EMPLOYEES' PERCEPTION OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN AN ORGANIZATION: A CASE STUDY OF DELTA STEEL COMPANY (DSC) ALADJA, Nigeria.

EMPLOYEES PERCEPTION OF TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN AN
ORGANIZATION: A CASE STUDY OF DELTA STEEL
COMPANY (DSC) ALADJA.
BY
IROEGBU PROMISE CHIDI

G2001/MBA/MGT/WC/043
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA.
AUGUST 2007
EMPLOYEES PERCEPTION OF TRAINING AND

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN AN ORGANIZATION: A
CASE STUDY OF DELTA STEEL COMPANY (DSC) ALADJA.
BY
A PROJECT SUMBITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF BUSINESS
ADMINISTRATION (MBA) IN MANAGEMENT .
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA.
PROJECT SUPERVISOR PROF. C. C. NWACHUKWU

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT
RIVER STATE.

ALL RIGHT RESERVED
AUGUST 2007
ii
CERTIFICATION
University of Port Harcourt, School of Graduate Studies
Employees Perception Of Training And Development Programmes In An
Organization: A Case Study Of Delta Steel Company (DSC) Aladja.
BY
The Board of Examination certifies as follows:
That to the best of our knowledge, this is the original work of the candidate. That
the project is accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the
degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (MBA) IN MANAGEMENT
1.
2.
Name
Prof. C.C. Nwachukwu
Project Supervisor
Signature
Date
Prof. Don Baridam
Dean Faculty of Management Science
3.
4.
External Examiner
Signature
Chairman Board of Examiner
iii
..
Date
Signature
Date
Signature
Date
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this project is my original work, and has not been
previously presented wholly or in part or being currently submitted for the
award of any other degree.

Student name/No
Signature:.
Date:.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Certainly, without the invaluable contribution of my indefatigable supervisor Prof.
C.C. Nwachukwu, this project would not have been completed. It is with this heart
of gratitude that I extend my kudos for the enthusiastic and scholastic support,
comments and suggestions I enjoyed from him.
My fondles appreciation goes to my loving wife, Tina Chimezie who took many of
my responsibilities at home during the period this course lasted and for her
prayers and moral support. Also to my son Kelechi Chidi-Agbai for always making
me happy.
I also wish to express my appreciation to my parents, Elder and Mrs John Iroegbu
for the good foundation they laid for me and their special prayers on my behalf.
Special thanks to my bosom friend Jude Obichere who accommodated me most
of the time I was in P.H for my exams and coursework.
Equally, my special thanks to my Sisters, Amaka , Blessing and Sister Mmeregini
and her husband tom of Delta Steel company (DSC) for their support in terms of
materials for the thesis.
I will not forget my course mates, Chinelo Chikwendu, Eke, Agwamba and others
that actually made the academic period very memorable.
Finally and most important, my special thanks goes to Almighty God, who saw me
through it all, protected and delivered me when I was shuttling Warri - Port
Harcourt road and throughout the duration of my masters programme in Uniport..
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to God almighty that by his grace and mercy made
the completion of my \master programme in Uniport possible with success.
It is also dedicated to my Grand mother Mrs. Jessy Egbe for inspiring and
supporting me during my early years and her blessings and prayers.
vi
ABSTRACT
This research work explored the Delta Steel Company, DSC, Aladja employee perception of
training and development programmes in terms of opportunities, challenges and other ways it
affects them.
Three hundred copies of the questionnaires were administered to DSC workers of which 227
representing 76% were returned. Also oral interview and focus group discussion were used in this
work. Factors influencing management decision and attitude towards employee training and
development areas such as budget, employee performance, years of experience, etc were also
examined.
The major findings are as stated below:
DSC Training policies lacked progressive training policies, which staff felt were sensitive to
their needs.
Few staff had received formal training despite the changes in their work roles.
Most staff experienced practical obstacles to obtaining the training they felt they needed. The
biggest obstacles were reduced funding for training, spending priorities and the lack of time to
undertake training.
From Data Collected, 141 respondents, representing 62% agreed that inadequate and irregular
training and development programme is a major course of low performance and productivity in
Delta Steel Company Limited. However, 70 respondents representing 31% of respondents
disagreed, but said that their performance were influenced by other factors other than Training
and Development, like motivation while 16 other respondents (7%) do not know whether
Inadequate training and development programme is a major course of low performance and
productivity in Delta Steel Company Limited.
Employee training and development is a continuous process, not a one-shot project, and no single
approach is going to meet the needs of every business. However, experience and research have
shown us that investment in this type of training and development is one of the most effective ways
companies can improve productivity. Employees at every level who feel empowered to manage their
own growth and achievement are more likely to seek strategies for solving those challenges that arise
with co-workers and feel more equipped to do so. More importantly, they see themselves as part of the
solution, as being able to effect change when necessary and ultimately, they consider themselves
invested in the success of the organization. To this effect, Nigerian Organizations must recognize this,
make is a priority and invest in Employee Training and Development because if people are an
vii
organization's greatest asset then the training and development of those assets has to be viewed as
investment in human capital and not just as another expense.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE.............................................................I
CERTIFICATION.......................................................III
DECLARATION........................................................IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................V
DEDICATION..........................................................VI
ABSTRACT...........................................................VII
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................VIII
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................X
LIST OF FIGURES....................................................XI
CHAPTER ONE......................................................1
INTRODUCTION............................................................................ 1
1.1 OVERVIEW.............................................................................. 1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.....................................................3
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY............................................................3
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS..............................................................4
1.5 HYPOTHESIS............................................................................ 4
1.6 DEFINITION OF TERMS:..............................................................5
1.7 AN OVERVIEW OF DELTA STEEL COMPANY LIMITED..........................5
REFERENCES..........................................................................7
CHAPTER TWO......................................................8
LITERATURE REVIEW.....................................................................8
2.0 INTRODUCTION....................................................................8
2.1 THE PURPOSE OF ANY EMPLOYEE TRAINING:...................................9
2.2 ADVANTAGES OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT............................10
Job Analysis Worksheet...........................................................27
Conclusion............................................................................ 55
References...........................................................................57
viii
CHAPTER THREE.................................................58
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY................................................58
3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN.............................................................58
3.2 SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND SIZE......................................59
SUMMARY................................................................................... 69
REFERENCES.............................................................................. 70
CHAPTER FOUR..................................................71
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS..........................................71
4.0 INTRODUCTION......................................................................71
4.1 QUESTIONNAIRE.................................................................71
4.2 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA.......................................72
4.4 TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS.........................................................79
CHAPTER FIVE....................................................86
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.....................86
5.0 INTRODUCTION......................................................................86
5.1 FINDINGS:............................................................................87
RESPONSES FROM STAFF THROUGH ORAL INTERVIEW/ FOCUS
GROUP DISCUSSION...................................................................87
5.2: SUMMARY............................................................................. 91
5.3 CONCLUSION......................................................................... 91
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................92
BIBLIOBRAPHY......................................................93
APPENDIX (1).......................................................95
QUESTIONNAIRE..........................................................96
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
Page
Job analysis worksheet
27
Contemporary Theories of Learning
32
Difference between behavioural and constructivism theory
35
Determination of Departmental Sample Size
49
Age range and sex of respondent
57
Nature of promotion in Delta Steel Company
58
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
Page
Diagrammatic Representation of Target Population.
60
Diagrammatic Representation on respondents statistics for Hypothesis 1
62
62
64
xi
xii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
Human resources, not capital, not income nor material resources,
constitute the ultimate basis for the wealth of nations. Capital and
material resources are passive factors of production, human beings
are the active agent who accumulate wealth, exploit material resources
build social, economic and political organisation and carry forward
national - development. Clearly, a country which is unable to develop
the skills and knowledge of its people and utilize them effectively in the
national economy will be unable to develop anything else.
Training is the process of acquiring specific skills to perform a job
better (Jucious, 1963). It helps people to become qualified and
proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979). Usually an organization
facilitates the employees' learning through training so that their
modified behaviour contributes to the attainment of the organization's
goals and objectives.
An organisation that puts great emphasis on employee training and
development is directly planning for its survival. A good employee is one who
works hard towards the realisation of organisation goals. This is achieved
through teaching the employee to work towards the companys aims.
The purpose of any employee training should include:
1) Skill development: The success or failure of an organisation depends on
the productivity of the employees. How to get the highest productivity from
every worker is the main purpose of a training program. A skilled
employee is generally very productive. The employee who has the
xiii
necessary skill for his job sees himself as a professional and acts
accordingly. He needs the supervision, takes pride in accomplishment,
and looks forward to a successful career in the organisation.
2) Attitude Modification: A good training program should influence an
employees attitude towards his job and the organisation. This is achieved
by identifying the factors that appear to make up his attitude, such as
understanding, faulty logic or peer group pressures. Teach the employee
a better attitude towards his work, the company, his supervisors and coworkers by encouraging healthy rivalry, achievement, motive and
professionalism. An employees attitude is modified as he is taught to help
himself and achieve greater things not only within the organisation, but
also in society.
3) Education: One of the aims of a training program is to educate the
employee about the working of the organisation of which he is a member.
It is through proper understanding of the problems and prospect of an
organisation that an employee appreciates the role he is expected to play
towards the attainment of its goals. Job-related education that helps the
employee to understand and perform his task better promotes employee
loyalty to the organisation. Courses that bear directly on the work itself
help to motivate employees by aiding them to achieve self-realisation.
4) Development: Training helps an employee to perform a specific task,
whereas
development
helps
him
to
assume
more
tasks
and
responsibilities. Development aims at helping the individual to realise his

