent
wth ther ne at the nta perpendcuar crossng.
N INSTA ILITY PERI DIC M TI N EING A C NTIN ATI N
ARTICLE N PERI DIC M TI N A INITE C NSER ATI E SYSTEM.
rom Proc. Roy. Soc. No . 26 1891 Ph. Nag. Dec. 1891.
2 . Let s ... be genera ed coordnates of a system
and et A f b ...f f ... be the acton n a path 2 abo e
from the confguraton f ... to the confguraton I s ...
wth netc energy E- wth any g en constant aue for E
the tota energy beng the potenta energy abo e of
whch the aue s g en for e ery possbe confguraton of the
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INSTA ILITY PERI DIC M TI N
507
system. Let I .. and 4 . ... be the genera ed
component momentums of the system as t passes through the
confguratons p sb ... and I ... respect ey. If by any
means we ha e fuy so ed the probem of the moton of the system
under the g en forc e of whch s the potenta energy we
now A for e ery g en set of aues of r p ... f sb ... that s
to say t s a nown functon of 4 c ... b ... . Then by
Hamton s prncpe Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy
0 18 we ha e
dA dA dA dA
dew f db d dr . 1
dA dA dA dA dA
d - dd d -d d
24. Now et P P desgnate a partcuar patht- from poston
... whch for bre ty we sha ca P to poston
4 ... whch we sha ca P. Let oP oP be a part of a
nown perodc path from whch P P s nfntey tte dstant.
ut frst whether oP oP s perodc or not pro ded t s nfntey
near to P P and pro ded P and oP are nfntey near to P
and P respect ey we ha e by Tayor s theorem and by 1
A 0 o o o . oo ...
o - o - ... - o - o - o St - o -...
2 oad2 -o - .......... 2 .
Ths s a term ntroduced by my brother Prof. ames Thomson to denote a
force-system.
t or any g en aue of E the tota energy abo e the probem of fndng
a path from any poston P to any poston P s determnate. Its souton s for
each coordnate of the system a determnate functon of the coordnates whch
defne P and P and of t the tme rec oned from the nstant of passng through P .
The souton s snge for the case of a partce mo ng under the nfuence of no
force e ery path beng an nfnte straght ne. or a snge partce mo ng
under the nfuence of a unform force n parae nes as gra ty n sma-scae
terrestra bastcs the souton s dupe or magnary. or e ery constranedy
fnte system the souton s nfntey mutpe as s rtuay we nown by e ery
bard payer for the case of a osco chan atom fyng about wthn an encosng
surface and by e ery tenns payer for the paraboas wth whch he s concerned
and ther refe ons from was or pa ement.
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508 GENERAL DYNAMICS 52
25. Let us now smpfy by choosng our coordnates so that
the aues of b amp c. are each ero for e ery poston of the
path 0P 0P and et - for any poston of ths path be the acton
aong t rec oned from ero at oP . These assumptons e pressed
n symbos are as foows: dA_ dA dA dA dA o
0 .... 1dA o 0 -0
do d d# - d d /
for a aues of r and f 0 0 ... 0 0 ... ......... .
26. Ta ng now
0 0o 0 o 0 ... o0 o ... 4
we ha e
A o o o ... o o o .. A 0 0 ...0 0... ... 5
and n rtue of ths and of and 1 2 becomes
A ... o ... o 00
2 66
2 120 1 0 14 00 15 t 160
2 24 25 26 .. 6
4b 5 65
450 460 /
56 y
where merey for smpcty of notaton we suppose the tota
number of freedoms of the system that s to say the tota
number of the coordnates t - to be four and for
bre ty put prnted by accdent n 6 and 8 as subscrpts
d A / d2A d2A _
od6 11 o dd 12 o 22 amp c...
27. rom 6 we fnd by 1
4 110 12 1 144 15 16
9 210 22 2 - 240 25 269
10 2 P 40 5 I 6
......... 8 .
- 414 42 4 . 44 45 46
- 51 2 452 5 54 56
- 61 62 62 64 64 66 66
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INSTA ILITY PERI DIC M TI N
509
These e uatons aow us to determne the three dspacements
p A and the three correspondng momentums for any
poston on the path n terms of the nta aues b C
A I supposed nown.
28. To ntroduce now our supposton 24 that 0P oP s
part of a perodc path et be a poston on t between oP
and 0P and et us now to a od ambguty ca t oP oP.
Let P and 0P now be ta en to concde n a poston whch we
sha ca 0 n other words et oP oP or be the compete
perodc crcut or orbt as we ha e caed t 2 abo e . ur
path P P s now a path nfntey near to ths orbt and P and
P are two consecut e postons n t for whch A has the aue
ero. These two postons are nfntey near to one another and
to 0. e sha ca them and consderng them as the
postons on our path n whch r s ero for the th tme and
for the th tme from an earer nta epoch than frst
passage through r 0 whch we ha e been htherto consderng. It s accordngy con enent now to modfy our notaton as
foows: r
r 77 ......... 9 .
Here are the genera ed components of dstance
from 0 at the th transt through r 0 of the system pursung
ts path nfntey near to the orbt and: are the correspondng momentum-components. th the notaton of 9
e uatons 8 become e uatons by whch the aues of these
components for the 1th tme of transt through 0 can be
found from ther aues for the th tme. They are e uatons
of fnte dfferences and are to be treated secundu m artem as
foows.
29. Assume
p P p. 10 .
4 - p w 1 P7w P
ut the acton contnuay ncreases aong the path. hat s meant s
ponts whch are e udstant as regards acton by an amount whch s e ua to
the acton of one re outon n the perodc orbt. The sub ect may be eucdated
by the smper appcaton to rays of ght where there are ony two coordnates
0 defnng poston n a pane trans erse to the ray: cf. Thomson and Tat s
Nat. Ph. 4.
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510
GENERAL DYNAMICS
52
Substtutng accordngy n 8 modfed by 9 and emnatng
t: we fnd
11 14 41p 44 12 15 42p 45
P P
1 16 4 p 46
21 24 51p 54 22 552p 55 .
P P
2 26 5 p 56 0
1 4 61p 64 2 - 62p 65
6 6 p 66 s 0
Remar ng that 41 14 12 21 amp c. we see that the determnant for the emnaton of the ratos I 19 s symmetrca
wth reference to p and p. Hence t s
C p p- C p2 p-2 C p p- 2Co... 12
where Co C0 C2 C are coeffcents of whch the aues n terms
of 11 12 amp c. are easy wrtten out. Ths determnant e uated
to ero g es an e uaton of the 6th degree for determnng p
of whch for each root there s another e ua to ts recproca.
e reduce t to an e uaton of the thrd degree by puttng.
p p- 2e........................ 1 .
Let e e2 e be the roots of the e uaton thus found. The
correspondng aues of p are
e / e2 - 1 e e -1 es e2- 1 ... 14 .
In the case of e ha ng any rea aue between 1 and - 1 t s
con enent to put
e cos a
whch g es p cos a t sn a................. 15 .
and p- cos a - sn a
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1891
INSTA ILITY PERI DIC M TI N
511
0. Suppose now for the frst tme of passng through
0 the three coordnates and three correspondng momenta
f 1 1 7 r7n 1 to be a g en we fnd
P 1 Ap A/ p- A2p2 A p- Ap A p-
p p gt - 2p2 2 2- p p.................................................. I 6 ................................................
- p p1- 2p2 2p2- p p
where A A/ A2 A2 ... 1 2 2 are 6 coeffcents
whch are determned by the s e uatons 16 wth 0:
and the s e uatons 8 modfed by 9 wth success ey
put 1 2 4 5 wth the g en aues substtuted for b I
S1 t L 1 n them and wth for 02 2 amp c. ther aues by 16 .
1. ur resut pro es that e ery path nfntey near to the
orbt s unstabe uness e ery root of the e uaton for e has a
rea aue between 1 and - 1. It does not pro e that the moton
s stabe when ths condton s fufed. Stabty or nstabty
for ths case cannot be tested wthout gong to hgher orders of
appro maton n the consderaton of paths ery neary concdent
wth an orbt.
P STSCRIPT No ember 10 1891.
The sub ect of perodc moton and ts stabty has been
treated wth great power by M. Poncare n a paper Sur e
probeme des tros corps et es e uatons de a dynam ue for
whch the pr e of Hs Ma esty the ng of Sweden was awarded
on the 21st of anuary 1889. Ths paper whch has been
pubshed n Mttag-Leffer s Acta Mathematca 1 1 and 2
270 4to pp. Stoc hom 1890 ony became nown to me twe e
days ago through Prof. Cayey. I am greaty nterested to fnd
n t much that bears upon the sub ect of my communcaton of
ast une to the Roya Socety n some Test Cases for the
Ma we- ot mann Doctrne regardng Dstrbuton of Energy
partcuary n p. 2 9 the foowng paragraph:- n peut
demontrer ue dans e osnage d une tra ectore fermee representant une souton perod ue sot stabe sot nstabe passe
une nfnte d autres tra ectores fermees. Cea ne sufft pas en
toute rgueur pour concure ue toute regon de espace s pette
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512
GENERAL DYNAMICS
52
u ee sot est tra erse par une nfnte des tra ectores fermees
mas cea sufft pour donner a cette hypothese un haut caractere
de rasembance. Ths statement s e ceedngy nterestng
n conne on wth Ma we s fundamenta supposton uoted n
10 of my paper that the system f eft to tsef n ts actua
state of moton w sooner or ater pass through e ery phase whch
s consstent wth the e uaton of energy t an assumpton whch
Ma we g es not as a concuson but as a proposton whch we
may wth consderabe confdence assert ...e cept for partcuar
forms of the surface of the f ed obstace. It w be seen that
Poncare s hypothess ha ng a hgh character of probabty
does not go so far as Ma we s whch asserts that e ery porton
of space s tra ersed n a drectons by e ery tra ectory. The
concuson whch I ga e n 1 as seemng to me ute certan
that e ery mode dffers nfntey tte from beng a fundamenta
mode s ceary a necessary conse uence of Ma we s fundamenta
supposton the truth of whch st seems to me hghy probabe
pro ded e ceptona cases are propery deat wth.
I aso fnd the foowng statement pp. 100 101:- II y aura
done en genera n uanttes a2 dstnctes. Nous es appeerons
es coeffcents de stabte de a souton perod ue consderee.
S ces n coeffcents sont tous rees et n6gatfs a souton
perod ue sera stabe car es uanttes 4 et resteront nf4reures
a une mte donnee.
I ne faut pas toutefos entendre ce mot de stabte au sens
absou. En effet nous a ons negge es carres des: et des et
ren ne prou e u en tenant compte de ces carres e resutat ne
serat pas change. Mas nous pou ons dre au mons ue es a
et 7 s s sont orgnarement tres petts resteront tres petts
pendant tres ongtemps. Nous pou ons e prmer ce fat en
dsant ue a souton perod ue out snon de a stabte
secuare du mons de a stabte temporare. Here the concuson of 1 of my present paper s perfecty antcpated and
s e pressed n a most nterestng manner. M. Poncare s n estgaton and mne are as dfferent as two n estgatons of the
same sub ect coud we be and t s ery satsfactory to fnd
perfect agreement n concusons.
The tra ectore fermee of M. Poncare s what I caed a fundamenta
mode of rgorousy perodc moton or an orbt.
Scentfc Papers o. . p. 714. Supra p. 492.
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51
5 . N A THE REM IN PLANE INETIC TRIG N METRY
S GGESTED Y GA SS S THE REM C R AT RA INTEGRA.
rom Phosophca Maga ne o. . No . 1891 pp. 471-47 .
