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ME3122-1 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

2014/2015

Department of Mechanical Engineering


National University of Singapore

AS A SAFETY MEASURE, WEARING OF SHOES DURING EXPERIMENTS IS


MANDATORY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

(ii)

LIST OF TABLES

(ii)

NOMENCLATURE

(iii)

INTRODUCTION

THEORY

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

CALCULATIONS AND DISCUSSION

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1

A metal conductor with its ends exposed to two different temperatures

Figure 2

Two metal conductors made of different materials (A & C)

joined to form a junction

Figure 3

Two thermocouples connected to form hot and cold junctions

Figure 4
Figure 5

RTD construction details


Thermistor construction details

5
6

Figure 6

Thermistor bridge circuit

Figure 7

Photograph of the temperature sensor calibration unit

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Figure 8

Schematic of the temperature sensor calibration unit

12

Figure 9

Schematic of the perspex rod showing the embedded and

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surface mounted sensors


Figure 10

Mounting details of the temperature sensors

13

Figure 11

Temperature-resistance response of typical thermistor material


compared with RTD material (platinum)

14

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1

Relative sensitivities of different temperature sensors

Table 2

Calibration data

Table 3

7
11

Transient readings for temperature along perspex rod

ii

11

NOMENCLATURE

Symbol

Description

Units (SI)

ao, a1 ..... an

Arbitrary constants

Dimensionless

Resistance of temperature sensor

Temperature

Temperature difference

Voltage

Seebeck coefficient for thermocouples

V K-1

Temperature

coefficient

of

resistance

resistance thermocouples/ thermistor

iii

for
K

INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE
There are different ways of measuring the temperature at a point for heat transfer analysis in
experiments. The use of thermocouples, resistance thermometers or resistance temperature
detectors (RTD), and thermistors is the commonest. In this manual, the basic theory behind
the working principles of the three temperature sensors and a brief description of an
experimental set-up for their calibration are presented. An experimental methodology for the
use of the calibrated sensors to measure the temperature profile of a perspex rod is also
presented.
SCOPE
(i)

Calibration of three types of temperature sensors (Thermocouples, RTD and


Thermistors)

(ii)

Measurement of temperature profile along a perspex rod

(iii)

Measurement of surface temperature

THEORY
(a)

Thermocouples
(i)

Thermo-electric E.M.F.

TB
B

TA
A

Figure 1 A metal conductor with its ends exposed to two different temperatures

A temperature gradient in a continuous metal conductor causes development of a potential


difference between any two points along the conductor. This phenomenon is referred to as
Seebeck Effect.
The voltage developed is directly proportional to the temperature difference:

dV dT
Where, the constant of proportionality,
dependent on the conductor material.

(1)

is called the Seebeck coefficient which is

The voltage developed in the conductor can be expressed as:

VB VA T dT
TB

(2)

Consider a case where two wires of different metal conductors are joined together at one end
to form a junction as shown in Figure 2.

TB

TA

TC
A

Figure 2 Two metal conductors made of different materials (A & C) joined to form a junction

The potential difference between the points A and C can be expressed as:

VA VC VA VB VB VC
TA

TB

TB

TC

1 dT 2 dT

TB

TA

(3)

if TA TC

2 1 dT

TB

21 dT
TA

The coefficient 2-1 is a function of the temperature difference TA TB and is tabulated for
various combinations of wire materials at the junction. Thus, the voltage developed across the
conductors, VA VC becomes a function of the temperature difference TA TB . A sensor
created through this arrangement where, two wires of different materials are joined at one
point is called a thermocouple. With the aid of a voltage-temperature curve (calibration
curve) and a reference temperature (generally ice point) a thermocouple can be used to
measure temperature at a point where the thermocouple junction is placed.
(ii)

Measurement of temperature with respect to a reference temperature

TB

Hot Junction
B

TD

TA

Cold Junction
D
Reference
Temperature

A
E

TE

Figure 3 Two thermocouples connected to form hot and cold junctions


3

Consider the arrangement with two thermocouples connected together in a manner shown in
Figure 3. TB is the temperature to be measured and TD is the reference value. Using the
arguments in (i), the voltage developed across A and E can be expressed in the form,

VA VE VA VB VB VD VD VE

(4)

(Note: There is no potential difference across point C because the wires BC and
CD are of the same material).
TA

TB

TD

TB

TC

TE

VA VE 1 dT 2 dT 1 dT

TB

TD

if

2 1 dT

TA TE

(5)

Thus, VA - VE is a unique function of temperature TB, provided TD is a fixed reference


temperature.
The reference temperature TD can be of any fixed value. However, the reference is usually
taken to be the melting temperature of ice (0C) which is universally accepted.