full potential. A development program is expected aim at the
organisational hierarchy to rise as far and fast as he is capable of.
Training helps to identify the employees who are capable of becoming
supervisors, managers and top executives. A training program that aims
at employee development should encourage him and arouse in him the
desire for self-development through attendance at private lectures,
xiv
seminars, symposia, and conferences. The best of all methods is selfmotivated development.
Training programs increase productivity, morale, and motivation, enhance
the employees opportunity for promotion and saves supervisory time.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
There is no gain saying that the crisis that bedevilled the Nigerian
economy is taking its toll on the petroleum sub-sector as well as the
steel products as evidence in declining sales and profits.
An organization with high level of productivity manifested by increase
employee performance will be to survive the prevailing economic
doldrums in Nigeria, while the hope of survival remains a mirage for
those with declining level of productivity.
Hence the quest of this research on employees perception of training
and development programmes and to identify the how it affects
productivity in Nigeria with particular reference to Delta Steel Company
Limited Aladja.
Many employees are not satisfied with the degree of interest and
investment of Delta Steel Company Limited in Staff Training and
Development and this is affecting their morale negatively and
subsequently declining level of productivity.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research work is among others:
a) To explore staff perception of their opportunities for training and
Development in Delta Steel Company.
b) To identify the obstacles workers experience in obtaining training
and development in DSC.
xv
c) To highlight the different opportunities available to different groups

of staff with a view of suggesting modern management measures in
Training and Development of workers towards greater performance
and productivity.
d) To find out the relationship between employee training and
performance/ productivity
e) Explore other gains management could get in employee training
and development.
1.4 Research Questions
Below are the research questions that guided this work:
(a)
What is the relationship between employee training and

performance/ productivity?
(b)
What is employee perception of the usefulness of training and

development programmes?
(c)
What are that obstacles workers experience in obtaining training

and development in DSC?
(d)
What are the management policies on training and development

and what are the major challenges in implementing them?
(e)
In what ways will employee-training development, benefit the

management of Delta Steel Company?
1.5 Hypothesis
Hypothesis serves as a guide in the conduct of any research.
Formulations of working hypothesis enable a researcher to arrive at a
reasonable and logical conclusion. The function of hypothesis in a
research among other is that it serves as a reference point and
therefore, directs the efforts of researchers for the purpose of this
research.
This research will test the hypothesis below:
xvi
H01 Workers
do
not
perceive
inadequate
training
and
development programme as a major course of low

performance and productivity in Delta Steel Company
Limited.
H02 Training and development programmes are not perceived
by DSC management as major factor for workers
motivation.
H03 DSC staff do not see training and development as a kind of
employee motivation.
1.6 Definition of Terms:
It was considered expedient for all to have a common understanding
on the terminologies that are continuously used in the course of this
study. Such terms are as defined below:
(i)
Training: Training is the process of acquiring specific skills to

perform a job better
(ii)
DSC: Delta Steel Company. The first premier Steel Industry in

Nigeria.
(iii)
Staff Development: The process of improving the performance

of
an
incumbent
responsibilities.
It
holding
a position
promotes
the
with
assigned
professional
growth
job
of
individuals. It is process of strengthening the competencies of

workers while they are on the job"
1.7 An Overview of Delta Steel Company Limited
Delta Steel Company Limited is the first premier Steel Industry in Nigeria.
The product started during the regime of Murtala Mohammed/Obasanjo. It
was however, commission in 1982 by the first executive president Alhaji
xvii
Shehu Usman Shagari. The sole aim of the project was to register Nigeria
among the world map of industrial nations.
It was equally aimed at
creating jobs for the young graduates of Nigeria and even beyond. The
company was designed to produce 1 million tonnes of liquid steel per
annum at full capacity. Two-third of which are for the consumption of
government owned inland rolling mills at Jos, Osogbo and Katsina. The
balance of billets are rolled in plant to sections and reinforcing bars.
Delta Steel is the Nigerias premier larger scale producer of high quality
steel with about 3,400 staff. The company research and development
programmes are on high gear, particularly in terms of the substituting local
materials for imported consumables as well as the consolidation of the
technology of high quality steel making and the optimization and
modernization of production process. The company that is expected to be
in the forefront in the provision of various job.
Substance of various
upstream and downstream industries is progressively frustrated and

neglected in recent time. A corps of high skilled engineering and support
services personnel groomed in the complexities and technology of modern
steel production are now dejected and frustrated as a result of nonpayment of salaries, non-promotional exercise as well as poor welfare
schemes.
It should be noted that the company has seven divisions. This includes:
Production division
Engineering services
Commercial division
Finance
Administration and
Corporate division
Equally the company is well plan and has other integrated plants that
complement the work of other plants with the view to achieve the
organisational goals and objectives. These integrated plants include the
xviii
direct reduction plant that reduce the iron ore and process it for steel
production. Pellet plant that pelletise the raw iron ore, the lime plant that
provide hydraulic lime requirement for production units, the Gas facilities,
plant which provide Gas requirement and lubricate the machines and other
production processes.
Equally, the administrative division serve and provide logistic as well as
other administration requirement.
Also policy formulation, discipline,
promotion or even dismissal is the sole authority of this division.