1. AL ERT GIRARD S beautfu theorem of the Spherca
E cess n spherca trgonometry pubshed about 16 7 and
used practcay 150 years ater by Genera Roy n the trgonometrca sur ey of the rtsh Ises was spenddy e tended by
Gauss n hs theorem of the Cur atura Integra. There must
be a correspondng theorem n the netc trgonometry suggested

N
M C
R
n the margnas of Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy
61 a b c d for the moton of the genera ed conser at e
netc system of any number of arabes. or the ery smpe
case of a matera pont mo ng n a pane t s easy wor ed
out as I ha e found n endea ourng to wrte a contnuaton of
my artce Phosophca Maga ne ctober on the Perodc
Ds ustones Generaes crca Superfces Cur as auctore Caroo rederco
Gauss Socetat Regae Gottngens obatse D. III. ctobr. MDCCC II. Coected
or s o. . G6ttngen 187 . Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy
1 1-1 8.
. I .

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514
GENERAL DYNAMICS
5
Moton of a nte System whch I hope may be ready to appear
n the December number. Here s the theorem meantme.
2. Let LA M N C RCAS be three paths of a partce
mo ng freey n a pane under nfuence of a force - d -
and pro ected from any three paces n any drecton n the pane
wth such eoctes that the sum of the netc and potenta
energes has the same aue E n each case. The sum of the
three anges A C e ceeds two rght anges by an amount
whch rec oned n radans s e ua to the surface-ntegra of
2 og / E- throughout the encosed area A C 2 denotng
d2 d2
the Lapacan operaton d- dy2.
. To pro e ths remar that
ff ddy2 2fdS d
where s denotes any functon of y ffd dy surface-ntegraton
throughout any area fds ne-ntegraton a round ts boundary
and d f/dn rate of araton of n the drecton perpendcuar
to the boundary at any pont. Hence the surface-ntegra mentoned n 2 s e ua to
-d
fds2 E - r dn 7........................... 1 .
2 E- dn 1
ut - d dn s the norma-component force N we sha ca t
and 2 E- s the s uare of the eocty 2 we sha ca t .
Hence 1 becomes
fdsN / 2........................... 2 .
ut N/ 2 s the cur ature 1/p we sha ca t at any pont n
any one of the three arcs A C CA. Hence d dng fds
nto the three parts beongng respect ey to these three arcs
r rC rA
whch we sha denote by d ds ds we fnd for 2
ds.C ds d.... .
AP P P
ut - s the change of drecton n the arc A and smary
P
for the two others: hence the theorem.
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1892
515
54. N THE STA ILITY PERI DIC M TI N.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1892 p. 6 8 tte ony Nature
o. L I. Aug. 18 1892 p. 84.
THE mathematca n estgaton of ths sub ect was ustrated
by an e perment n whch a smpe harmonc ertca moton was
g en to the pont of support of a penduum. hen the perod of
the superposed moton was one haf of that of the natura moton
of the penduum the e ubrum became unstabe and the
sghtest dsturbance caused the ertca moton of the bob to be
changed nto trans erse moton of ncreasng amptude. If the
superposed perod were now essened the ertca moton agan
became stabe. Smary a rod posed ertcay n unstabe
e ubrum coud become stabe by ha ng ts pont of support
mo ed wth smpe harmonc moton of proper perod n a ertca
ne .
Prof. sborne Reynods remar ed that t was we nown to
practca engneers that a re o ng shaft when dr en at a certan
speed began to bend and mght e en brea though at hgher
speeds t woud agan become straght. Lord e n had now
e paned ths effect.
Cf. Lord Rayegh n the Mantenance of bratons by orces of Doube
re uency ... Ph. Mag. o. I . 1887 pp. 145-159 Scentfc Papers o. Im.
pp. 1-14.
-2
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516 55
55. N GRAPHIC S L TI N DYNAMICAL PR LEMS.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1892 pp. 648-652 Nature o. L I.
Aug. 18 1892 pp. 85 86 Ph. Mfag. o. . pp. 44 448.
THE method of drawng merdana cur es of capary surfaces
of re outon descrbed n Popuar Lectures and Addresses o. I.
2nd edton pp. 1-42 and ustrated by woodcuts made from
arge scae cur es wor ed out accordng to t wth great care
and success by Professor Perry when a student n the Natura
Phosophy Cass of Gasgow n ersty suggests a correspondng
method for the souton of dynamca probems.
In dynamca probems regardng the moton of a snge partce
n a pane t g es the foowng pan for drawng any possbe
path under the nfuence of a force of whch the potenta s g en
for e ery pont of the pane. Suppose for e ampe t s re ured
to fnd the path of a partce pro ected wth any g en eocty n
any g en drecton through any g en pont P fg. 1 . Cacuate
the norma component force at ths pont and d de the s uare
of the eocty by ths aue to fnd the radus
of cur ature of the path at that pont. Ta ng P2
ths radus on the compasses fnd the centre of 1p0
cur ature Co n the ne Po perpendcuar to
the g en drecton through Po and descrbe a
sma arc PoP ma ng P e ua to about
haf the ength ntended for the second arc. oC
Cacuate the atered eocty for the poston
1 accordng to the potenta aw and as before
for P cacuate a fresh radus of cur ature for
1 by fndng the norma component force for the L
atered drecton of norma and for the eocty
correspondng to the poston of . th ths g. 1.
radus fnd the poston of the centre of cur ature C n P1CoL
the ne of the radus through P1. th ths centre of cur ature
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1892 GRAPHIC S L TI N DYNAMICAL PR LEMS
517
and the fresh radus of cur ature descrbe an arc P1P2 2 ma ng
P2 2 e ua to about haf the ength ntended for the thrd arc
cacuate radus of cur ature for poston 2 draw an arc P2P
and contnue the procedure. Ths process s we adapted for
fndng orbts by the tra and error method descrbed n my
artce n Some Test Cases of the Ma we- ot mann Doctrne
regardng Dstrbuton of Energy 1 Proc. Roy. Soc. une 11
1891. Supra No. 50.
The accompanyng cur e fg. 2 has been drawn wth great
care and wth ery nterestng success n the tra and error
method of fndng the frst and smpest orbt by my secretary
Mr Thomas Car er for the case of moton defned by the
e uatons
d2
dt2
dyd2y -
- y
g. 2.
The nta pont P0 was ta en on one of the nes cuttng the
a es of and y at 45 and at frst at a random dstance from the
orgn. A tra cur e was wor ed accordng to the method
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
55
descrbed abo e and was found to cut the a s of at an ob ue
ange. ther tra cur es wth unchanged energy-constant were
wor ed from nta ponts at greater or ess dstances from the
orgn unt a cur e was found to cut the a s of perpendcuary.
Ths cur e s one-eghth part of the orbt and s shown n fg. 2
repeated eght tmes n order to compete the orbt whch s
symmetrca on the two sdes of the a s of and y.
As an nterestng case of moton reated to the Lunar Theory
suppose the mass of the moon be nfntey sma n comparson
wth the mass of the earth and the earth and sun to ha e unform
motons n crces round ther centre of gra ty. Let y be
coordnates of the moon reat e to n ne wth the sun outwards and Y perpendcuar to t n the drecton of the earth s
orbta moton. The we- nown e uaton of moton reat ey to
re o ng coordnates g es for the e uatons of the moon s moton
f a denote the dstance from 0 the earth of the centre of gra ty
of the sun and earth
d2 dy d
-- 20 co a 1
dt2 2 d - dt d......
d2y d - o d
d 2 - o............ 2
dt2 dt dY 2
where s the potenta of the attractons of the sun and earth
on the moon and ao the anguar eocty of the earth s radus ector. rom ths we fnd for the reat e-energy e uaton
dt2 dtE -- a 2 y2 -.........
where E denotes a constant and for the reat e-cur ature e uaton
we fnd
d d2y - dyd2 dt Ndt2
- 2GI ---- 4
d 2 dy2 d dy2 2 d 2 dy2
where N denotes the component perpendcuar to the path of the
resutant of Y wth
d
w2 a _Cd 5
-.....................
Y y2 d 6 .
y dy....................
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1892 GRAPHIC S L TI N DYNAMICAL PR LEMS 519
Hence f denote moon s eocty and p the radus of cur ature of
her path reat ey to the re o ng pane Y we ha e
2 E 2 a 2 y - ............ 7
1 - 2o N
and - - - .................................. 8 .
P 2
Cang S the sun s mass and a hs dstance from the earth
and supposng the earth s mass nfntey sma n comparson wth
the sun s we ha e
S/a2 2a........................... 9
o2a8 a
and therefore - 1 2a m.......... 10
a 2 y2 2 r
where m denotes the earth s mass and r / 2 y2
Hence - - co2 2a2 - 2a 2 m.......... 11 .
th ths and wth o and m b for smpcty n the
numerca wor whch foows we ha e
2 2 dE 2 -............................ 12
-2 - .................. 1
and p 2.................................... 15 .
rom e uatons 12 and 1 G. . H has wth four
dfferent aues of E found and y e pcty n terms t for the
partcuar souton n each case whch g es the smpest orbt
reat ey to the re o ng pane Y of whch the one whch
presents the greatest de aton from the we- nown aratona
o a of the eementary unar theory s a symmetrca cur e wth
two outwardy pro ectng cusps correspondng to the moon n
uadratures. He supposed ths to be the most e treme de aton from the aratona o a possbe for an orbt surroundng
the earth. Poncare n hs Methodes Nou ees de a Mdcan ue
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520
GENERAL DYNAMICS
55
Ceeste p. 109 1892 admrng usty the manner n whch H
has thus s magstraement studed the sub ect of fnte cosed unar orbts ponts out
that there are soutons correspondng to
ooped orbts transcendng H s wrongy
supposed e treme cusped orbt. Mr H tes
me that he accepts ths crtcsm. The abour
of wor ng out a fary accurate anaytca
souton for any of Poncare s ooped orbts by
H s method woud probaby be ery great.
I ha e therefore thought t mght nterest
others besdes ourse es to appy my graphc --
method to the drawng of at east one of
Poncare s ooped orbts n our Physca and
Arthmetca Laboratory n the n ersty of /
Gasgow. gure represents a ooped orbt
whch has been wor ed out accordngy by Mr 7
Magnus Macean Chef ffca Assstant of
the Professor of Natura Phosophy from the
e uatons 14 15 abo e. The nta aues
used for obtanng the cur e were 2
y 0 b 10 2E -1 0 and therefore g.
2 882 and po 4 8.
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521
56. RED CTI N E ERY PR LEM Two REED MS IN
C NSER ATI E DYNAMICS T THE DRA ING GE DETIC
LINES N A S R ACE GI EN SPECI IC C R AT RE.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1892 pp. 652 65 Nature o. L I.
Aug. 18 1892 p. 86.
1. ANY conser at e case of two-freedom moton s pro ed
to be reducbe to a correspondng case of the moton of a matera
pont n a pane.
2. In pane conser at e dynamcs wth any g en aue for
the energy-constant E the resutant eocty at any pont
y s a nown functon of y beng g en by the e uaton
2 2 E -
where denotes the potenta at y and e ery probem depends
on drawng nes for whch f ds the Maupertus acton s a
mnmum.
. Consderng any part S of the nfnte pane fnd a surface
S such that any nfntesma trange A C drawn on t has ts
sdes o/ of those of a correspondng trange A C n the fed
of our pane probem o denotng the aue of at any partcuar
pont o yo n the pane. y the prncpe of east acton we see
nstanty that the nes on S correspondng to paths on S are
geodetc. Thus the adynamnc case of moton of a partce on S
s found as a perfect and compete representat e of the moton on
the pane surface S under force wth any arbtrary g en functon
for ts potenta and any partcuar g en aue E for the tota
energy of the mo ng partce.