2 1 a o a1T a 2T a 3T3 where a o , a1 , a 2 , a 3


constants. If T = (TB TD) is not very large, 2 1 can be taken to be a constant.
Note:

Generally

Therefore, V

V constant x T T
E
B
D

are

(6)

Equation (6) is a linear function.

(b)

Resistance Thermometers (RTD)

The resistance thermometer is a temperature sensor which operates on the principle: a change
in temperature causes a corresponding change in electrical resistance.
The resistance variation of RTD with temperature is expressed as:

R=R 0 1 (T-T0 )

(7)

Where, is the temperature coefficient of resistance of the wire material and Ro is the
resistance of the wire at a reference temperature To. Using RTD, temperature measurement is
carried out by sending a continuous direct current through the resistance element and
observing the changes in voltage that occur as a result of electrical resistance variation
resulting from a change in temperature. A calibrated RTD can be used to measure
temperature without the need of cold junction compensation.
Being a noble metal, platinum has the most stable resistance-temperature relationship over
the largest temperature range. It has a linear resistance-temperature relationship. Therefore,
platinum commonly meets the requirements of resistance thermometry and are commonly
used in RTDs. Also, platinums temperature drift and error with age and use is negligible
4

compared to other sensors and it has very high contamination resistance. The construction
details of a typical RTD are shown in Figure 4 below.

Platinum windings,
fixed at intervals

Ceramic cylinder with


holes for winding

RTD construction details

Figure 4 RTD construction details

(c)

Thermistor

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with temperature


compared to that of standard resistors. Thermistors differ from resistance temperature
detectors (RTD) in that the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer,
whereas, RTDs use pure metals. When externally heated they convert changes in ambient or
contact temperatures directly to corresponding changes in voltage or current. Hence, the
principle of operation is very similar to a resistance thermometer.

The temperature coefficient of resistance of a thermistor can be expressed as:

1
Ro

Ro
T

(8)

where, Ro is the change in resistance with a change in temperature T and Ro is the initial
resistance corresponding to a reference temperature To. Unlike most materials, the value of
for a thermistor is very large and is negative. This makes the thermistor an effective sensor
for temperature measurement and control where high accuracy and resolution are important.
The construction details of a thermistor are shown in Figure 5 below.
A comparison of resistance change with temperature of a thermistor and platinum resistance
thermometer is given in Figure 11.

R2 = 7599

Semiconductor

Glass bead thermistor

R0

Thermistor

E0

R3 = 7599

R1 = 37.3k

Wires

Glass shell

THERMISTOR construction details

Figure 5 Thermistor construction details

COMPARISON OF MERITS OF TEMPERATURE SENSORS


(a)

Type of measurement

Resistance-temperature devices such as thermistors and resistance thermometers give a direct


indication of absolute temperature. Whereas, thermocouples measure a relative temperature
differential of two junctions formed by two dissimilar metal conductors. For direct
temperature indication, one of the thermocouple junctions must be accurately maintained at a
known reference temperature.
(b)

Temperature range

Thermistors are available for measuring temperatures from a few degrees above absolute
zero to about 300C. However, they can be used at higher temperatures but tend to decrease
in stability (repeatability) above 300C. Platinum resistance thermometers normally have a
temperature range of -180C to about 1000C, while iridium units can be used up to 2000C.
The non-linearity of resistance change, however, increases at temperature extremes.
Thermocouples are available for use up to more than 3000C.

(c)

Sensitivity

The sensitivity of a temperature sensor is S

dV
dT

(9)

For a thermocouple, S = , the Seebeck coefficient.


The sensitivity of resistance-temperature sensors (RTD and thermistors) is a function of the
change in resistance resulting from a unit change in temperature. A typical platinum
resistance bulb will exhibit a change of less than 0.2 /0C at room temperature. Thermistors,
on the other hand, provide changes from 20 to 2 x 105 /0C under the same conditions
(Between -100C and 400C the resistance of a thermistor may change by ten million to one,
compared with a change of about four to one in the resistance of platinum over the same
temperature range). Table 1 below shows relative sensitivities of thermocouples, RTD and
thermistors.