Finance provide the financial guide, the cost and management section
give guidelines on the unit cost of production and advise the marketing
division on the selling price.
Commercial division does the work of market survey, price verification,
getting customers and distributors, maintaining standard price, quality as
well as policy of aggressive sales forecast.
It is to be noted that the company was headed by a Managing Director.
Below him are the various line or divisional General Managers (GMS).
Under them we have the Assistant General Managers AGM. Then below
are the various line managers that are responsible to higher authority. The
Administrative headquarters is in Aladja, and we have liaison offices in
Lagos and Abuja.
REFERENCES
1. Delta Steel Co ltd. Annual Report 2000/2001.
2. Drucker P. (1964). The practice of management. (New York Perganium press Inc.)
3. Ejiofor, P. N. O (1981) Management in Nigeria. Theories and issues (Onitsha: African TEP
Publishers Ltd.)
4. Harbison F. H (1962) Human Resources Development Planning in modernizing
economy. International Labour Review Vol. Lxxxv. No 5.
5. Australian Journal of Educational Technology1989, 5(2), 89-104. Chapter 15
xix
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is to focus on the review of relevant Literature with
particular emphasis on employee training and development
If people are an organisations greatest asset then the training and
development of those assets has to be viewed as investment in human
capital and not just as another expense.
The benefits of training and development in any organisation includes
increased productivity, fewer errors, higher staff moral, lower turnover
rates, product consistency, and customer advocacy amongst others.
Organisations that grow are those that obtain and manage knowledge
the quickest and cheapest.
Training is the process of acquiring specific skills to perform a job
better (Jucious, 1963). It helps people to become qualified and
proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979). Usually an organization
facilitates the employees' learning through training so that their
modified behaviour contributes to the attainment of the organization's
goals and objectives. Van Dersal (1962) defined training as the
process of teaching, informing, or educating people so that (1) they
may become as well qualified as possible to do their job, and (2) they
become qualified to perform in positions of greater difficulty and
responsibility.
xx
An organisation that puts great emphasis on employee training and

development is directly planning for its survival. A good employee is one who
works hard towards the realisation of organisation goals. This is achieved
through teaching the employee to work towards the companys aims.
2.1 The purpose of any employee training:

1)
Skill development: The success or failure of an organisation depends

on the productivity of the employees. How to get the highest
productivity from every worker is the main purpose of a training
program. A skilled employee is generally very productive. The
employee who has the necessary skill for his job sees himself as a
professional and acts accordingly. He needs the supervision, takes
pride in accomplishment, and looks forward to a successful career in
the organisation.
2)
Attitude Modification: A good training program should influence an

employees attitude towards his job and the organisation. This is
achieved by identifying the factors that appear to make up his attitude,
such as understanding, faulty logic or peer group pressures. Teach the
employee a better attitude towards his work, the company, his
supervisors
and
co-workers
by
encouraging
healthy
rivalry,
achievement, motive and professionalism. An employees attitude is

modified as he is taught to help himself and achieve greater things not
only within the organisation, but also in society.
3)
Education: One of the aims of a training program is to educate the

employee about the working of the organisation of which he is a
member. It is through proper understanding of the problems and
prospect of an organisation that an employee appreciates the role he is
expected to play towards the attainment of its goals. Job-related
education that helps the employee to understand and perform his task
xxi
better promotes employee loyalty to the organisation. Courses that

bear directly on the work itself help to motivate employees by aiding
them to achieve self-realisation.
4)
Development: Training helps an employee to perform a specific task,

whereas development helps him to assume more tasks and
responsibilities. Development aims at helping the individual to realise
his full potential. A development program is expected aim at the
organisational hierarchy to rise as far and fast as he is capable of.
Training helps to identify the employees who are capable of becoming
supervisors, managers and top executives. A training program that
aims at employee development should encourage him and arouse in
him the desire for self-development through attendance at private
lectures, seminars, symposia, and conferences. The best of all
methods is self-motivated development.
2.2 Advantages of Training and Development

Although training mainly influences the employees ability, it also has an
impact on the other two factors. The advantages of employee training
include not only the obvious benefits of increased productivity, but other
advantages:
1) It improves employees morale. An employee who has undergone a good
training program feels confident that he is capable of executing his daily
tasks. This increases 1his liking for his job, unlike one that has not been
trained and finds his job very difficult. Ability to do his job successfully
brings a feeling of satisfaction.
2) The ability of employees to perform their duties can help to reduce
turnover rate. A trained employee is less likely to leave his job than one
who is untrained. Inability to perform ones task creates a feeling of and
fear. An employee who cannot successfully over this feeling of
inadequacy often resigns. This costs the company money.
1
xxii
3) Closely allied to a low turnover rate is the feeling that the employee is part
of the establishment. Once the establishment makes an investment in an
employee it gives him a feeling of belonging and the general impression
that the organisation values him. Each training course that he gets
reinforces his belief in the organisation and himself, as he moves from
general familiarisation with his tools to mastering the working of the
machinery, to obtaining the technical knowledge acquired for doing the
minor repairs. This ability, of course, he knows improves his chances of
promotion from junior to senior staff with all its benefits.
4) A trained employee not only gains skill, a correct attitude and the
knowledge required for success in the organisation, but he becomes an
asset in that he saves management time. Because of his training,
management has better control of him, for he performs as expected with
minimum supervision. As his work becomes reliable extra tasks can be
assigned to him. Management can then concentrate on other tasks.
Training programs increase productivity, morale and motivation, enhance the
employees opportunity for promotion and saves supervisory time.
Learning theories and training
Learning theories are the basic materials, which are usually applied, in
all educational and training activities. The more one understands
learning theories, the better he or she will be able to make decisions
and apply them to achieving the objectives. The behaviourists, the
cognitivists, and the humanists emphasize different aspects of the
teaching-learning process in their approaches. While the behaviourists
stress external conditions (environment) resulting in observations and
measurable changes in behaviour, the cognitivists are more concerned
with how the mind works (mental processes such as coding,
categorizing, and representing information in memory). The humanists,
on the other hand, emphasize the affective aspects (e.g., emotions,
xxiii
attitudes) of human behaviour that influence learning (IRRI, 1990)