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522
GENERAL DYNAMICS
56
4. It s easy pro ed that the surface S to be found accordng
to e sts and that ts specfc cur ature Gauss s name for the
product of ts two prncpa cur atures at any pont s e ua to
2 og .
o2
5. E ampes are g en of the fndng of S . As one e ampe
ustratng the practca usefuness of ths method n dynamcs
the probem of the paraboc moton of an unressted pro ecte s
reduced to the drawng of geodetc nes on a certan fgure of
re outon of whch the e pct e uaton s e pressed n terms of
eptc functons.
Anges are not atered by the transformaton from orbts on the pane to
geodescs on the surface S . or a netc trange on the pane the e cess of the
anges o er two rght anges s the area mutped by 2og cf. supra p. 514 .
n S ths e cess s the area mutped by the Gaussan cur ature. y e uatng
the resut n the te t foows. n these netc transformatons cf. Larmor Proc.
Lond. Math. Soc. March 1884 Darbou Theore des Surfaces o. II. re .
ch. . 1889 .
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52
57. GENERALI ATI N MERCAT R S PR ECTI N PER RMED
Y AID ELECTRICAL INSTR MENTS.
rom Nature o. L I. Sep. 22 1892 pp. 490 491.
THE foowng mode of genera ng Mercator s Pro ecton s
merey an ustraton of a communcaton to Secton A of the
rtsh Assocaton at ts recent meetng n Ednburgh entted
Reducton of e ery Probem of Two reedoms n Conser at e
Dynamcs to the Drawng of Geodetc Lnes on a Surface of g en
Specfc Cur ature. An abstract of ths paper appeared n
Nature for August 18.
In 1568 Gerhard ramer commony nown as Mercator
the Latn of hs surname ga e to the word hs chart now of
un ersa use n na gaton. In t e ery sand e ery bay e ery
cape e ery coast-ne f not e tendng o er more than two or
three degrees of ongtude or farther north and south than a
dstance e ua to two or three degrees of ongtude s shown ery
appro matey n ts true shape: rgorousy so f t e tends o er
dstances e ua ony to an nfntesma dfference of ongtude.
The ange between any two ntersectng nes on the surface of
the gobe s reproduced rgorousy wthout change n the correspondng ange on the chart.
Mercator s chart may be magned as beng made by coatng
the whoe surface of a gobe wth a thn ne tensbe sheet of
matter-sheet nda-rubber for e ampe for smpcty howe er
magned to be perfecty e tensbe but neastc -cuttng away
two poar crces to be omtted from the chart cuttng the sheet
through aong a merdan that of 180 ongtude from Greenwch
for e ampe stretchng the sheet e erywhere e cept aong the
e uator so as to ma e a the crces of attude e ua n ength to
the crcumference of the e uator and stretchng the sheet n the
drecton of the merdan n the same rato as the rato n whch
the crces of attude are stretched whe eepng at rght anges
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GENERAL DYNAMICS
57
the ntersectons between the merdans and the paraes. The
sheet thus atered may be ad out fat or roed up as a paper
chart.
hat I ca a genera ed Mercator s chart for a body of any
shape spherca or non-spherca s a fat sheet showng for any
ntersectng nes that can be drawn on a part of the surface of
the body correspondng nes whch ntersect at the same anges.
ne Mercator chart of fnte dmensons can ony represent a part
of the compete surface of a fnte body f the body be smpy
contnuous that s to say f t has no hoe or tunne through t.
The whoe surface of an anchor rng can ob ousy be mercator ed
on one chart. It s easy seen for the case of the gobe that two
charts suffce to mercator e the whoe surface and t w be
pro ed presenty that two charts suffce for any smpy contnuous
cosed surface howe er e tremey t may de ate from the spherca
form.
In Lou e s ourna for 1847 ts edtor Lou e ga e an
anaytca n estgaton accordng to whch f the e uaton of any
surface whate er s g en a set of nes drawn on t can be found
to fuf the condton that the surface can be d ded nto nfntesma s uares by these nes and the set of nes on the surface
whch cut them at rght anges. Now t s cear that f we ha e
any porton of a cur ed surface thus d ded nto nfntesma
s uare aotments that s to say d ded nto nfntesma s uares
wth the corners of four s uares together a through t we can
ater a these s uares to one s e and ay them down on a fat
surface wth each n contact wth ts four orgna neghbours and
thus the supposed porton of surface s mercator ed. E cept for
the case of a fgure of re outon or an epsod or rtuay
e u aent cases Lou e s dfferenta e uatons are of a ery
ntractabe nd. I ha e ony recenty notced that we can so e
the probem graphcay wth any accuracy desred f the probem
were a practca probem whch t s not by ad of a otmeter
and a otac battery or other means of producng eectrc currents
as foows:
1. Construct the surface to be mercator ed n thn sheet
meta of unform thc ness throughout. y thn I mean that the
thc ness s to be a sma fracton of the smaest radus of cur ature of any part of the surface.
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1892 GENERALI ATI N MERCAT R S PR ECTI N
525
2. Choose any two ponts of the surface N S and appy the
eectrodes of a battery to t at these ponts.
. y ad of mo abe eectrodes of the otmeter trace an
e upotenta ne E as cose as may be around one eectrode and
another e upotenta ne as near as may be around the other
eectrode. etween these two e upotentas E I trace a arge
number n of e udfferent e upotentas. D de one of the
e upotentas E and nto n e ua parts and through the
d sona ponts draw nes cuttng the whoe seres of e upotentas at rght anges. These trans erse nes and the
e upotentas d de the whoe surface between E and nto
nfntesma s uares Ma we Eectrcty and Magnetsm 651 .
4. Ater a the s uares to one s e and pace them together
as e paned abo e. Thus we ha e a Mercator chart of the whoe
surface between E and .
N and S of our genera aton correspond to the north and
south poes of Mercator s chart of the word and our genera ed
rue shows that a chart fufng the essenta prncpe of smarty
rea ed by Mercator may be constructed for a spherca surface by
choosng for N S any two ponts not necessary the poes at the
e tremtes of a dameter. If the ponts N S are nfntey near
one another the resutng Mercator chart for the case of a spherca
surface s the stereographc pro ecton of the surface on the tangent
pane at the opposte end of the dameter through the pont C
mdway between N and S. In ths case the e upotentas and
the stream-nes are crces on the spherca surface cuttng NS at
rght anges and touchng t respect ey.
or a spherca or any other surface we may mercator e any
rectanguar porton of t A CD bounded by four cur es A C
CD DA cuttng one another at rght anges as foows. Cut ths
part out of the compete metac sheet to two of ts opposte
edges A DC for nstance f nfntey conduct e borders.
Appy the eectrodes of a otac battery to these borders and
trace n e udfferent e upotenta nes between A and DC.
D de the strp between consecut e e upotentas nto s uares
and through n ponts each dstant from the ne t by the same
number of s uares draw cur es cuttng perpendcuary the whoe
seres of e upotentas. These cur es and the e upotentas
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526 GENERAL DYNAMICS 57
d de the whoe area nto nfntesma s uares. E ua e the
s uares and ay them together on the fat as abo e.
If we ha e no mathematca nstruments by whch we can
draw a system of cur es at rght anges to a system aready drawn
we may dspense wth mathematca nstruments atogether and
compete the probem of d dng nto s uares by eectrca nstruments as foows. Remo e the conductng borders from A DC
appy nfntey conduct e borders to AD and C appy eectrodes
to these conductng borders and as before draw n e udfferent
e upotentas. Ths second set of e upotentas and the frst
set d de the whoe area nto s uares.
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527
58. To DRA A MERCAT R CHART N NE SHEET REPRESENTING
THE H LE ANY C MPLE LY C NTIN S CL SED S R ACE .
rom Nature o. L I. ct. 6 1892 pp. 541 542.
I a sod s not perced by any perforaton ts surface s caed
smpy contnuous howe er compcated ts shape may be. If a
sod has one or more perforatons or tunnest ts whoe boundng
surface s caed compe y contnuous dupe y when there s
ony one perforaton n 1 -pe y when there are n perforatons.
The whoe surface of a group of n anchor-rngs or torods
cemented together n any reat e postons s a con enent and
easy understood type of an n -pe y contnuous cosed
surface.
/ r gt s o
n the mathematcs of the genera probem see Remann Gesanmmete
Mathematsche er e Theore der Abe schen unctonen 2. Lehrst e aus
der Anayss Stus and Nachass ragment aus der Anayss Stus aso ett
Anna d Matematca t. . 1870-1 aso orsyth s Theory of unctons and
other treatses.
f A hoe may mean a deep hoow not through wth two open ends. The
word tunne s napproprate for the aperture of an anchor rng. Nether
hoe nor tunne beng une ceptonay a aabe I am compeed to use the
onger word perforaton.
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528
GENERAL DYNAMICS
58
Let the dagram represent a uadrupe y contnuous cosed
surface made of ery thn sheet meta unform as to thc ness and
homogeneous as to uaty throughout. To prepare for ma ng a
Mercator chart of t cut t open between perforatons C and
and A A and outer space n the manner ndcated at 2 1 and
. Appy nfntey conduct e borders to the two ps separated
by the cut at and appy the eectrodes of a otac battery to
these borders. y ad of mo abe eectrodes of a otmeter trace
on the metac surface a ery arge number n - 1 of e udfferent e upotenta cosed cur es between the and - borders.
D de any one of these e upotentas nto parts each e ua to
the nfntesma dstance perpendcuary across t to the ne t
e upotenta on ether sde of t and through the d sona
ponts draw cur es cuttng the e upotentas at rght anges.
These cur es are the stream-nes. They and the n 1 cosed
e upotentas ncudng the nfntey conduct e borders d de
the whoe surface nto nm nfntesma s uares f nm be the
number of d sons whch we found n the e upotenta. The
arrows on the dagram show the genera drecton of the eectrc
current n dfferent parts of the compe crcut each arrow
representng t for the thn meta she on ether far or near sde
of the dea secton by the paper.
Consderng carefuy the stream-nes n the neghbourhoods
of the four open ps mar ed n order of the stream 1 2 4 we
see that for each of these ps there s one stream-ne whch
str es t perpendcuary on one sde and ea es t perpendcuary
on the other and whch I ca the fu -shed-ne or for bre ty
the fu -shed for the p to whch t beongs. The stream-nes
nfntey near to the fu -shed on ts two sdes pass nfntey
cose round the two sdes of the p and come n nfntey near to
the contnuaton of the fu -shed on ts two sdes. Let 1 2
4 not shown on the dagram be the ponts on the termna
p from whch the fu -sheds of the ps 1 2 4 proceed and
et GI G2 Gs G4 be the ponts at whch they fa on the - p.
Let S T1 S2 T2 amp c. denote the ponts on the four ps at whch
they are struc and eft by ther fu -shed nes.
Two sentences of my pre ous artce Genera aton of Mercator s Pro ecton n and n ast paragraph but one are manfesty wrong and must
be corrected to agree wth the rue g en for d dng nto nfntesma s uares n
the present te t. Corrected n te t p. 525 su pra.
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1892 MERCAT R CHART A CYCLICALLY C NNECTED S R ACE 529
Let p 11 p2 12 P 1 P4 14 p be the dfferences of potenta
from the p to S1 from S1 to T T to S2 ... S4 to T4 and T4 to
the - p. Measure these nne dfferences of potenta. e are
now ready to ma e the Mercator chart. e mght ndeed ha e
done so wthout these eaborate consderatons and measurements
smpy by foowng the rue of my pre ous artce but the chart
so obtaned woud ha e nfnte contracton at eght ponts the
ponts correspondng to S T1 ... S4 T4. Ths faut s a oded
and a fnte chart showng the whoe surface on a fnte scae n
e ery part s obtaned by the foowng process.
