Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Abstract:
It is almost impossible to imagine soil without atleast trace levels of
heavy metals. Natural and anthropogenic activities concentrated some of
these elements in certain areas upto hazardous levels for living organisms.
The non-biodegradable metals accumulate in the environment and
subsequently contaminate the food chain. The elevated level of heavy
metals poses a risk to human health. These heavy metals drastically can alter
the metabolic activities of organism. Heavy metals may be carcinogenic,
mutagenic and teratogenic. Thus phytoremediation of heavy metals deserves
great attention. Most of the conventional remedial technologies are
expensive and may inhibit the soil fertility. In contrast, phytoremediation is
a cost effective, environmentally friendly pleasing approach most suitable
for developing countries. Among several subsets of phytoremediation, the
widely studied strategies are (a) phytoextration, (b) phytofiletreation, (c)
phytovolatilization, (d) phytostabilization, (e) phytodegradation and (f)
rhizodegradation. Now a days new efficient metal hyperaccumulators are
being used in phytoremediation & phytomining. Various techniques to
enhance phytoremediation and utilization of by-products have been
elaborated. Present investigation reports about the mobility, bioavailablity
and plant response to heavy metals and future trends in phytoremediation to
remediate the soil and water contaminated with heavy metals.
Key words: Environmental pollution, Heavy metals, Phytoremediation
Hyperaccumulator
1
1.
Introduction
Anthropogenic activities like mining,
and
Ochaia (1987) pointed out that the molecular mechanisms of meals ion
toxicity can be divided into following five general groups (i) Displacing
essential metals ions from bio-molecules and other biologically functional
units, (ii) Inhibiting the synthesis of essential functional groups of biomolecules including enzymes and polynucleotides, (iii) Modifying the
conformation of biomolecules likes enzymes and polynucleotide, (iv)
Disrupting the integrity of biomolecules, (v) Modifying other biologically
active compounds.
4.
et.
al.
(2002)
have
domostrated
the
physiological
and
molecular
analyses
of
building
maps
hyperaccumulation
of
and
quantitative
tolerance
in
trait
Loci
model
(QTLs)
plants
and
for
in
Phytoremediation Technologies
Phytoremediation exploits plants innate biological mechanism for
(iii)
Phytosabilization,
(iv)
Phytovolatilization
(v)
When
maximum
plant
growth
and
metal
be
used
in
phytoextraction
should
possess
following
characteristics.
(a) Easy cultivation and harvest.
(b) Enhanced growth rate.
(c) Profusely branched root and shoot system.
(d) Widely distributed.
(e) Hyperaccumulating nature.
(f) Translocation of accumulated heavy metals from roots to shoots.
(g) Tolerant to heavy metals.
(h) Production of high biomass.
(i) Resistance to pathogens & pests.
(5.2) Phytofiltration:
In Phytofiltration plant roots (rhizofiltration) or seedlings (blasto
filtration) are grown in aerated water from where they participate and
concentrate toxic metals from contaminated effluents (Raskin et. al.
1997). In other words phytofiltration is the removed pollutants from
contaminated surface waters of or waste waters by plants
(Mukhopadhyay and Maiti, 2010). The techniques involve growing
10
(5.3) Phytostabilization:
It is also termed as phytorestoration or phytoimmobilization. It
is a technique used for stabilization of contaminants in contaminated
environment (Singh, 2012). In this remedial technique, plant
stabilizes wastes and prevent exposure pathway though wind & water
erosion, enables hydraulic control that restricts the vertical migration
of pollutants into ground
Se (Terry et al., 1992). Among the aquatic species, rice, rabbit foot
grass, Azolla and pickle weed are the best Se volatilizers (Lin
etal.2000 Zayad ital, 2000). Volatilization of Se involves assimilation
of inorganic Se into the organic selenoaminoacids selenocysteine
(SeCys) and selenomethionine (SeMet). The latter can be methylated
to form dimethylselenide (DMSe), which is volatile (Terry et al.