2
Effective training must be able to take care of all the theories of
learning in order to change the action, belief, and knowledge

components of a trainee simultaneously. Andragogy (a theory of adult
learning) is usually used rather than pedagogy (a theory of child
learning)
2.4 Training approach
There are three approaches to training: (1) the traditional approach, (2) the
experiential approach,and (3) the performance-based approach (McGraw
Hill. Halim, A., & Ali, M. M. (1988).) In the traditional approach, the training
staff designs the objectives, contents, teaching techniques, assignments,
lesson plans, motivation, tests, and evaluation. The focus in this model is
intervention by the training staff. In the experiential approach, the trainer
incorporates experiences where in the learner becomes active and
influences the training process. Unlike the academic approach inherent in
the traditional model, experiential training emphasizes real or simulated
situations in which the trainees will eventually operate. In this model, the
objectives and other elements of training are jointly determined by the
trainers and trainees. Trainers primarily serve as facilitators, catalysts, or
resource persons. In the performance-based approach to training, goals are
measured through attainment of a given level of proficiency instead of
passing grades of the trainees. Emphasis is given to acquiring specific
observable skills for a task. This performance-based teacher education
(PBTE) model, is mostly task or skill centred and is also applicable to nonforma educational organizations.
2.5
Types of training
xxiv
Training may broadly be categorized into two types: preservice training and
inservice training. Preservice training is more academic in nature and is
offered by formal institutions following definite curricula and syllabuses for a
certain duration to offer a formal degree or diploma. In-service training, on
the other hand, is offered by the organization from time to time for the
development of skills and knowledge of the incumbents.
Pre-service Training
Pre-service training is a process through which individuals are made ready to
enter a certain kind of professional job such as agriculture, medicine, or
engineering. They have to attend regular classes in a formal institution and
need to complete a definite curriculum and courses successfully to receive a
formal degree or diploma. They are not entitled to get a professional job
unless they can earn a certificate, diploma, or degree from the appropriate
institution.
In-service Training and Staff Development
In-service training is a process of staff development for the purpose of
improving the performance of an incumbent holding a position with assigned
job responsibilities. It promotes the professional growth of individuals. "It is a
program designed to strengthen the competencies of workers while they are
on the job" (Malone, 1984, p. 209). In-service training is a problem-centred,
learner-oriented, and time-bound series of activities which provide the
opportunity to develop a sense of purpose, broaden perception of the
clientele, and increase capacity to gain knowledge and mastery of
techniques.
In-service training may broadly be categorized into five different types: (1)
induction or orientation training, (2) foundation training, (3) on-the-job
xxv
training, (4) refresher or maintenance training, and (5) career development

training. All of these types of training are needed for the proper development
staff throughout their service life. In-service training is conducted in the
facility on a monthly basis and covers topics, which are either required by
regulatory agencies or needed by employees. Examples of required topics
are: therapeutic diets, fire safety, infection control, MSDS, resident rights,
and sanitation. Topics, which may need in-service training, can include:
portion control, food preparation methods, task analysis, use and cleaning of
equipment, interpersonal relations, policy and procedures.
Induction or Orientation Training.
Induction training is given immediately after employment to introduce the
new staff members to their positions. It begins on the first day the new
employee is on the job (Rogers & Olmsted, 1957). This type of training is
aimed at acquainting the new employee with the organization and its
personnel. Induction training for all new personnel should develop an attitude
of personal dedication to the service of people and the organization.
Concerning the characteristics of a new employee. Van Dersal (1962) said
that when people start to work in an organization for the first time, they are
eager to know what sort of outfit they are getting into, what they are
supposed to do, and whom they will work with. They are likely to be more
attentive and open-minded than experienced employees. In fact, the most
favourable time for gaining employees' attention and for moulding good
habits among them is when they are new to the job.
Foundation Training.
Foundation training is in-service training, which is also appropriate for newly
recruited personnel. Besides technical competence and routine instruction
about the organization, every staff member needs some professional
knowledge about various rules and regulations of the government, financial
xxvi
transactions, administrative capability, communication skills, leadership

ability, coordination and cooperation among institutions and their linkage
mechanism, report writing, and so on. Foundation training is made available
to employees to strengthen the foundation of their service career. This
training is usually provided at an early stage of service life.
Maintenance or Refresher Training.
This training is offered to update and maintain the specialized subject-matter
knowledge of the incumbents. Refresher training keeps the specialists,
administrators, subject-matter officers, extension supervisors, and frontline
workers updated and enable them to add to the knowledge and skills they
have already. Maintenance or refresher training usually deals with new
information and new methods, as well as review of older materials. This type
of training is needed both to keep employees at the peak of their possible
production and to prevent them from getting into a rut (Bass, B. M., &
Vaughan, J. A. (1966).).
On-the-Job Training.
This is ad hoc or regularly scheduled training, such as fortnightly training
under the training and visit (T&V) system of extension, and is provided by the
superior officer or the subject-matter specialists to the subordinate field staff.
This training is generally problem or technology oriented and may include
formal presentations, informal discussion, and opportunities to try out new
skills and knowledge in the field. The superior officer, administrator, or
subject-matter specialist of each extension department must play a role in
providing on-the-job training to the staff while conducting day-to-day normal
activities.
Career or Development Training.
xxvii
This type of in-service training is designed to upgrade the knowledge, skills,

and ability of employees to help them assume greater responsibility in higher
positions. The training is arranged departmentally for successful extension
workers, at all levels, for their own continuing education and professional
development. Malone (1984) opined that extension services that provide the
opportunity for all staff to prepare a plan for career training will receive the
benefits of having longer tenured and more satisfied employees, which
increases both the effectiveness and efficiency of an extension service.
Malone stated that "career development is the act of acquiring information
and resources that enables one to plan a program of lifelong learning related
to his or her worklife" (p. 216).
2.6
Staff Training - Techniques and Tools
Lifelong learning is essential in this ever-changing world, but that doesn't

necessarily mean taking college courses with homework and exams.
Training employees on the job is a form of lifelong learning. It's an ongoing
process.
I have a Post-it TM note pad which says, "You don't have to be crazy to work
here... we can train you!" Are you prepared for training the adults in your
department? Most managers lack a background in education and/or training
and struggle with this responsibility. Sometimes training seems like a neverending process because employees don't learn what we expect them to
learn. However, if employees are not learning or grasping new concepts it
may be the trainer's fault. But where do you start? We'll look at the qualities
of a successful trainer, types of training and topics, and the process to gain a
better understanding of how to train employees.
The Trainer
Start with evaluating yourself as a trainer. Effective trainers possess a
number of qualities; first, an interest in training. If you aren't interested, it will
xxviii
show, and you won't be effective. Extensive knowledge of job requirements

is needed - you must know what you are talking about and be comfortable
with your knowledge level. You also need an ability to communicate
effectively. Although everyone hears the same thing, unless your
communication skills are good the result will not be the same for everyone.
The need for objectivity and patience is important. Some trainees have a
different perspective or need to have things repeated a number of times
before they understand the concept. A sense of humor goes a long way in
training - remember "HUMOR: Never leave home without it."
Adequate time for training is essential. This may be tough, but break the
training into small "bite size" pieces if needed instead of rushing through it.
Use the KISS principle - keep it short and sweet. Fifteen minute activities or
segments is a recommended length that many trainers have found
successful. Trainees must be respected - adults have a lot of "life
experience" and may have constructive comments to add. Finally, you need
an enthusiasm for the training assignment. Not every dietary manager has all
these qualities, but evaluating your strengths and weaknesses will help you
to improve your abilities as a trainer.
The Training Process
The training process consists of seven steps: (Lynton, R. P., & Pareek, U.
(1990)
1. Define goals of training;
2. Determine audience;
3. Establish training objectives;
4. Develop training program;
5. Select training methods;
6. Implement training; and
7. Evaluate training.
xxix
Let's examine each of these steps.