Ta e a ong cyndrc tube of thn sheet meta of the same
thc ness and conduct ty as that of our orgna surface and on
any crce H round t mar four ponts Ah h2 h h4 at consecut e
dstances aong ts crcumference proportona respect ey to the
numbers of the m stream-nes whch we fnd between 1 and 2
2 and and 4 4 and on the p of our orgna
surface. Through h h2 h h4 draw nes parae to the a s of
the cynder.
Let now an eectrc current e ua to the tota current whch
we had from the p to the - p through the orgna surface be
mantaned through our present cynder by a otac battery wth
eectrodes apped to paces on the cynder ery far dstant on the
two sdes of the crce H. Mar on the cynder eght crces
1 2... 8 at dstances consecut ey proportona to I p2 12
p 1 p4 14 and absoutey such that 1 p amp c. are e ua to the
dfferences of ther potentas from one another n order.
ore four sma hoes n the meta between the crces 1 and
2 and 4 5 and 6 7 and 8 on the parae straght
nes through hA h2 h h4 respect ey. Enarge these hoes
and ater ther postons so that the atered stream-nes
through hA A2 h h4 these ponts supposed f ed and ery
dstant sha st be ther fu -sheds. he aways mantanng
ths condton enarge the hoes and ater ther postons unt the
e treme dfferences of potenta n ther ps become 15 12 1 14
and the dfferences of potenta between the ps n successon
become P2 p p . In thus contnuousy changng the hoes we
mght change ther shapes arbtrary but to f our deas we
may suppose them to be aways made crcuar. Ths ma es the
probem determnate e cept the dstance from the crce H of the
. I .
4
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5 0
GENERAL DYNAMICS
58
hoe nearest to t whch may be anythng we pease pro ded t
s ery arge n proporton to the dameter of the cynder.
The determnate probem thus proposed s ceary possbe and
the souton s ceary un ue. It s of a hghy transcendenta
character ewed as a probem for mathematca anayss but an
ob ous method of tra and error g es ts souton by eectrc
measurement wth ute a moderate amount of abour f moderate
accuracy suffces.
hen the hoes ha e been fnay ad usted to fuf our condtons draw by ad of the otmeter and mo abe eectrodes the
e upotentas for p abo e the greatest potenta of p 1 and for
p5 beow the east potenta of p 4 and between these e upotentas whch we sha ca f and g draw n- 1 e udfferent
e upotentas. Draw the stream-nes ma ng nfntesma
s uares wth these accordng to the rue g en abo e n the
present artce. It w be found that the number of the streamnes s m the same as on our orgna surface and the whoe
number of nfntesma s uares on the cynder betweenf and g
s mn. Cut the cynder through atf and g cut t open by any
stream-ne from f to g and open t out fat. e thus ha e a
Mercator chart bounded by four cur es cuttng one another at
rght anges and d ded nto mn nfntesma s uares correspondng nd duay to the mn s uares nto whch we d ded
the orgna surface by our frst eectrc process. In ths chart
there are four crcuar ban s correspondng to the ps 1 2 4
of our dagram and there s e act correspondence of ther fu sheds and neghbourng stream-nes and of the dsturbances
whch they produce n the e upotentas wth the anaogous
features at the ps of the orgna surface as cut for our process.
The souton of ths geometrca probem was a necessty for the
dynamca probem wth whch I ha e been occuped and ths s
my e cuse for wor ng t out though t mght be consdered as
de od of nterest n tsef.
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5 1
59. IS PERIMETRICAL PR LEMS.
rom Roy. Insttuton Proc. o. . 1896 pp. 111-119 May 12 189
Nature o. LI . March 29 1894 pp. 515-518.
Reprnted n Popuar Lectures and Addresses o. II. pp. 571-592.
60. NINETEENTH CENT RY CL DS ER THE DYNAMICAL
THE RY HEAT AND LIGHT.
rom Roy. Insttuton Proc. o. I. Apr 27 1900 pp. 6 - 97 Ph.
Mag. o. . uy 1901 pp. 1-40.
Reprnted n atmore Lectures Append pp. 486-527.
4-2
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5 2
61-6
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N.
61. N PERISTALTIC IND CTI N ELECTRIC C RRENTS
IN S MARINE TELEGRAPH IRES.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1855 Pt. II. p. 22.
Reprnted n Math. and Phys. Papers o. II. Art. . pp. 77 78.
62. N SIGNALLING THR GH S MARINE CA LES ILL STRATED
Y SIGNALS TRANSMITTED THR GH A M DEL S MARINE
CA LE E HI ITED Y MIRR R GAL AN METER AND Y
SIPH N REC RDER.
rom Inst. of Engneers n Scotand Trans. o. I. March 18 187 pp. 119
120.
Reprnted n Math. and Phys. Papers o. II. Art. . pp. 168-172.
6 . DYNAMICAL ILL STRATI NS THE MAGNETIC AND THE
HELIC IDAL R TAT RY E ECTS TRANSPARENT DIES
N P LARI ED LIGHT.
rom Roy. Soc. Proc. o. III. une 12 1856 pp. 150-158 Ph. Mag.
o. III. March 1857 pp. 198 204.
Reprnted n atmore Lectures Append pp. 569-58 .
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1875
5
64. I RATI NS AND A ES IN A STRETCHED NI RM CHAIN
SYMMETRICAL GYR STATS .
rom London Math. Soc. Proc. o. I. Apr 8 1875 pp. 190-194.
A GYR STAT s a rapdy rotatng fy-whee frctonessy
p oted on a stff mo eabe framewor or contanng case. A
symmetrca gyrostat s one n whch not ony the fy-whee but
the case s netcay symmetrca round the a s of rotaton of
the whee.
Let the chan consst of aternate gyrostats and massess connectng n s and et the connecton
be by un ersa fe ure ontst at each c 2
end of each n . or smpcty at
present suppose the a es of the gyro- ----
statc n s to be a n one ne when
the chan s stretched straght. Ths /C
ne w be caed the e ubrum a s.
Let g and c be the engths of the
gyrostatc and connectng n s respec- /
t ey m the mass and and /u the
moments of nerta round the a s of G -1
fgure and a ne perpendcuar to t
through centre of nerta of a gyro- /
statc n fy-whee and case ncuded
et be the moment of nerta of each fy-whee aone round ts
a s of fgure and et o be the anguar eocty once g en to
each fy-whee and remanng aways the same because of the
frctonessness of the p ots. Instead of frst n estgatng nfntesma motons n genera we sha frst ta e the partcuar
case of crcuar motons not mted to beng nfntesma. Then
ta ng them to be nfntesma by composton of crcuar
or de eopments cf. Routh s Ad anced Rgd Dynamcs 419. Cf. aso
No. 6 supra.
t Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy 109.
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5 4
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N
64
motons n smar or n contrary drectons and wth dfferent
phases we pass ready to the genera souton of the probem of
nfntesma motons.
Probem.-Suppose a fnte ength of such a chan to be paced
wth ts n s formng an open pane poygon and the ends of
the e treme n s beng hed f ed by un ersa fe ure onts et
each n be so set n moton perpendcuary to ths pane that
the poygon of a es mo es as a rgd poygon rotatng round the
ne onng the ends wth a g en anguar eocty n: re ured
the form of the poygon and the forces on the f ed ends so that
the chan when eft to tsef may contnue re o ng n the
manner specfed.
Ca success e connectng and gyrostatc n s... C G C
G 1 .... Let and denote the ncnatons of C and G to
the ne onng the ends and et y be the dstance of the centre
of nerta of G from ths ne. e ha e the geometrca reaton
Y - Y g sn 0 4 sn c sn. ...... 1 .
Agan by the geometry of the un ersa fe ure ont Thomson
and Tat 109 each gyrostatc n mo es as f ts a s were
produced to the ne onng the f ed ends and there oned to a
f ed ob ect by a un ersa fe ure ont. Hence the nstantaneous
a s of the moton of G bsects the ange wr - between the ne
of ts a s and the ne onng the f ed ends. Its anguar eocty
round ths nstantaneous a s s 2n sn 1 0. The components of ths
round the a s of G and n a pane perpendcuar to the a s of
G through the e ubrum-a s are
2n sn2 1 0 and 2n sn 0S cos 1 0 or n 1 - cos 0 and n sn 6.
The correspondng moments of momentum are
- . n 1 - cos and.. n sn .
Hence the whoe moment of momentum of G case and fywhee round the a s of G s
- . n 1 - cos o w.
Reso ng ths and an sn round the e ubrum a s and
a perpendcuar to t n the pane of the chan we ha e for whoe
component moment of momentum round the ast mentoned ne
- n 1 - cos 0 o sn 0 - /n sn 0 cos 0.
The sgn of /A shoud be changed henceforth.
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I RATI NS IN A CHAIN GYR STATS
5 5
Ths ne re o es wth anguar eocty n n a pane perpendcuar to the e ubrum a s and there must therefore be a
coupe e ua to
n - n 1 - cos 0 o sn - Ln sn 61 cos
actng on G round an a s perpendcuar to the pane of the
e ubrum a s and the a s of G. The drecton of ths coupe
when post e s such as to tend to ncrease the ange d. e
are now ready to wrte down the e uatons of moton or netc
e ubrum of G. The component parae to the e ubrum
a s of the pu n the connectng n s must be the same for a.
Ths s a the e uatons of moton parae to the e ubrum
ne. Let ts amount be P: so that P sec s the pu n the
connectng n C. The apped forces on G are the pus of C
and C7 on ts ends. Reso ng them we ha e:Parae to e ubrum a s. Perpendcuar to e ubrum a s.
- P -Ptan r
P P tan 1
and transposng to centre of nerta of G we ha e fnay
ero parae to e ubrum a s
P tan - tan perpendcuar to e ubrum a s
and coupe
-Pg sn P tan 4 tan A . Ig cos
n pane through e ubrum a s and drecton tendng to ncrease
0. Hence for moton of centre of nerta of G
mn2y P tan - tan 0............ 2
and by coupes
n - n 1 - cos sn - /Ln sn 0 cos
Pg - sn 0 - cos d tan rs tan ... .
E uatons 1 2 apped to each gyrostatc n g e as
many e uatons as there are of un nown uanttes 0 y f
we suppose one end of the chan to be a gyrostatc and the other
a connectng n so that there be the same number of the two
nds of n s.
hen the dspacements and ncnatons are nfntey sma
the agorthm of fnte dfferences as apped by Lagrange to
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5 6
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N
64
the trans erse oscatons of a near system of bodes a case of
what the present probem becomes when w 0 s con enenty
appcabe. E uatons 1 2 and when we can negect the
cubes of and 1 r become
Y 1-Y - g 9 1 9 c.. 4
mn2y P - - 0.................. 5
n co - an P g I - r r ......... 6 .
Let p denote a symbo of operaton such that
p ........................... 7
where u s any functon of .
rom 6 we ha e
1 P p 1
2 - un Pg
sng ths n 4 and emnatng between 4 and 5 we fnd
fnay
P2 mn2 n p Pg p 1 2 CPI y o
n co - /.n P.... 8
and the same hods of course wth or substtuted for y.
Hence to determne p we ha e the uadratc
P2 2 I - e p I 0................. 9
2C1
P nw - An2
where Pg2........ 10 .
2 -4
_ P no - ttn2
Put now I - e cos a or 1 1e snIa. 1...
The souton of 9 becomes
p cos a sn a 1- 1
and therefore the genera souton of 8 s
y A cos a sn a.................. 12
and f be the other coordnate of the centre of nerta of G
that of Go beng ta en as ero we ha e
g c ...................... .
Hence y A cos sn --- ....... 14
g C g C
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1875 I RATI NS IN A CHAIN GYR STATS 5 7
that s to say the centres of nerta of the n s e on a he
cur e whose wa e ength s
g c ........................... 15
where 27r/a s the number of partces n the wa e-ength 1.