2000). In Hg, contaminated soil and sediments, microbial activity
converts the highly toxic Hg (II) into organomercurials and, under
optimum conditions, elemental Hg (which is far less toxic) enters the
biogeochemical cycle upon volatilization (Bizily et al. 2000). After
genetic modification of Arabidopsis thaliana L. and Nicotiana
tobaccum L. with bacterial organomercurial lyase (Mer B)
and
13
14
polychlorinated
biphenyls,
polycyclic
aromatic
certain
enzymes
capable
of
degradation
organic
desalinize the soil on which they are cultivated, especially in arid and
semiarid regions, where low precipitations expectations and
inappropriate irrigation system are unable to leach salts from the
rhizosphere. Soil phytodesalition is based on the capacity of some
halophytes to accumulate enormous sodium quantities in their shoots
(Rabhi, 2010b). Halophytic plants have been suggested to be
naturally better adapted to
Induced Phytoextration or Chelant assisted PhytoextractionThe term chelate denotes a complex between metal and a chelating
agent and not the chelating agent itself. (Nowack and Van Briesen, 2005). A
shorter word for chelating agent is chelant or chelator. It is therefore
suggested for using the term chelant- enhanced phytoextraction. The
bioavailability of heavy metals in soil is a critical factor affecting the
efficiency of phytoextraction of target heavy metals. Low bioavailability of
heavy metal is a major limiting factor for phytoextraction. In induced or
chelate- assisted phytoextraction, different chelating agents life EDTA,
HEDTA, NTA, citric acid, elemental sulfure and ammonium sulfate are
added to soil to increase the bioavailability of heavy metals in soil for
upkate by plants (Lone et al. 2008, Sinhal et al. 2010, Sun et al, 2011b).
Sinhal et al. (2010) studied the effect of EDTA and citric acid on phyto
16
extraction potential of marigold to Zn, Cu,Pb, and Cd, and noticed that
EDTA
and
citric
acid
both
efficiently
enhanced
many
fold
17
7.
Shahid et. al. (2014) studied the long term field metal extraction by
Pelargonium and its phytoextraction efficiency and noticed that lead (Pb)
was the element most efficiently transferred from soil to the plant, following
by Cd, Zn. Cu and As with BCF (Shoot) values of 0.22, 0.07, 0.05, 0.04,
0.01 and 0.05 respectively.
These low BCF (Shoot) values were due to very high concentrations
in the bulk soil, indeed. According to Liu et al. (2010) and FrancoHernandez et al. (2010), BCF (Shoot) values of heavy metals decrease with
increasing metal concentrations in the soil. Shahid et al. (2014) noticed that
most of the lead absorbed by roots is translocated to arial parts
(Translocation Factor = 1.6). Enhanced metal uptake from roots and
translocation to the shoots in hyperaccumulators in generated by specific
18
carrier protein members. Maestri et al. (2010) reviewed several studies that
reported the presence of metal transporters such as ZIP (ZRT/IRT-like
protein), CDF (cation diffusion facilitator) and HMA (Heavy metal ATPare)
among plant cells. According to Yoon et al. (2006), only plant species with
both BCF and TF greater than 1 have the potential to be used for
phytoextraction. Hyperaccumulators have BCF greater that 1 sometimes
reaching 50-100 (Cluis, 2004). BCF might have use for comparisions in
case of growing plants in homogenized soil or in hydroponic culture but has
little advantage over simple comparison of foliar metal concentration
(Vander Ent et al. 2013)
8.