Define the goals of training.
Unless you know what your goals are, how can you plan an appropriate
training program? What do you want or need to happen? The goal of this
article is to provide continuing education for dietary managers in an area,
which may be lacking in their background. Goals need to have a way to be
evaluated. You may have a goal for getting employees to correctly operate a
new piece of equipment. This goal can be evaluated by having the employee
demonstrate what they learned.
Determine the audience.
By writing for this magazine, the audience is defined for me - mostly dietary
managers, with some foodservice supervisors, diet technicians, and
dietitians. In your facility the audience could be a specific segment of
employees or the entire department. Learning how to operate a new piece of
equipment is a good example of a topic for a segment of employees and not
the entire department.
The majority of your employees are probably adults, and they learn
differently than children. Adult learning theory is important to understand if
you want employees to learn and be committed to your goals. Adults decide
what is important to learn and like to share in planning what they learn. They
validate information based on beliefs, draw on experience, and may have
fixed viewpoints.
Adults expect immediate usefulness of the information presented and are
problem cantered. They like to actively participate in what they are learning,
and function best in a collaborative environment. By linking new information
to their experience or work setting, they will remember the new information.
xxx
Attendees at your training session can be classified as vacationer,

prisoner, graduate, or student. A vacationer says, "You can't teach me
anything - I'm taking the day off." The prisoner says "You can't teach me
anything - I was told to be here." The graduate feels, "You can't teach me
anything - I already know this stuff." The student is the person you want to
attend the training. Students are anxious to learn and willing to look at
anything that will help them be a better person.
Establish training objectives.
Objectives must be measurable and attainable. This article has several
objectives. The questions at the end will be used to determine if the
objectives have been met. Going back to the example of the proper
operation of a new piece of equipment, your objective could be that
employees would be able to demonstrate proper use. This could be
measured by demonstration of the appliance by the employee during the
training, and again in a month. You may also want to quantify the objective
with a time frame, quantity, or degree of accuracy.
Develop the training program.
What will you teach? Don't reinvent the wheel. It takes a lot of time, which
you don't have. Start building a list of training resources (people, books,
games, videos). Are you familiar with copyright laws? Are you aware, for
example, that use of a cartoon without permission from the syndicate is a
copyright infringement? Facts may be used freely under the principle of "Fair
Use;" however, expression belongs to the author. Copyright laws do not
define exact limits for fair use. The rule of thumb from a book-length
publication is 300 words can be copied. That really isn't very much when you
consider this article has about 2,000 words and covers only a couple of
pages.
xxxi
Don't cut disabled employees out of training. Disability awareness is

essential. Do you have employees who can't read and/or write English, have
hearing or visual problems? Will training take place in a classroom or in the
kitchen? What points need to be covered and in what order? The
development of an outline is essential for covering all the points in a logical
sequence.
Keep in mind that you must go through the entire learning cycle if you expect
people to learn. The learning cycle includes participating in a learning
activity, participants responding, and applying and evaluating what was
learned. This cycle is not difficult to work through. The learning activity could
involve participants by using one of many audience participation methods.
Participants can respond in a number of ways. When you answer the
question, "what's in this for me?" you show the participant how the
information is applied to their position and help them evaluate its usefulness.
When designing the in-service, you need to ask these questions to check
your progress. Do activities lead to achieving the objectives? Does the
material relate to experiences of the participants? Does it focus on "real
world" problems? Does it include activities where participants can apply what
they learn? Does it allow for debate and challenge of ideas? Are there
opportunities for students to give feedback to the trainer?
Select training methods.
Keep in mind that we learn 1 percent through taste, 1.5 percent through
touch, 3.5 percent through smell, 11 percent through hearing, and 83 percent
through sight. How complex is the information or skill? How resistant are the
participants to the information or this method? How important is active
participation? How much time is available? Do methods utilize a variety of
senses? How confident are you in using the method? How much work or
xxxii
preparation is involved? Is any special equipment or room set-up required?

Are methods varied, which will keep the students, involved?
What visuals will you use? Proper use is important for visuals to be effective.
We have all sat through a presentation where the speaker has taken a form,
made it into a transparency, and then expected us to see each and every line
as they showed it on a screen which is too small for the audience size. The
speaker missed the basic principle of visual design - keep it simple with lots
of white space. A rule of thumb is a maximum of 36 words per visual,
excluding the title. A maximum of six lines with six words per line is
recommended. Presentation software programs can keep you on track if you
use their templates.
Visuals can help to facilitate learning, help organize your presentation, and
help you to be concise. They are used to make you more persuasive and to
add variety and emphasis to your presentation. Visuals help participants
grasp more information and reinforce your verbal message.
2.7 Phases of training

Training is a circular process that begins with needs identification and after a
number of steps ends with evaluation of the training activity. A change or
deficiency in any step of the training process affects the whole system, and
therefore it is important for a trainer to have a clear understanding about all
phases and steps of the training process. In the broadest view, there are
three phases of a training process: planning, implementation, and
evaluation.
Planning Phase
The planning phase encompasses several activities, two of which - training
needs identification and curriculum development - are very important.
xxxiii
Training Needs Identification. Training need is a condition where there is a

gap between "what is" and "what should be" in terms of incumbents'
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviour for a particular situation at one
point in time. This gap is called "a problem," which usually occurs when a
difference exists between "desired performance" and "actual performance."
The needs identification process assists trainers in making sure that they
have matched a training programme to a training problem.
Training needs identification is possible through different analytical
procedures. The major procedures used in determining training needs are
the following:
Organizational analysis determines where training emphasis should be
placed within the organization and is based on the objectives of an
organization. Concerning what one should do in analysing an organization,
McGhee and Thayer (1961) suggest four steps:
1. Stating the goals and objectives of an organization
2. Analysing the human resources
3. Analysing efficiency indices
4. Analysing the organizational climate
The results of these analyses are then compared with the objectives of the
organization. These comparisons point to specific areas in which training is
needed.
Individual analysis aims at identifying specific training needs for an
individual or group of employees so that training can be tailored to their
needs. This analysis centres on individuals and their specific needs
concerning the skills, knowledge, or attitudes they must develop to perform
their assigned tasks. The possible methods or techniques for individual
xxxiv
analysis include performance appraisal, interviews, questionnaires, tests,