The perod s 27r/n........................... 16
and therefore f denote the eocty of propagaton of the
crcuary poar ed wa e made up by proper superposton of
our soutons we ha e
n g c /a..................... 17
and therefore by 11
- s 2a n g c ......... 18
whence by 10
11 nn2g
mn2 g2
sn a P 4 Pg n _ 2 P c /
- g nw - tL 2 m
g c Pg ne -_ en2
The frst two factors of ths e presson become each e ua to
unty when a s nfntey sma that s to say when the wa e
ength 15 s nfntey great n comparson wth the dstance
from centre to centre of neghbourng moecues and the e presson
becomes smpy
P g c /m ....................... 20
whch s the nown eocty of propagaton of wa es n a unform
stretched cord m/ g c beng the mass per unt of ength and
P the pu.
hen a s not ero but ery sma we ha e appro matey
sna a 2 7r2 _ _1 72 c2
2 2 16 177- g
where I denotes the wa e ength. And by the appro mate
e presson 20 for or n/27r mn2 4-r2 P g c /12 appro matey. Aso because each n s ery sma n a ts near
dmensons n comparson wth 1 p /m2 and /m12 are each ery
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5 8
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N
64-66
sma and each comparabe wth g2/12. Hence the second factor of
19 becomes appro matey
12 2
1 7 2 tc
1- 4.7- or
And puttng together the two factors st appro matey
1- 2 Ig

g g c 4 -I
m af
2 12
/P g c 21
m
Ta e u 0 g c / 0 appro matey. Then
- r2 2 /P gc
L 12nm m
27r 27r .. P g c
7 I - m m
n r - 2 2
atmore ctober 5 1884.
Pg
The appro maton now consdered supposes n to be ery great
Netherha an. 14 188 .
65. THE A E THE RY LIGHT.
Lecture de ered n the Academy of Musc Phadepha under the
auspces of the ran n Insttute Sept. 29 1884.
rom ourna ran n Insttute o. L III. No . 1884 pp. 21 41
Nature o. . 1884 pp. 91-94 115-118.
Reprnted n Popuar Lectures and Addresses o. . pp. 00- 48.
66. N CA CHY S AND GREEN S D CTRINE E TRANE S
RCE T E PLAIN DYNAMICALLY RESNEL S INEMATICS
D LE RE RACTI N.
rom Edn. Roy. Soc. Proc. o. . Dec. 5 1887 pp. 21- Ph. Mag.
o. . eb. 1888 pp. 116-128.
Reprnted substantay n atmore Lectures pp. 228-248.
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1888
5 9
67. A SIMPLE HYP THESIS R ELECTR -MAGNETIC IND CTI N
INC MPLETE CIRC ITS ITH C NSE ENT E ATI NS
ELECTRIC M TI N IN I ED H M GENE S S LID MATTER.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1888 pp. 567-570 Nature
o. II. pp. 569-571.
1. To a od mathematca formuas t needed for cacuaton
consder three cases of ud moton whch for bre ty I ca
Prmary Secondary Tertary defned as foows: Haf the eocty
n the Secondary agrees numercay and drectonay wth the
magntude and a s of the moecuar spn at the correspondng
pont of the Prmary or short but compete statement the
eocty n the Secondary s twce the spn n the Prmary and
smary haf the eocty n the Tertary s the spn n the
Secondary.
2. In the Secondary and Tertary the moton s essentay
wthout change of densty and n each of them we naturay
therefore ta e an ncompressbe fud as the substance. The
moton n the Prmary we arbtrary restrct by ta ng ts fud
aso as ncompressbe.
. Hemhot frst so ed the probem: G en the spn n
any case of ud moton to fnd the moton. Hs souton
conssts n fndng the potentas of three dea dstrbutons of
gra tatona matter ha ng denstes respect ey e ua to 1/47r
of the rectanguar components of the g en spn and regardng
for a moment these potentas as rectanguar components of eocty
n a case of ud moton ta ng the spn n ths moton as the
eocty n the re ured moton. Appyng ths souton to fnd
the eocty n our Secondary from the eocty n our Tertary
we see that the three eocty components n our Prmary are
the potentas of three dea dstrbutons of gra tatona matter
I use ud for bre ty to sgnfy ncompressbe fud
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540
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N
67
ha ng ther denstes respect ey e ua to 1/47r of the three
eocty components of our Tertary. Ths proposton s pro ed
n a moment n 5 beow by e pressng the eocty components
of our Tertary n terms of those of our Secondary and those of
our Secondary n terms of those of our Prmary and then emnatng the eocty components of Secondary so as to ha e those
of Tertary drecty n terms of those of Prmary.
4. Consder now n a f ed sod or sods of no magnetc
susceptbty any case of eectrc moton n whch there s no
change of eectrfcaton and therefore no ncompete eectrc
crcut or whch s the same any case of eectrc moton n
whch the dstrbuton of eectrc current agrees wth the dstrbuton of eocty n a case of ud moton. Let ths case
wth eocty of ud numercay e ua to 47r tmes the eectrc
current densty be our Tertary. The eocty n our correspondng Secondary s then the magnetc force of the eectrc
current systemt and the eocty n our Prmary s what
Ma we has we caed the eectro-magnetc momentum at any
pont of the eectrc current system and the rate of decrease
per unt of tme of any component of ths ast eocty at any
pont s the correspondng component of eectro-mot e force due
to eectro-magnetc nducton of the eectrc current system when
t e perences any change. Ths eectro-mot e force combned
wth the eectrostatc force f there s any consttutes the whoe
eectro-mot e force at any pont of the system. Hence by hm s
aw each component of eectrc current at any pont s e ua to
the eectrc conduct ty mutped nto the sum of the correspondng component of eectrostatc force and the rate of decrease
per unt of tme of the correspondng component of eocty of
ud n our Prmary.
5. To e press a ths n symbos et u1 wI u w2
and u w denote rectanguar components of the eocty at
tme t and pont y of our Prmary Secondary and Tertary.
e ha e 1
dw1 d du1 dw d - d1u
dy d d d d dy...... 1
rom Posson s we- nown eementary theorem 2 - 47rp.
Eectrostatcs and Magnetsm 517 postscrpt c .
Eectrcty and Magnetsm 604.
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1888 TENTATI E E ATI NS R ELECTRIC PR PAGATI N 541
dw d 2 du2 d d 2 du.
C - - - -y -- - ...... 2 .
dy d d d d dy
Emnatng u2 2 w2 from 2 by 1 we fnd
d fd u d y dw /d u d2 du..
d u dy d 2 _ d t- dy2 t d 2 amp c.... .
ut by our assumpton 2 of ncompressbty n the Prmary
du d dw4
da dy- d 4 .
Hence becomes
- 2 1 - 2 1 w - 2w1......... 5
where as n Artce . No ember 1846 of my Coected
Mathematca and Physca Papers o. I.
d2 d2 d2
2 d-.................. 6 .
d 2 dy2 d 2 6
Ths 5 s the promsed proof of .
6. Let now u w denote the components of eectrc current
at y n the eectrc system of 4 so that
47ru u - 2u 4Tr y - 2 4rw - 2w... 7
whch n rtue of 4 g e
du d dw
d dy d
Hence the components of eectro-mot e force due to change of
current beng 4
du d dw
dt dt dt
are e ua to
du d dw
47r -2 r -2 4 7r -2d..-2.. 9
w dt 7 dt dt
and therefore f T denote eectrostatc potenta we ha e for the
e uatons of the eectrc moton . 4
1 /I du 1 dd
w 2- -2 - -1
c dt 47r d .....
where denotes 1/47r of the specfc resstance.
Ma we for uaternonc reasons ta es 2 the negat e of mne.
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542
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N
67
7. As T s ndependent of t accordng to 4 we may
con enenty for a moment put
d__ dP d
u / ...... 1
d dy cd
and so fnd as e u aents to 10
d d 2 dt 2 ..... 12 .
The nterpretaton of ths emnaton of T may be ustrated
by consderng for e ampe a fnte porton of homogeneous sod
conductor of any shape a ong thn wre wth two ends or a
short thc wre or a sod gobe or a ump of any shape of
copper or other meta homogeneous throughout wth a constant
fow of eectrcty mantaned through t by eectrodes from a
otac battery or other source of eectrc energy and wth proper
appances o er ts whoe boundary so reguated as to eep any
g en constant potenta at e ery pont of the boundary whe
currents are caused to crcuate through the nteror by aryng
currents n crcuts e teror to t. There beng no changng
eectrfcaton by our supposton of 4 P can ha e no contrbuton from eectrfcaton wthn our conductor and therefore
throughout our fed
2T 0........................... 1
whch wth 8 and 11 g es
da d 0.............. 14
da dy d
etween 12 and 14 we ha e four e uatons for three un nown
uanttes. These n the case of homogeneousness c constant are
e u aent to ony three because n ths case 14 foows from
12 pro ded 14 s satsfed ntay and the proper surface
condton s mantaned to pre ent any oaton of t from
super enng.
ut uness s constant throughout our fed the four e uatons
12 and 14 are mutuay nconsstent from whch t foows
that our supposton of unchangngness of eectrfcaton 4 s not
generay true. An nterestng and mportant practca concuson
s that when currents are nduced n any way n a sod composed
of parts ha ng dfferent eectrc conduct tes peces of copper
and ead for e ampe f ed together n metac contact there
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1888 TENTATI E E ATI NS R ELECTRIC PR PAGATI N 54
must n genera be changng eectrfcaton o er e ery nterface
between these parts. Ths concuson was not at frst ob ous to
me but t ought to be so by anyone approachng the sub ect
wth mnd undsturbed by mathematca formuas.
8. eng thus warned off heterogeneousness unt we come
to consder changng eectrfcaton and ncompete crcuts et us
appy 10 to an nfnte homogeneous sod. As 8 hods through
a space accordng to our supposton n 4 and as s constant
1 must now hod through a space and therefore 0 whch
reduces 10 to
1 da 1 d 1 dw
u - 2 - _-... 15 .
dt dt dt
These e uatons e press smpy the nown aw of eectromagnetc nducton. Ma we s e uatons 7 of 78 of hs
Eectrcty and Magnetsm become n ths case
h 47rC t dt 2 amp c............. 15
whch cannot be rght I thn accordng to any conce abe
hypothess regardng eectrc conduct ty whether of metas or
stones or gums or resns or wa or sheac or nda-rubber or
gutta-percha or gasses or sod or ud eectroytes beng as
seems to me tated for compete crcuts by the curous and
ngenous but as seems to me not whoy tenabe hypothess
whch he ntroduces n 610 for ncompete crcuts.
9. The hypothess whch I suggest for ncompete crcuts
and conse uenty aryng eectrfcaton s smpy that the
components of the eectro-mot e force due to eectro-magnetc
nducton are st 47r -2du/dt amp c. Thus for the e uatons of
moton we ha e smpy to eep e uatons 10 unchanged whe
not mposng 8 but nstead of t ta ng /2du d _dw ddp
4r - d - d dt....dp 16
d dy dt dt
where p denotes 47r tmes the eectrc densty at tme t and pace
y and denotes the number of eectrostatc unts n the
Namey the fundamenta postuate that rate of change of eectrc dspacement operates as current and so ma es a currents fow effect ey n compete
crcuts. The present paper now ony of hstorca nterest represents probaby
the resut of a sur ey of Ma we s scheme prompted by Hert s then recent
dsco ery of eectrc wa es.