Table 1 Relative sensitivities of different temperature sensors


V/C
Sensor

25C

300C

104 to 106

2 x 103

Platinum resistance bulb 30

300

200

Copper/Constantan

40

60

Chromel/Alumel

40

40

Iron/Constantan

50

55

Thermistor

(d)

Accuracy

In general, thermistors and resistance thermometers provide relatively high absolute


accuracies. Ordinary commercial grade thermocouples are normally with specified accuracy
of 1C or less over their measurement range. Both thermistors and resistance bulbs will
provide accuracies of less than or equal to 0.01C. Repeatability of thermistor
measurements is such that variations in repeated readings are smaller than the overall
accuracy of the measuring circuit.
(e)

Response

How fast a temperature sensor responds to temperature fluctuations is an important


consideration in selecting a sensing device for transient temperature measurements.
Generally, thermocouples have extremely high response compared to RTD and thermistors.
However, due to the relatively large mass of the sensor, RTDs have poor temperature
response and the response of thermistors is moderate.

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP


Temperature sensor calibration (Figures 7 and 8)
This part of the experimental setup consists of a thermostat-controlled heater immersed in a
water bath, a motor-driven stirrer, an electrical signal box and a midi data LOGGER. The
water bath can be maintained at a constant temperature ( 0.1C) which is determined by
thermostat setting of the unit. The mercury-in-glass thermometer ( 0.1C) and the
temperature sensors to be calibrated are immersed in the water bath. The temperature and
voltage readings from the thermometer and the midi LOGGER, respectively, are recorded
simultaneously to plot the calibration curves. The temperature of water in the bath is varied
by changing the thermostat setting of the heater which controls the heat supply to the water
bath.
Temperature profile measurement (Figures 9 and 10)
In this part of the experimental setup, a perspex rod is attached to one side of the water bathheater-stirrer assembly and is well insulated on the outside. There are six thermocouples
attached to the perspex rod 4 embedded in the rod to measure the axial temperature profile
along the perspex rod and 2 partially embedded at the surface to measure the interface
temperature of the two circular ends of the rod. There are another 3 temperature sensors
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(thermocouple, RTD and thermistor, one each) attached to the exposed face of the rod in
order for the surface temperature to be measured by different techniques.

The types of temperature sensors used in the apparatus for surface temperature measurements
are:
(i) A thermocouple glued to the surface (not embedded)
(ii) A resistance thermometer (film or stud)
(iii) A thermistor (stud)
The specifications of the temperature profile measurement unit are as follows:
Diameter of Perspex rod
Length of Perspex rod
Pitch of thermocouples embedded in Perspex rod
Thermocouple wire material
Maximum permissible water bath temperature

48 mm
50 mm
10 mm
copper-constantan Gauge 30
90C

Instrumentation
The output voltage readings from the thermal sensors are directly read from the midi data
LOGGER. Channels 8 to 11 of the data LOGGER are used for the calibration experiments
and channels 1 to 9 for the temperature profile experiments.
As the emf of a thermocouple only corresponds to the temperature difference between the hot
and cold junctions, the voltage corresponding to the hot junction temperature depends on the
temperature of the cold junction. In the calibration part of the experiment, two thermocouples
are used. One with the cold junction at room temperature and the other with the cold junction
effectively set at 0C (ice point) using an electronic compensator.
A constant current source of i = 2.1 mA is supplied to the resistance element (Ro = 100) of
the resistance thermometer.
The expression for temperature coefficient of resistance-sensitivity S is:

1 dRo
Ro dT

1 dV
iRo dT

S
iRo

(10)

The thermistor connected as part of a bridge circuit is shown in Figure 6 below.

R1= 37.3 k

R0

Thermistor

E0
A

B
V

R2= 7599

R3= 7599

Figure 6 Thermistor bridge circuit

Changes in the resistance Rt of the thermistor causes changes in the voltage V between nodes
A and B.
From first principles, it can be shown that:

1 dRt
Rt dT

( Rt R3 ) 2 V
Eo Rt R3 T

( Rt R3 ) 2
S
Eo Rt R3

(11)

Where, Eo = 1.5 V, R2 = R3 = 7599 , Rt = 30 k at room temperature and R1 is a variable


resistance. Just before the commencement of the experiments, the value of R1 is adjusted until
the channel 9 voltage reading is zero. In practice, due to the very high sensitivity of the
thermistor, it is very difficult to adjust the voltage reading to be exactly zero. However, an
attempt should be made for this value to be as close to zero as possible.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
(a) Calibration of Temperature Sensors
1. Set the voltage V of the thermistor bridge circuit to zero or as close to zero as possible
by adjusting the variable resistance R1.
2. Record the temperature of the reference mercury-in-glass thermometer. Record the
voltages across the RTD (channel 8), thermistor (channel 9) and the two thermocouples
(without ice point channel 10 and with ice point channel 11).
Note:
(i)
A blank form will be provided during the laboratory session for you to record your
readings.
(ii)
If Channel 10 (thermocouple without ice point) reading is a negative value, take
the reading as zero. Otherwise, take the actual reading.
9