analysis of behaviour, informal talks, checklist, counselling, critical incidents,
recording, surveys, and observations.
Group analysis includes a number of techniques in which a group of wellinformed employees discuss different aspects of the organisation, the
employees, and the tasks to identify the major discrepancies in achieving
predetermined targets for each of them with a view to assessing training
needs as distinguished from other necessary changes for removing these
discrepancies. The major techniques, which are used in this approach, are
brainstorming, buzzing, cardsorts, advisory committee, conferences, problem
clinic, role-playing, simulation, task forces, workshops, and so forth.
Many problems exist in an organization, but some problems cannot be
solved by training. After a preliminary needs analysis, which gives probable
causes and solutions, the results should be verified with the concerned
personnel of the organization to determine whether training is an appropriate
action to solve that problem.
Curriculum Development. This is the most important part in a training
programme after a need for training has been identified. The curriculum
specifies what will be taught and how it will be taught. It provides the
framework and foundation of training. The first phase of curriculum
development determines what will be taught, that is, the training content.
Once training needs have been identified and training activities have been
decided as part of the solution, a needs analysis should be done to
determine knowledge, skills, and attitude requirements and performance
deficiencies. The needs analysis procedure involves breaking down the
"training problem" into its basic parts in different successive phases to
xxxv
identify and understand the important components in each phase. Ultimately

it leads to identifying and understanding the training content. The training
needs analysis process can be divided into three distinct analytical phases:
job analysis, task analysis, and knowledge and skill-gap analysis.
A. Job analysis. Job analysis is a method of determining major areas of
tasks where training may be needed (see JA Worksheet). It involves the
dissecting of a job into its component events or parts. This analysis allows a
trainer to better understand what an employee does in an organization. Job
analysis involves the "task identification" of a particular job (Wentling, 1992).
The techniques used in task identification include job questionnaire,
interview, participant observation, work sampling, job audit, and small-group
discussion. The following steps may provide a guide for completion of job
analysis:
1. Identify the job that is to be the subject of the analysis. This involves
defining the focal point for the job analysis. It may include the entire job
of a group of employees or only a specific segment of their job.
2. Prepare a list of tasks which can be done following different
approaches and methods. Four approaches can be used to identify job
tasks: (1) experts identify and list critical tasks, (2) observations and
interviews are conducted with employees, (3) meetings are held with
group representatives, and (4) a tentative list of task is reviewed by
employees and their supervisors.
3. Verify the tasks. The draft list of tasks should be verified by experts,
workers, and supervisors in the analysis process. This can be done
through expert review, small-group discussions, and inter views. When
the tasks are verified, a final list of job tasks is prepared.
xxxvi
4. Determine the frequency. The workers and super visors can fill in a
form indicating how frequently each task in a job is performed. Different
scales such as "seldom," "occasionally," "weekly to monthly," "daily to
weekly," and "daily" can be used to quantify the intensity of a task
accomplished.
5. Determine the importance. Not all tasks are equally important to a
job. An occasionally performed task may be very important. Therefore,
a relative importance rating is useful along with frequency rating. A
scale such as "marginally important," "moderately important," and
"extremely important" may be used to determine the relative
importance of the job tasks.
6. Estimate the learning difficulty. An estimate of learning difficulty is
another dimension of the job-task analysis. It shows the trainer the
employees' perception of difficulty, which may be different from the
trainer's own perception. A scale such as "easy," "moderately difficult,"
"very difficult," and "extremely difficult" may be used to determine the
difficulty indices of job tasks.
7. Calculate the total score. This can be done by simply adding the
scores for frequency, importance, and learning difficulty for each task.
The column for total score in a worksheet indicates the priority tasks
for training if these are training problems.
8. Review the findings. The results of the job-task analysis should be
discussed with significant people in the training system, including
government leaders, programme directors, and others interested in
related training.
B. Task analysis.
The output of the job analysis is a list of broad job tasks, based on
importance, learning difficulty, and frequency of doing the task. Each task is
xxxvii
a complex set of procedures in itself, and therefore it needs further analysis

to find out which specific segment of the of the task is critical in designing a
training programme (see Task Analysis Worksheet). To do this, it is
necessary to follow a method called task analysis, which is similar to job
analysis.
Task analysis procedures include preparing a blank task analysis worksheet,
writing down the name of the job at the top of each sheet, and then making
copies. Each of these forms will be used for breaking down and analysing
each of the most important job tasks. Therefore, it is necessary to write one
important task identified for training on each of the task analysis worksheets
and to list all component parts of each task on its respective task analysis
worksheet. This is followed by the steps used for job analysis to find out the
frequency, importance, and learning difficulty for each step of the tasks. Then
the score for each component part is put in the "total score" column, and the
results are discussed with concerned personnel in the organization. The job
analysis and task analysis processes are similar to each other, so the model
for both worksheets is the same.
The important difference between these two steps of analysis is that "the job
analysis helps us identify major blocks of content to include in training; the
task analysis helps us understand what comprises an individual block"
(Wentling, 1992). Both are very important to the curriculum development
process. What needs to be taught and what steps are involved in the
process are completed by these analyses and comprise the major steps in
curriculum development.
C. Knowledge and skill-gap analysis. The knowledge or skill-gap analysis is
a process of determining the training needs of individual employees in
relation to the important tasks-steps or components of tasks identified for
training (see Skill-Gap Analysis Worksheet). The skill-gap analysis
determines how skilled or proficient individual employees are on these tasksxxxviii
steps or components, how much individuals differ from desired performance,

and whether or not they need training. It would be a waste of resources and
frustrating to the trainer and trainees to design and deliver training on topics
and skills where the trainees are already able and proficient. A priority list of
the tasks identified for training according to the total score in the job analysis
is made. Then, the steps or components that were identified on each task
analysis worksheet are listed on the skill-gap analysis worksheet.
This is followed by rating each step-component in terms of the trainee's
current proficiency on a scale of 1 to 5, as shown in the legend of the
worksheet. Identifying the steps-components that appear to have low
proficiency is required because there is a gap between what is desired and
the current situation. After this, a review is done to ponder whether the gap
can be decreased or removed through training or whether training is the
most appropriate method. There may be some steps-components for which
measures other than training are more appropriate. At this stage, key
personnel such as subject-matter specialists, supervisors, and extensiontraining experts should discuss the findings before finalizing the curriculum.
This helps to identify different perspectives and to avoid unnoticed mistakes
or biases in curriculum development.
The training needs analyses provide many things to a trainer. The analyses
determine the training contents and how deficient the trainees are in these
contents, and the sequence of tasks provides the sequence of training
activity.
Job Analysis Worksheet3