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544
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N
67
eectro-magnetc unt of eectrc uantty. Ths e uaton e presses that the eectrfcaton of whch T s the potenta
dmnshes and ncreases n any pace accordng as eectrcty
fows more out than n or more n than out. e thus ha e four
e uatons 10 and 16 for our four un nowns u w P and
I fnd smpe and natura soutons wth nothng ague or dffcut
to understand or to bee e when understood by ther appcaton
to practca probems or to conce abe dea probems such as
the transmsson of ordnary or teephonc sgnas aong submarne
teegraph conductors and and nes eectrc oscatons n a fnte
nsuated conductor of any form transference of eectrcty through
an nfnte sod amp c. amp c. Ths howe er does not pro e my
hypothess. E perment s re ured for nformng us as to the
rea eectro-magnetc effects of ncompete crcuts and as
Hemhot has remar ed t s not easy to magne any nd of
e perment whch coud decde between dfferent hypotheses
whch may occur to anyone tryng to e o e out of hs nner
conscousness a theory of the mutua force and nducton between
ncompete crcuts.
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1888
545
68. N THE TRANS ERENCE ELECTRICITY ITHIN A
H M GENE S S LID C ND CT R.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1888 pp. 570 571 Nature
o. III. p. 571.
LD PTING the notaton and formuas of my pre ous paper
s pra p. 5 9 and ta ng p to denote 47r tmes the eectrc
densty at tme t and pace y we ha e
_p 2T 47r 2f du d dwA.
47r. d- a dt.........1
- d dy d
and emnatng u w T by ths from 10 we fnd on the
assumpton of constant
d 7 dp
ct dt2 - 2p._ .................. 18 .
The settement of boundary condtons when a fnte pece of
sod conductor s the sub ect n o es consderaton of t w
and for t therefore e uatons 17 and 12 must be ta en nto
account but when the sub ect s an nfnte homogeneous sod
whch for smpcty we now suppose t to be 18 suffces. It s.
nterestng and hepfu to remar that ths agrees wth the e uaton
for the densty of a scous eastc fud found from Sto es s
e uatons for sound n ar wth scosty ta en nto account and
that the aues of u w g en by 17 and 10 when p has
been determned agree wth the eocty components of the
eastc fud f the smpe and natura enough supposton be made
that scous resstance acts ony aganst change of shape and not
aganst change of oume wthout change of shape.
or a type-souton assume
27r 27ry 27r
Ae- t cos - cos cos......... 19
a b c
. I .
5
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546 ELASTIC PR PAGATI N 68-70
and we fnd by substtuton n 18
/ 2
2 -L2 2 o..................... 20
- 120. 20
where L-2 47r2 .................. 21 .
Hence by souton of the uadratc 20 for
- L2 - - 2.......... . 22 .
In the Communcaton to the Secton numerca ustratons
of non-oscatory and of oscatory dscharge were g en.
69. I E APPLICATI NS RIER S LA DI SI N
ILL STRATED Y A DIAGRAM C R ES ITH A S L TE
N MERICAL AL ES.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1888 pp. 571-574 Nature o. III.
pp. 571-57 .
Reprnted n Math. and Phys. Papers o. III. Art. c . pp. 428-4 5.
70. DISC SSI N N LIGHTNING C ND CT RS AT THE
RITISH ASS CIATI N.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1888 pp. 60 -606 Nature o. III.
ct. 4 1888 p. 546.
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1890
547
71. N THE RE LE I N AND RE RACTI N LIGHT.
rom Ph. MIa . o. I. pp. 414-425 No . 1888 and pp. 500 501
Dec. 1888.
E tracts reprnted n atmore Lectures pp. 174 51- 54 407.
72. ETHER ELECTRICITY AND P NDERA LE MATTER.
rom nst. Eec. Engneers ourna o. III. 1890 pp. 4- 7 Inaugura
Address an. 10 1889 .
Reprnted n Math. and Phys. Papers o. III. Art. c. pp. 484-515.
7 . N A MECHANISM R THE C NSTIT TI N ETHER.
rom Ecdn. Roy. Soc. Proc. o. II. March 17 1890 pp. 127-1 2.
Reprnted n MIath. and Phys. Papers o. III. Art. c. pp. 466-472.
74. M TI N A ISC S LI ID E ILI RI M R M TI N
AN ELASTIC S LID E ILI RI M R M TI N AN
IDEAL S STANCE CALLED R RE ITY ETHER MECHANICAL REPRESENTATI N MAGNETIC RCE.
rtten for Math. and Phys. Papers o. III. Art. c . May 1890
pp. 4 6-465.
5-2
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548 75
75. PRELIMINARY E PERIMENTS R C MPARING THE DISCHARGE
A LEYDEN AR THR GH DI ERENT RANCHES A
DI IDED CHANNEL. y L RD EL IN and ALE ANDER
GALT.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1894 pp. 555 556.
IN these e perments the metac part of the dscharge channe
was d ded between two nes of conductng meta each consstng n part of a test-wre the other parts of the two nes
beng wres of dfferent shape matera and neghbourhood of
whch the uates n respect to facty of dscharge through
them are to be compared.
The two test-wres were as neary as we ha e been htherto
abe to get them e ua and smar and smary mounted. Each
test-wre was 51 cm. of patnum wre of 006 cm. dameter and
12 ohms resstance stretched straght between two meta termnas
at the ends of a gass tube. ne end of the patnum wre was
sodered to a stff sod brass mountng the other was f ed to a
fne sprng carryng a ght arm for mutpyng the moton. The
testng effect was the heat de eoped n the test-wre by the
dscharge as shown by ts eongaton the amount of whch was
udged from a cur e traced by the end of the mutpyng arm
on sooted paper carred by a mo ng cynder. Two of Lord
e n s ertca eectrostatc otmeters sutabe respect ey for
otages of about 10 000 and 1 500 were ept constanty wth
ther cases connected wth the outer coatngs of the eyden and
ther nsuated pates wth the nsde coatngs of the eyden.
I. In the e perments htherto made the two wres to be
tested ha e generay been of the same ength. hen they were
of the same matera but of dfferent dameters the testng
eongaton showed as was to be e pected that the test-wre n
the branch contanng the thc er wre was more heated than the
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18941 DISR PTI E DISCHARGE IN DI IDED CIRC IT
549
test-wre n the other branch. In a contnuaton of the e perments we hope to compare hoow and tubuar wres of the same
e terna dameter and same ength and same matera.
II. th wres of dfferent non-magnetc matera-for e ampe copper and patnod-of the same ength but of ery
dfferent dameters so as to ha e the same resstances the testng
eongatons were ery neary e ua.
III. In one seres of e perments the tested conductors were
two bare copper wres each 16 cm. dameter 9 metres ong and
resstance 085 ohm whch t w be obser ed s ery sma n
comparson wth the 12 ohms n each of the patnum test-wres.
ne of the copper wres was coed n a unform he of forty
turns on a gass tube of 7 cm. dameter. The ength of the he
was 5 cm. and the dstance from centre to centre of neghbourng
turns therefore 7 cm. The mdde of the other copper wre was
hung by s thread from the ceng and the two ha es passed
down through the ar to the ponts of uncton n the crcut.
The eongaton of the test-wre n ths channe was more than
twce as much as that of the test-wre n the channe of whch
the he was part.
I . ne hundred and se enty-one arnshed peces of straght
soft ron wre were paced wthn the gass tube whch was as
many as t coud ta e. Ths made the testng eongaton ten
tmes as great n the other channe.
. The ast comparson whch we ha e made has been between
ron wre and patnod wre conductors. The ength of each was
502 5 cm. The dameter of the ron wre was 0 4 cm. and ts
resstance 6 8 ohms. The dameter of the patnod wre was
058 cm. and ts resstance 6 82 ohms. Each of these wres was
supported by a s thread from the ceng attached to ts mdde
as n III. and I . for one of the tested conductors . ourteen
e perments were made se en wth the test-wres nterchanged
reat ey to the branches n whch they were paced for the frst
se en. The foowng tabe shows the means of the resuts thus
obtaned wth detas regardng the eectrostatc capactes of the
eyden- ars and the otages concerned n the resuts.
In each case four eyden- ars connected to ma e rtuay one
of capacty 02742 mcrofarad were charged up to 9 000 ots and
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550
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N
75
dscharged through d ded channe. The energy therefore n
the eyden before dscharge was 11 105 106 ergs. In each of the
frst three cases 1 450 ots were found remanng n the ars after
dscharge n each of the ast four 1 400.
Eongaton of testng wres n cms.
Energy remanng n eyden Energy used
after dscharge In channe contan- In channe contanng patnod ng ron
means means
29 106 ergs 10-82 106 ergs -01794 01226 -01861 01829 -01247 -012 9
-018 2 01244
27 106 ergs 10-84 106 ergs -0182 -01276
-01828 6 01280 01828 01244
01865 -01244
The mode of measurng the eongaton of the test-wres was
as may be understood from the precedng descrpton somewhat
crude but t s reassurng to see that the mean resuts n the
cases of 10 82 and 10 84 megaergs of energy used are so neary
e ua. The ratos for the two crcuts are n the two cases
respect ey 1 48 and 1-46. The concuson that the heatng effect
n the test-wre n seres wth the patnod wre s neary one-anda-haf tmes as great as that of the test-wre n seres wth the
ron s certany nterestng not ony n tsef but n reaton to
Professor er Lodge s e ceedngy nterestng and nstruct e
e perments on aternat e paths for the dscharge of eyden- ars
descrbed n hs boo on Lghtnng Conductors and Lghtnng
Guards whch were not decs e n showng any genera superorty
of copper o er ron of the same steady ohmc resstance but e en
showed n some cases a seemng superorty of the ron for effcency
n the dscharge of a eyden- ar. ur resut s ute such as mght
ha e been e pected from e perments made eght years ago by
Lord Rayegh and descrbed n hs paper n the Sef-nducton
and Resstance of Compound Conductors .
Ph. Mag. o. II. 1886 p. 469.
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1898 551
76. THE DYNAMICAL THE RY RE RACTI N DISPERSI N
AND AN MAL S DISPERSI N.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1898 pp. 782 78 Nature o. L III.
ct. 6 1898 pp. 546 547.
Reprnted substantay n atmore Lectures p. 148.
77. C NTIN ITY IN ND LAT RY THE RY C NDENSATI NALRARE ACTI NAL A ES IN GASES LI IDS AND S LIDS
DIST RTI NAL A ES IN S LIDS ELECTRIC A ES
IN ALL S STANCES CAPA LE TRANSMITTING THEM AND
RADIANT HEAT ISI LE LIGHT LTRA- I LET LIGHT.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 1898 pp. 78 -787 Nature o. LI .
No . 17 1898 pp. 56 57 Ph. MIag. o. L I. No . 1898 pp. 494-500.
Reprnted n atmore Lectures pp. 148-162.
78. N THE RE LECTI N AND RE RACTI N S LITARY PLANE
A ES AT A PLANE INTER ACE ET EEN T IS TR PIC
ELASTIC MEDI MS- L ID S LID R ETHER.
rom Ednb. Roy. Soc. Proc. o. II. Dec. 19 1898 pp. 66- 78 Ph.
Mag. o. L II. eb. 1899 pp. 179-191.
Reprnted substantay n atmore Lectures 112-121.
79. APPLICATI N SELLMEIER S DYNAMICAL THE RY T THE
DAR LINES D1 D2 PR D CED Y S DI M- AP R.
rom Ednb. Roy. Soc. Proc. o. II. eb. 6 1899 pp. 52 -5 1 Ph.
Mag. o. L II. March 1899 pp. 02- 08.
Reprnted n atmore Lectures pp. 176-184.
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552 ELASTIC PR PAGATI N 80 81
80. N THE APPLICATI N RCE ITHIN A LIMITED SPACE
RE IRED T PR D CE SPHERICAL S LITARY A ES R
TRAINS PERI DIC A ES TH SPECIES E I L MINAL AND IRR TATI NAL IN AN ELASTIC S LID.
rom Ph. Mag. o. L II. May 1899 pp. 480-49 o. L III. August
1899 pp. 227-2 6 ct. 1899 pp. 88- 9 aso read as a Presdenta
Address before London Mathematca Socety cf. o. I. une 8 1899
p. 147.