3. Switch on the water bath heater and set the bath temperature to 40C and allow the bath
temperature to reach the set temperature. Repeat Step 2.
4. Repeat Step 3 for water bath temperatures of 50C, 60C, 70C and 80C.

Measurement of Temperature Profiles of Perspex rod


Before proceeding with the measurement of temperature profile of the Perspex rod, request
the technician in-charge to connect the thermistor and RTD sensors attached to the exposed
end of the perspex rod to the electrical signal box.
1. Record the output voltages of the thermocouples embedded in the perspex rod (channels 1
to 6 of the LOGGER)
2. Record the output voltages of the four temperature sensors mounted at the exposed end of
the perspex rod (channels 7 to 9 of the LOGGER)
3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 after 15 minutes.

CALCULATIONS AND DISCUSSION


(a) Obtain calibration curves for the 4 temperature sensors (2 thermocouples, RTD and
thermistor) by plotting the output voltages against the temperature of the reference
mercury-in-glass thermometer. The calibration curves for the 2 thermocouples may be
plotted on the same graph, but those for the RTD and the thermistor should be plotted on
separate graphs. Determine the sensitivities of the 4 temperature sensors from the graphs.
Calculate the temperature coefficient of resistance of the thermistor and the RTD and
compare their magnitudes.
(b) Using the calibration curves obtained, determine the temperature profile along the
perspex rod at the two different times and plot them on a single graph. Comment on your
findings.
(c) In order to measure correctly the temperature at a point on a surface, one must ensure that
the temperature sensor experiences the true temperature at the point. However, the
temperature experienced by a temperature sensor is the result of thermal equilibrium with
the surroundings. The temperature measured by the embedded thermocouple may be
taken to be the true temperature of the surface of the exposed end of the perspex rod.
Hence, determine the relative percentage error of the temperatures measured by the 3
surface-mounted sensors. Comment on your findings.
(d) You will be given one or more questions on a separate sheet of paper. Please answer the
question(s) directly on the paper and submit your answers together with your brief
laboratory report before the end of the laboratory session.

PLEASE NOTE THAT YOU ARE REQUIRED TO COMPLETE YOUR


EXPERIMENTS AND SUBMIT YOUR BRIEF LABORATORY REPORT BY THE
END OF THE LABORATORY SESSION.

10

Date:

Experiment Set No:

Table 2 Calibration data


Temp

Vout(RTD)
(C)

Vout(Thermistor)

Ch 8 (mV)

Thermocouple
w/o ice-pt

Thermocouple
with ice-pt

Ch 10 (mV)

Ch 11 (mV)

Ch 9 (mV)

Table 3 Transient readings for temperature along perspex rod


Clock Time

0 min
mV

Channel 1 at 0 mm apart from the hot end


Channel 2 at 10 mm apart from the hot end
Channel 3 at 20 mm apart from the hot end
Channel 4 at 30 mm apart from the hot end
Channel 5 at 40 mm apart from the hot end
Channel 6 at 50 mm apart from the hot end
(Embedded thermocouple wire)
Channel 7 for surface thermocouple wire
Channel 8 for surface RTD
Channel 9 for surface thermistor
11

15 min
o

mV

30 min

mV

Figure 7 Photograph of the temperature sensor calibration unit

+
_

Figure 8 Schematic of the temperature sensor calibration unit

12

T7
T8

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5 T6 T
9

Temperature, oC

+
_

Te3 30 min
Te2 15 min
Te1 0 min
0

10

20
30
40
Distance, mm

50

Figure 9 Schematic of the perspex rod showing the embedded and surface mounted sensors

Embedded (TC)

Surface mounted (TC)

Surface mounted
thermistor

Surface mounted RTD

Figure 10 Mounting details of the temperature sensors


13

108

106

Specific Resistance .cm

104

Thermistor material
102

100

10-2

RTD material (platinum)

10-4

10-6
-100

100

200

300

400

Temperature oC
Figure 11 Temperature-resistance response of typical thermistor material compared with
RTD material (platinum)

14

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