Job Analysis Worksheet
Job: Steel Plant Operator
Tasks:
Frequency performeda Importanceb Learning difficultyb Total score Focus
3
xxxix
1. Supervision
2. Conducting training
3. Planning programmes
4. Research trial
a
1 = Seldom
2 = Occasionally
3 = Weekly to monthly
4 = Daily to weekly
5 = Daily
4
4
2
2
3
3
3
2
1 = Marginally important
2 = Moderately important
3 = Extremely important
4 = Extremely difficult
1
3
2
1
8
10
7
5
...
yes
...
...
1 = Easy
2 = Moderately difficult
3 = Very difficult
Task Analysis Worksheet

Task: Conducting training
Components/steps
Establishing rapport
Introducing the topic
Presenting the subject
Maintaining eye contact
Using A/V aids in time
Summarizing the lecture
a
1 = Seldom
3 = Weekly to monthly
4 = Daily to weekly
5 = Daily
Frequency Performeda Importanceb Learning Score Total Focus

Difficultyc
5
3
1
9
5
3
1
9
5
3
4
12
yes
5
3
3
11
yes
b
1 = Marginally important
3 = Extremely important
4 = Extremely difficult
1 = Easy
2 = Moderately difficult
3 = Very difficult
Skill-Gap Analysis Worksheet

Steps-components
Establishing rapport
Introducing the topic
Presenting the subject
Maintaining sequence
Maintaining eye contact
Using A/V aids in time
Supplying handouts
Summarizing the
lecture
Level of
proficiency
1 2 3 (4) 5
1 2 (3) 4 5
1 2 3 (4) 5
1 2 (3) 4 5
1 (2) 3 4 5
1 (2) 3 4 5
1 2 (3) 4 5
(1) 2 3 4 5
Is proficiency a
problem?
[]
[Y]
[]
[]
[Y]
[]
[Y]
[Y]
1 = Cannot do at all
2 = Can do less than half of the task
3 = Can do more than half but less than total
xl
Can problem be solved by

training?
[]
[Y]
[]
[]
[Y]
[]
[N]
[Y]
4 = Can do total but cannot maintain time schedule

5 = Can do within time schedule
Source: Adapted from "A Five-Step Approach to Training," by Mary Anne Hogue, DIETARY
MANAGER, September 1992 Adams, J. S (1975) Inequality in Social Exchange in Richard M. Steer
and Lyman, w. Proper motivation and work behaviour. (New York M. Hill).
Selecting a Training Method

A training programme has a better chance of success when its training
methods are carefully selected. A training method is a strategy or tactic that a
trainer uses to deliver the content so that the trainees achieve the objective
(Wentling, 1992). Selecting an appropriate training method is perhaps the
most important step in training activity once the training contents are
identified. There are many training methods, but not all of these are equally
suitable for all topics and in all situations. To achieve the training objective, a
trainer should select the most appropriate training method for the content to
involve the trainees in the learning process. Four major factors are
considered when selecting a training method: the learning objective, the
content, the trainees, and the practical requirements (Wentling, 1992).
According to Bass and Vaughan (1966), training methods should be selected
on the basis of the degree to which they do the following:
1. Allow active participation of the learners.
2. Help the learners transfer learning experiences from training to the
job situation.
3. Provide the learners with knowledge of results about their attempts
to improve.
4. Provide some means for the learners to be reinforced for the
appropriate behaviour.
5. Provide the learners with an opportunity to practise and to repeat
when needed.
xli
6. Motivate the learners to improve their own performance.

7. Help learners increase their willingness to change.
These criteria indicate that a single training method will not satisfy the
objectives of a training programme.
A variety of training methods are available to a trainer. The most commonly
used methods include:
1. Instructor presentation. The trainer orally presents new information
to the trainees, usually through lecture. Instructor presentation may
include classroom lecture, seminar, workshop, and the like.
2. Group discussion. The trainer leads the group of trainees in
discussing a topic.
3. Demonstration. The trainer shows the correct steps for completing a
task, or shows an example of a correctly completed task.
4. Assigned reading. The trainer gives the trainees reading
assignments that provide new information.
5. Exercise. The trainer assigns problems to be solved either on paper
or in real situations related to the topic of the training activity.
6. Case study. The trainer gives the trainees information about a
situation and directs them to come to a decision or solve a problem
concerning the situation.
7. Role play. Trainees act out a real-life situation in an instructional
setting.
8. Field visit and study tour. Trainees are given the opportunity to
observe and interact with the problem being solved or skill being
learned.
xlii
Implementation phase
Once the planning phase of a training programme is complete, then it is time
to implement the course. Implementation is the point where a trainer
activates the training plan, or it is the process of putting a training
programme into operation.
The first step towards implementing a training programme is publicity. Most
of the well-established training centres develop training brochures which
contain course descriptions, prepare an annual calendar of training
opportunities, and inform concerned organizations, agencies, or departments
well ahead of time about their training plans. Once the training centre and
concerned organizations agree to implement training, the next step is to
arrange available resources such as sufficient funds for the course and
facilities for food, lodging, transportation, and recreation. All these resources
need to be well managed and coordinated to run the programme smoothly.
Evaluation phase
After the training is over you can breathe a big sigh of relief, but you are not
finished with your job as trainer. The last step in the process is to evaluate
the training. How did the training go? How did students evaluate the training?
Were your objectives met? If not, why not? What could you do differently to
improve this training the next time? The forgetting curve reminds us that
training needs to be ongoing and repeated. Participants will forget 55 percent
within one hour, 65 percent after a day, and 75 percent after a week.
Motivation is what gets you started. Habit is what keeps you going.
Evaluation is a process to determine the relevance, effectiveness, and
impact of activities in light of their objectives. In evaluating a training
programme, one needs to consider that most training activities exist in a
larger context of projects, programmes, and plans. Thus Raab et al. (1987,
p. 5) define training evaluation as "a systematic process of collecting
information for and about a training activity, which can then be used for
xliii
guiding decision making and for assessing the relevance and effectiveness
of various training components."
Kirkpatrick (1976) suggested four criteria to evaluate training programmes:
(1) reaction, (2) learning, (3) behaviour, and (4) results. Each criterion is
used to measure the different aspects of a training programme. Reaction
measures how the trainees liked the programme in terms of content,
methods, duration, trainers, facilities, and management. Learning measures
the trainees' skills and knowledge, which they were able to absorb at the
time of training. Behaviour is concerned with the extent to which the trainees
were able to apply their knowledge to real field situations. Results are
concerned with the tangible impact of the training programme on individuals,
their job environment, or the organization as a whole.
2.8
Learning Theories
This section takes a brief look at the major categories of learning, the major
theorists within those categories, and the implications of those theories for
the use of multimedia and communications and information technology for
learning purposes. A separate section within this section chapter provides a
brief overview of learning based upon neuroscience and recent discoveries
about the functioning of the brain. A series of links are provided to further
resources on learning theory, neuroscience, and the brain.
Contemporary Theories of Learning
Constructivism
Exogenous
knowledge as adaptive and
reconstructed from experiences,
teaching and models
paradigms philosophies changing
perspectives
Endogenous
through abstract and operational
thinking (Piaget) and sequential
learning
discourse/dialog discussion
debates conflict resolution
Social Learning Theory
xliv
Dialectical/Situated Cognition
Knowledge through interactions with
real-life contexts
(person+environment=Vygotsky)
practicum on-the-job-training internship
project-based and service learning
Social Cognition
(beliefs, expectations, goals, and
persistence) Bandura; Zimmerman
Social Cultural
(social and cultural environments
including work cultures) Vygotsky
Self-Efficacy Mastery Vicarious