Reprnted n atmore Lectures pp. 190-219.
81. N THE M TI N PR D CED IN AN IN INITE ELASTIC S LID
Y THE M TI N THR GH THE SPACE CC PIED Y IT A
DY ACTING N IT NLY Y ATTRACTI N R REP LSI N.
rom Edn. Roy. Soc. Proc. o. III. uy 16 1900 pp. 218-2 5
Ph. Nag. o. L. Aug. 1900 pp. 181-198 Congres Internatonae de
Phys ue d I E poston de 1900 o. II. pp. 1-22.
Reprnted n atmore Lectures Append A pp. 468-485.
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1900
55
82. N THE D TIES ETHER R ELECTRICITY AND
M LG ET rMI
rom Ph. Mag. o. L. Sept. 1900 pp. 05- 07.
19. IN my paper pubshed n the ast number of the
Phosophca Maga ne of whch ths s a contnuaton I mted
mysef to a probem of mathematca dynamcs and merey
suggested the possbty of fndng n t an e panaton of the
fundamenta dffcuty n the nduatory Theory of Lght referred
to n the frst and ast paragraphs 1 18 . The foowng
communcaton s the substance of a suppementary statement
reatng to that paper g en oray to the Congres Internatona de Phys ue at a meetng hed n Pars ast ednesday
August 8 .
20. I now cannot resst the temptaton to spea of efforts
whch occupy me to fnd proper assumptons for ncudng somethng of the aed sub ects mentoned n the footnote on 1.
21. or atoms: of eectrcty whch foowng Larmor I at
present ca eectrons t ne taby occurs to suggest a speca
cass of atoms not fufng the condton stated n nes 12-22
of 5.
Thus a post e eectront woud be an atom whch by attracton
condenses ether nto the space occuped by ts oume and a
negat e eectron woud be an atom whch by repuson rarefes
the ether remanng n the space occuped by ts oume. The
stress produced n the ether outsde two such atoms by the
attractons or repusons whch they e ert on the ether wthn
them woud cause apparent attracton between a post e and a
The numberng of the sectons s contnuous wth that of No. 81.
It seems probabe that ths may be the resnous eectrfcaton but t may
possby be the treous. It must be remembered that treous eectrfcaton has
htherto been caed post e merey because t s t whch s g en by the prme
conductor of the od ordnary eectrc machne.
5-5
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554
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N
82
negat e eectron and apparent repuson between two eectrons
both post e or both negat e.
22. ut these apparent attractons and repusons woud
ncrease much more wth dmnshed dstance than accordng to
the Newtonan aw of the n erse s uare. Ths aw whch we
now from Couomb and Ca endsh to be true for eectrc
attractons and repusons cannot be e paned by stress n ether
accordng to any nown or htherto magned propertes of eastc
matter. ut a ery smpe hypothess assumng acton at dstances
between dfferent portons of ether e pans t perfecty. Consder
two portons of ether occupyng nfntesma oumes at
dstance D asunder. My hypothess s that they repe mutuay
wth a force e ua to
p- . p - 1
I _D P .................. 1
where p p denote the denstes of the two portons of ether
consdered and 1 s the natura densty of undsturbed ether.
Ths ma es the force repuson or attracton accordng as p - 1
p -1 are of the same or of opposte sgns and ero f ether
s ero whch means that ether of undsturbed natura densty
e perences nether attracton nor repuson from any other porton
of ether far or near .
2 . Ths cosey resembes Aepnus doctrne of the mdde
of the eghteenth century commony referred to as the onefud theory of eectrcty but now nstead of eectrc fud we
ha e ether an eastc sod per adng a space. Accordng to
our present hypothess smar eectrc atoms repe one another
and dssmar attract n rtue of force between each atom and
the porton of ether wthn t and mutua repuson or attracton
of these portons of ether wth no contrbut e acton of the ether
n the space around them and between them.
24. Stress n ether beng thus freed from the mpossbe tas
of transmttng both eectrostatc and magnetc force s we may
we magne ute competent to perform the smper duty of
transmttng magnetc force aone.
25. Htherto one seemngy nsuperabe obstace aganst.
foowng up ths dea to practca rea aton has been the
greatness of the force n many we nown cases of magnetc
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1900
TENTATI E ETHER-THE RY
555
attracton between ron poes whether due to stee magnets or
eectromagnets. Consderng that n our most decate e perments n arous branches of scence ponderabe bodes arge and
sma are obser ed to be mo ed freey by forces of ess than a
thousandth of the hea ness of a mgram how can we conce e
the ether through whch they mo e to be capabe of the stress
re ured for the transmsson of force between fat poes of an
eectromagnet amountng per s uare centmetre to more than two
hundredt tmes the hea ness of a ogram Ths dffcuty s
annued f we adopt the hypothess whch I ha e descrbed to
the Congres 2 abo e . e may now suppose the densty of
ether as great as we pease sub ect ony to the mtaton that t
must not be so great as to dsturb sensby the proportonaty of
effect e nerta to gra ty n dfferent nds of matter pro ed by
Newton n hs penduum e perment for ead brass gass amp c.
and by hs nterpretaton of eper s thrd aw for the dfferent
panets of our system. Probaby we mght safey f we wshed t
assume the densty of ether to be as much as 10-6. I am content
at present howe er to suggest 10-9. Ths wth the eocty of
ght 00 000 ometres per second ma es the rgdty beng
densty s uare of eocty e ua to 9.101 dynes per s uare
centmetre whch s somewhat greater than the rgdty of stee
7.101 . It s ceary not for want of strength that we need
ueston the competence of ether to transmt magnetc force
I confess that I now fee hopefu of seeng so ed some of the
other formdabe dffcutes whch meet e ery effort to e pan
eectrc nsuaton and conducton and eectromagnetc force and
the magnetc force of a stee magnet by defnte mechanca acton
of ether.
I cannot wthout ambguty use the smpe word weght here because ths
word means egay a mass and s practcay used more often to sgnfy a mass.
than the gra tatona hea ness of a mass.
t The most ntense magnetc fed htherto measured s I bee e that of Dubos
see hs Report on Magnetsm to ths Congress see under No. 81 n whch he
found 76 000 c.G.s. between two sma pane end-faces of soft ron poes of a
powerfu eectromagnet. Ths ma es the attracton per s uare centmetre of
ether face 76 000 2-87r or appro matey 2 .107 dynes or 2 0 ograms.
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556
8
8 . A NE SPECI YING METH D R STRESS AND STRAIN
IN AN ELASTIC S LID.
rom Edn. Roy. Soc. Proc. o. I . an. 20 1902 pp. 97-101
Ph. Mag. o. II. an. 1902 pp. 95-97 Apr 1902 pp. 444-448.
THE method for specfyng stress and stran htherto foowed
by a wrters on eastcty has the great dsad antage that t
essentay re ures the stran to be nfntey sma. As a
notatona method t has the ncon enence that the specfyng
eements are.of two essentay dfferent nds n the notaton
of Thomson and Tat e f g smpe eongatons a b c shearngs .
oth these fauts are a oded f we ta e the s engths of the
s edges of a tetrahedron of the sod or what amounts to the
same though ess smpe the three pars of face-dagonas of a
he ahedron as the specfyng eements. Ths I ha e thought
of for the ast thrty years but not t to-day Dec. 16 ha e
I seen how to ma e t con enenty practcabe especay for
t appcaton to the genera ed dynamcs of a crysta.
1. e sha suppose the sod to be a homogeneous crysta of
-any possbe character. Cut from t a tetrahedron A CD of any
shape and orentaton. Let the three non-ntersectng pars A
CD C AD CA D of ts s edges be denoted by
p r r .............. 1 .
Ths notaton g es
p p .................. 2
for the s edges of a tetrahedron smar to A CD formed by
ta ng for ts corners a y 8 the centres of gra tyt of the four
Ths name sgnfyng a fgure bounded by three pars of parae panes s
admtted n crystaography but the onger and ess e press e paraeepped s
too fre uenty used nstead of t by mathematca wrters and teachers. A he ahedron wth ts anges acute and obtuse s what s commony caed both n pure
mathematcs and crystaography a rhombohedron. A rght-anged he ahedron s
a brc for whch no Gree or other earned name s htherto to the front n usage
A rectanguar e uatera he ahedron s a cube.
t or bre ty I sha henceforth ca the centre of gra ty of a trange or of
a tetrahedron smpy ts centre.
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1902 NE SPECI ICATI N STRESS AND STRAIN
557
tranguar faces CD CDA DA A C respect ey so that we
ha e p ac 8y r yc/ p y8 aS r / . Consder now
n ad ance the amounts of wor done by the s pars of baancng
forces consttutng the s stress-components descrbed n 2
when the stran-components ary for e ampe the baancng
pus P parae to A when a/ ncreases from p to p dp. a
the other f e engths r p r remanng constant. or the
rec onng of wor we may suppose the opposte forces P to be
apped at a and / nstead of beng e uaby dstrbuted o er the
faces ADC DC. Hence the wor whch they do s Pdp and
other f e pars of baancng pus R P R do no wor .
2. Parae to the edge A appy to the faces ADC DC e ua
and opposte pus P e uay dstrbuted o er them. These two
baancng pus we sha ca a stress or a stress-component.
Smary parae to each of the f e other edges appy baancng
pus on the par of faces cuttng t. Thus we ha e n a s
stress-components parae to the s edges of the tetrahedron
denoted as foows:
P P . R R ...............
and we suppose that these forces apped as they are to the
surface of the sod are baanced n rtue of the mutua forces
between ts partces when ts edges are of the engths specfed
as n 1 . Let o po o 0 ro r o be the aues of the specfyng
eements n 2 when no forces are apped to the faces. Thus
the dfferences from these aues of the s engths shown n
formua 2 represent the stran of the substance when under the
stress represented by .
Let w be the wor done when pus upon the faces each
commencng at ero are graduay ncreased to the aues shown
n . In the course of ths process we ha e
dw Pdp P dp d d Rdr R dr ... 4 .
. Hence f we suppose w e pressed as a functon of p p
r r we ha e
dw dw dw dw dw dw R
P P . d r dR
dap dp d ddr d......... 4 .
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558
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N
8
Ths competes the foundaton of the moar dynamcs of an
eastc sod of the most genera possbe nd accordng to Green s
theory e pressed n terms of the new mode of specfyng stresses
and strans.
4. To understand thoroughy the state of stran specfed by
1 or 2 et the tetrahedron of reference Ao oCoDo for the
condton of ero stran and stress be e uatera that s to say
accordng to the notaton of 2 1 et I of each edge
Po o ro o o ro .
In Ao oCoDo nscrbe a spherca surface touchng each of the s
edges. Its centre must be at 0 the centre of the tetrahedron
and the ponts of contact must be the mdde ponts of the edges.
Ater the sod by homogeneous stran to the condton p r
p r n whch Ao oCoDo becomes A CD. The nscrbed
spherca surface becomes an epsod ha ng ts centre at the
centre of A CD and touchng ts s edges at ther mdde
ponts t. Ths epsod shows fuy and ceary the state of stran
specfed by p r p r . It s what s caed the stran
epsod.
5. Two ways of fndng the epsod touchng the s edges
of a tetrahedron are ob ous. 1 Through A and CD draw
panes respect ey parae to CD and A and dea smary
wth the two other pars of non-ntersectng edges. The three
pars of parae panes thus found consttute a he ahedron whch
contans the re ured epsod touchng the s faces at ther
centres or 2 draw A C D and produce to e ua
dstances A C D beyond . e thus fnd four
ponts A C D whch wth A C D are the eght corners
of the he ahedron whch we found by constructon 1 . A crcumscrbed he ahedron beng thus g en the prncpa a es of the
epsod and ther orentaton are found by the souton of a cubc
e uaton.