19
PCS CDNA clone (Heiss et al. 2003) from Brassica juncea. There are some
examples of transgenic plants for metal tolarance/phytoremediation, as
tobacco with accumulation of Cd, Ca, and Mn transformed with gene CAX2 (vacuolar transporters) from Arabidopsis thaliana (Hirschi et. al. 2000);
A. thaliana tolerant to Al, Cu, and Na with gene Glutathione-S-transfer ase
from tobacco (Ezaki et al. 2000) and rice (Goto et al. 1998; 1999) with
increased iron accumulation with gene Ferrethin from soybean. New
metabolic pathway can be introduced into plants for hyperaccumulation or
phytovolatilization in case of Mer A and Mer B genes which were
introduced into Arabidopsis and resulted into several fold increased
tolerance to Hg and volatilization of elemental mercury (Dhankher et al.
2002; Eapen & D Souza, 2005) by transgenic Arabidopsis.
9.
21
10.
Limitations of Phytoremediation
Although phytoextraction is a cost effective promising approach for
laboratory and greenhouse scale studies and only a few studies have been
conducted to test the efficiency of phytoextraction in actual field. There are
many factors, that may affect phytoremediation in field, viz. variation in
nutrients, temperature, soil pH, precipitation, moisture and uneven
distribution of contaminants (Vangronsveld et al., 2009). Genetic evaluation
of hyperaccumulators growing in metal contaminated soil and associated
microbes would provide the researchers with a gene pool to be used in
genetic manipulation of other non-accumulators and production of
transgenics (Hooda, 2007). Phytoremediation efficiency of different plants
for specific target heavy metals has to be tested in field conditions in order
to realize the feasibility of this technology for commercialization. (Ali et al.
2013). Commercially to enhance public acceptance phytoremediation can be
integrated with landscape architecture such as remediation of partially
contaminated urban sites may be combined with an attractive design so that
the area may be used as a park or some other recreational place by the
public after remediation process. There is need to optimizing the plants for
phytoremediation and to gain new knowledge about the fate and transport of
metals/metalloid in plants and discovery of new hyperaccumulators plants
and their proper management.
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40
Plant Species
Metal
Metal
Accumulation
(mg kg-1)
Reference
1.
Alyssum murale
Ni
4730-20100
Bani et al (2010)
2.
Arabis paniculata
Cd
1127
Zeng et al (2009)
3.
Astragalus racemosus
Se
14,900
4.
Brassica juncea
Ni
3916
5.
Berkheya coddii
Ni
18000
6.
Corrigiola telephiifolia
As
2110
7.
Eichornia crassipes
Cr
6000
8.
Eleocharis acicularis
Cu
20200
Sakakibera et al (2011)
9.
Euphorbia cheiradenia
Pb
1138
10.
Ipomea alpina
Cu
12,300
11.
Isatis pinnatiloba
Ni
1441
Altinozlu et al (2012)
12.
Iberis intermedia
Ti
3070
13.
Potentilla griffithii
Zn
19,600
14.
Phragmites australis
Cr
4825
15.
Pteris vittata
As
8331
16.
Rorippa globosa
Cd
>100
17.
Sesbania drummondi
Cd
1687
Israr et el (2006)
18.
Sedum alfredii
Zn
18,799
19.
Sedum alfredii
Cd
2183
20.
Sorgham sudanense
Cu
5330
Wei et al (2008)
21.
Thlaspi calrulescons
Zn
10410
22.
Tegetus crecta
Zn
526
Sinhal et al (2010)
23.
Tegetus crecta
Pb
393
Sinhal et al (2010)
24.
Tegetus crecta
Cd
333
Sinhal et al (2010)
Hu et al. (2009)
41
Sl.No.
Process
Mechanism
Contaminant
1.
Phytoextraction
Hyperaccumulation
Inorganics
2.
Phytofilleration
Sequesteration of pollutants
Organics/Inorganics
3.
Organics/Inorganics
4.
Phytostabilization Complexation
Inorganics
5.
6.
Organics
7.
Inorganics
42
Soil
Chemistry
Plant Molecular
Biology
Environmental
Engineering
Soil
Microbiology
Phytoremediation
Ecology
Environmental
Toxicology
Plant
Genetics
Environmental
Biotechnology
43