6. Another way of fndng the stran-epsod whch s n
some respects smper and whch has the ad antage that n ts
Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy 155 Eements 1 6.
t Thus we ha e an nterestng theorem n the geometry of the tetrahedron:If an epsod touchng the edges of a tetrahedron has ts centre at the centre of
the tetrahedron the ponts of contact are at the mddes of the edges.
Thomson and Tat s Natura Phosophy 100 Eements 141.
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1902 NE SPECI ICATI N STRESS AND STRAIN
559
constructon t does not ta e us outsde the boundary of our
fundamenta tetrahedron s as foows:-In the e uatera tetrahedron Ao o CoDo descrbe from ts centre 0 a spherca surface
touchng any three of ts faces. It touches these faces at ther
centres and t aso touches the fourth face and at ts centre.
Hence f we so e the determnate one-soutona probem to
draw an epsod touchng at ther centres any three of the four
faces of any tetrahedron A CD and ha ng ts centre at ths
epsod touches at ts centre the fourth face of the tetrahedron
and t s the stran-epsod for the homogeneous stran by whch
an e uatera tetrahedron of sod s atered to the fgure A CD.
7. To brng our new method of specfyng stran and stress
nto reaton wth the ordnary method for nfntesma strans
and the correspondng stresses:-Let denote the ength of each
edge of the e uatera tetrahedron of reference Ao oCoDo and
et h be the edge of the cube of whch A0 0 Co Do are four
corners ths cube beng the he ahedron found by appyng ether
of the constructons of 5 to the tetrahedron Ao oCoDo . The
twe e face-dagonas of ths cube are each e ua to and therefore
h 2/2. Let now the cube be nfntesmay straned so bhat ts
edges become h 1 e h 1 f h 1 g and so that the anges
n ts three pars of faces are atered from rght anges to acute
and obtuse anges dfferng respect ey by a b c from rght
anges. Ths s the stran e f g a b c n the notaton of
Thomson and Tat referred to n the ntroductory paragraph abo e.
y the nfntesma geometry of the affar we easy fnd the
correspondng ateratons of the face-dagonas whch accordng
to our present notatons are p - 1 p - 1 - 1 etc. and
thus we ha e as foows:
p- 2 f a
p - fg - a
-1 g e b
-1 g e - b .....................5
2 e f c
r-1 e f- c
for the reaton between the two specfcatons of any nfntesma
stran. Addng these and denotng e f g by s we fnd
p p r -6 2s............... 6 .
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560
ELASTIC PR PAGATI N
8
And so ng for a b c e f g n terms of p r p r we ha e
a p-p b - c r-r
e s-p-p 2 f s- - 2 g s-r-r 2 7 .
8. The wor re ured to produce an nfntesma stran
e f g a b c n a homogeneous sod of cubc crystane
symmetry s e pressed by the foowng formua:
2w a e2 f2 g2 2 fg ge ef n a2 b2 c2 .... 8 .
Ths may be con enenty modfed by puttng
2 n I -A -. ............ 9
where denotes the bu moduus and n n the two rgdtymoduuses. th ths notaton 8 becomes
2w e f g 2 2n f- g 2 g - e 2 e -f 2
n a2 b2 2 ...... 10 .
The rgdty reat e to shearngs parae to the pars of panes
of the cube or whch s the same thng changes of the anges of
the corners of the s uare faces from rght anges to acute or obtuse
anges s n . The rgdty reat e to changes of the anges
between the dagonas of the faces from rght anges to acute
or obtuse anges s n. The compressbty moduus s . sng
now 7 n 10 we ha e
2w s2 n I - - r 2 r r -p - p 2
P p- - 2 n p _- p 2 _ 2 r - r 2 ... 11 .
84. N THE ELECTR -ETHEREAL THE RY THE EL CITY
LIGHT IN GASES LI IDS AND S LIDS.
rom rtsh Assocaton Report 190 p. 5 5 Ph. M/ag. o. I. ct. 190
pp. 4 7 442.
Reprnted n atmore Lectures . pp. 46 -467.
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INDE
Acton east for orbts 51 reduced to
drawng geodetcs 521 5 1
Atoms orte pressure due to 188
Attracton due to braton 98
Cana boat wa es accompanyng 282
Capary nfuence on wa es 77
Cauchy A. L. on spreadng wa es on
water 50
Crcuaton n fud ts constancy 50
Coc astronomca 470
Compass effect of rong 464 gyrostatc 475
Conforma representaton 52
Contnued fracton Lapace s n tda
theory 2 5
Cur atura ntegra 51 521
Cycc conne ons 527 moton steady through free
perforated sod 7 101 potentas 41 se . 56
Determnacy 58 61
Dsperson arous papers on 551
Dspers e medum propagaton n 0
Dsturbed amnar moton 0
Dynamca e uatons modfed for cycc
moton through sods 101
Edge of obstace negat e fud pressure
there sp ortces shed off 217
Eastcty as a mode of moton 472
new specfcaton of stress and stran
556
Eectrc dscharge path of dsrupt e 548
Eectromagnetc propagaton n open
crcuts 5 9 n conductor 545
Epsoda hoow moton of fud n 19
Energy crteron of stabty of ortces
172 concrete e ampes 174
apped to stabty of amnar
moton 175 absoute mnmum 181 to ud gyrostat
18 aw of moecuar partton 484
e ampe 495 ma mum for g en mpuse
459 mnmum for g en
eoctes 459
Ether arous papers on 547 dutes
of 55
ow wth a stratum of ortces stabty
186 4
orces on mmersed sods 97 due to
braton 98
ourer anayss of perodc functons 5
roude R. E. on rppes 91
Go ernor new centrfuga 460 penduum
46
Groups changng of wa es 04 401
456
Gyrostat ud 129 stabty 1 18
as compass 475 e perments 482
bratons n chan of gyrostats 5
Hecoda netcs 5 2 of chan 5
Heterogeneous ud moton n 211
Impuse n fud moton determnate
15 se . conser aton of 2
change of n cosons 27 n cycc moton 6
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562
INDE
Integras prncpa aues of approprate
n braton probems 291
ets n ud 228
netc potenta for cycc moton
through sods 108 trgonometry 51
notted orte rngs 46
Lamnar moton n scous fud dsturbed 0 moton Reynods crteron
for 6 wa e-moton n turbuent
ud 08
Lght orte rng theory of 17
Magnetcs hydro netc anaogy 94 99
Magnets confguraton of foatng 1 5
Matter netc theory of 474
Mercator s pro ecton genera ed 52
527
Moecuar partton of energy 484 495
rbts graphc determnaton 516 521
52
rr . MC . on stabty of scous
fow 0
Penduum astronomca coc 46 470
Perodc motons fnte 490 stabty 515
Ponceet . . on rppes 91
Propagaton eastc 5 2
Rayegh on stabty of scous fow 0
Resstance of ar 205 to an ob uey mo ng pane
207 to bade 224 6
Reynods sborne on the crteron of
steady fow n channes 1 5
Rppes dstngushed from wa es 79
obser atons 86 mnmum eocty 91
Rong effect on compass 464
Rotatng gra tatng fud fgure of 189 water gra tatona oscatons of 141
Rotaton dfferenta fud 54
Russe . Scott on wnd and wa es 81
Shp wa es 07 pattern 41
S n resstance to fow 6
S y mac ere 457
Sp n fud moton 215 negat e
pressure at edges 217
Smo e rngs 11
Sods e uatons of moton of n ud
69 path n steady moton 72 n mo ng fud forces on 9
anaogy wth magnetcs 94
Spherca partce n fed of cycc
fud moton 109 path n smpe
case a Cotes spra 112
Stabty of rotatng gra tatng fud
189 of steady and perodc fud
moton 166 e permenta
169 174 of scous fow between two
panes 21 of fow wth a
stratum of ortces 186
14 secuar 180
Statstcs of wa e propagaton n turbuent medum 08
Tat P. G. 11 77 79
Teegraph cabes sgnas n 5 2
Therma energy aw of partton 484
Thomson ames orte of free
mobty 97
Tdes hstorca 2 1 269 Ary s
crtcsm of Lapace s theory
2 1 n symmetrca basn
248 genera souton 254 n nand sea effect of earth s
rotaton 148 Lapace s
genera souton 248
Turbuent fow 11
Twst anayss of 458
bratons of compass by rong 464
scous fow stabty 21
orte moton 1 anaogy wth
eectro-magnetsm 1 coumn bratons of 152
hoow 156 wa es on 165
176 geness of 58 149 moton statcs of 115 condton for stabty 116
Screw moton of n perfect fud 7
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INDE
56
orte ayer where fud sps 187 of free mobty 97 rng fud con ected by 7 rng nerta of 9 energy
crteron for stabty of 124
167 mpuse of 127 rngs nteracton on coson
28 rng nes of fow of 6 rng transatory moton of 6
67 rngs pressure due to mpact
of 188 pac ng of 17 sheet 209: crcuaton around
221 eocty of formaton 222 sheet unrong of 222 sponge 177 17 of coreess
faments 202
ortces confguraton of straght 1 9 coreess formaton of 149
stabty of sponge of 202 n ed 120 operatons on 178
a e moton wth cat s-eye orte
ayer 186
a es on water 270 due to snge oca
mpuse 04 deep-water two
dmensona 8 due to ocased dsturbance 40 42 deep-water shp- 68 pattern
41 amptude 416 from oca snusoda dsturbance
or pressure 4 0 4 growth
and spread of resutng tran
4 9 stabty 450 front and rear of mted tran 51 mted trans 77 meteoroogca 457 statonary on fowng water 271
due to a submerged obstace
275 295 due to unduatng
bottom 284 296 due to tra eng oca pressure
69 84 94 to two such 99
to tra eng pontoon 86
groups 401 three dmensona
407 wth wnd 76 ther sustenance
81 and caparty 77 84
nd and wa es 76 resstance 227
CAM RIDGE: PRINTED Y HN CLAY M.A. AT THE NI ERSITY PRESS.
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Coected Scentfc or s of Lord e n
A Treatse on Natura Phosophy. y Lord EL IN
and P. G. TAIT. o. I. Second Edton wth Appendces. Demy 8 o.
Part I. 1879. pp. 508. 16s. Part II. 188 . pp. 527. 18s.
Eements of Natura Phosophy. y Lord EL IN and
P. G. TAIT. Demy 8 o. 187 pp. 9s.
Mathematca and Physca Papers. Demy 8 o.
o. I. I-L III many 1841 5 . 1882. pp. 558. 18s.
o. II. L I - CI many Apr 185 - eb. 1856. 1884. pp.
407. 15s.
o. III. cII-cI many Eastcty Heat Eectromagnetsm. 1890.
pp. 529. 18s.
o. I . 1-84 many Hydrodynamcs Genera Dynamcs. 1910.
pp. 56 . 18s.
o. many Thermodynamcs Cosmca and Geoogca Physcs
Eectrodynamcs and Eectroyss Moecuar and Crystane Theory
Radoact ty and Eectronc Theory. In the Press.
atmore Lectures on Moecuar Dynamcs and the
a e Theory of Lght foowed by twe e Appendces on aed
sub ects. Demy 8 o. 1904. pp. 70 . 15s. net.
L ND N: CAM RIDGE NI ERSITY PRESS: ETTER LANE
Reprnt of Papers on Eectrostatcs and Magnetsm.
Second edton 1884 pp. 592. ut of prnt.
Popuar Lectures and Addresses. Cr. 8 o.
o. I. Consttuton of Matter. 1889. pp. 460. ut of prnt.
o. II. Geoogy and Genera Physcs. 1894. pp. 600. 7s. 6d.
o. III. Na gatona affars. 1891. pp. 512. ut of prnt.
L ND N: MACMILLAN amp C . LTD
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