exp.s/modeling Social Persuasion
Psychological reactions SelfRegulation (choices, effort)
zone of proximal development

understanding cultural differences
reciprocal teaching instructional
scaffolding
Social Critical
(critical analysis, interpretation, and
application for social change and
growth) Habermas, Taba, Brookfield
communication through discourse,
debate, dialog critical questioning
(Taba) reflection (CIQ) logic and
problem-solving consensus building
Transformational Theory
Perspective Transformation
Critical Pedagogy
(personal development, change, and growth) Mezirow (social change & transformation)
Freire, Brookfield
journaling metaphors/affirmations
"conscientization" through (praxis)
historiographies/tree rings ethnographic analysis
action reflection critical incidents
experiences
problem-posing service learning
Mentoring
(growth & change)
Daloz
mentoring coaching
Humanistic-Cogntive Theories
Cooperative Learning
(Facilitating and guiding learning)
Kagan, Slavin, Johnson & Johnson
expert jigsaw four corners line-up
think-pair-share
Feminist Pedagogy
(women's engagement in learning)
Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberg, and Tarule
Empowerment independent thinking
Self-Direction/Self-Regulation
(self-initiated learning) Bandura,
Zimmerman, Pons
goal-setting learning contracts
Source: Ejiofor, P. N. O (1981) Management in Nigeria. Theories and issues (Onitsha: African TEP Publishers Ltd.)
2.8.1 Behaviorism & Constructivism

The extremes of this learning theory spectrum are represented by
respectively, the Behaviourist and Constructivist theories of learning. As
theories trying to explain the same thing, they are bipolar based on their
respective views of how knowledge is acquired and the intervention of tools
of learning (teachers or instructors). As a context to better understand all of
the theories of learning presented in this chapter, examine these two
extremes first and then place the remaining theories onto the spectrum.
2.8.0 Behaviorism
The Associated Names of this Theory:
Behaviorism labelled as a teaching approach is often referred to as directed
instruction. As you compare this theory with the Constructivist view of
xlv
learning,
this
label
will
become
self-evident. Also
in
contrast
to
Constructivism, it has been labelled an objectivist theory of learning.

A Description of Behaviorism:
The concern or emphasis of Behaviorism is observable indicators that
learning is taking place. Contrasting this view of learning is the emphasis of
cognitive psychologists who equate learning with the mental processes of
the mind. Behaviorists do not deny the existence of these mental processes.
In fact, they acknowledge their existence as an unobservable indication of
learning.
The focus of Behaviorism is on the conditioning of observable human
behavior. J. B Watson, the father of Behaviorism, defined learning as a
sequence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and effect
relationships.
The
behaviorists'
example
of
classical
conditioning
demonstrates the process whereby a human learns to respond to a neutral

stimulus in such a manner that would normally be associated with an
unconditioned stimulus. The supporting example often cited with classical
conditioning is the case of Pavlov's dog. The focus of Pavlov's experiment
was the digestive process in animals. In conducting the experiment, Pavlov
noticed that the dog would salivate (response), upon hearing the ringing of a
bell. This occurred because the dog had learned to associate its
unconditional stimuli (normally feeding), with the neutral stimuli of the bell
ringing simultaneously with the feeding process. Watson, believed that the
stimuli that humans receive may be generated internally (for example
hunger), or externally (for example, a loud noise). B.F. Skinner expanded on
the foundation of Behaviorism, established by Watson, and on the work of
Edward Thorndike, by focussing on operant conditioning. According to
Skinner, voluntary or automatic behavior is either strengthened or weakened
by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. "The learning
xlvi
principle behind operant conditioning is that new learning occurs as a result

of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are abandoned as a result of
negative reinforcement." (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p.59) In his book entitled,
The Technology of Teaching, Skinner wrote:
The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and
direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement
under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural
environments, but teachers arrange special contingencies which
expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behavior which would
otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the appearance of
behavior which otherwise never occur. (Skinner, 1968, p.64)
Skinner believed that more complex learning could be achieved by this
process of contingencies and reinforcement "... through successive stages in
the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement being changed
progressively in the direction of the required behavior." (Skinner, 1968, p.10)
Applying the theoretical principles of Behaviourism to learning environments,
it is easy to recognize that we have many "behaviourist artefacts" in our
learning world. A dissection of the traditional teaching approaches used for
years would reveal the powerful influence that Behaviourists have had on
learning. The concept of directed instruction, whereby a teacher is providing
the knowledge to the students either directly or through the set up of
"contingencies", is an excellent example of the Behaviourist model of
learning. The use of exams to measure observable behaviour of learning, the
use of rewards and punishments in our school systems, and the breaking
down of the instruction process into "conditions of learning" (as developed by
Robert Gagne), are all further examples of the Behaviorist influence.
With the advent of the computer in school, C.A.I., or computer-assisted
instruction has become a prominent tool for teaching, because from a
xlvii
Behaviorist perspective, it is an effective way of learning. CAI uses the drill

and practice approach to learning new concepts or skills. The question
acting as the stimulus, elicits a response from the user. Based on the
response a reward may be provided. The "contingencies" of learning are
translated into different levels of the program. Rewarding the user to a
different level for correct responses follows exactly the approach of operant
conditioning. Educators have espoused CAI as an effective teaching
approach because it allows for self-paced instruction and it liberates them
from the direct instruction of all their students so as to focus on those
students with particular needs.
2.8.2 Constructivism:
Constructivism is recognized as a unique learning theory in itself. It however,
may be associated with cognitive psychology because as a theory of
learning it focuses on a learner's ability to mentally construct meaning of
their own environment and to create their own learning. As a teaching
practice it is associated with different degrees of non-directed learning. The
term constructivism is linked to Cognitive and Social Constructivism.
A Description of Constructivism:
The merits of Behaviourist learning theory and of their teaching practices are
well documented. They have served well in teaching a growing North
American population over the past six decades. Behavioural learning theory
manifested itself in creating a systematic approach to teaching.
The design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the
conditions under which learning occurs. With reference to the learner,
learning conditions are both external and internal. These conditions are in
turn dependent upon what is being learned. How can these basic ideas be
used to design instruction? How can they be applied to the design of single
xlviii
lessons, of courses, and of entire systems of instructions? (Gagne and

Briggs, 1974, p. 14)
Gagne and Briggs' principles of instructional design broke down the teaching
process into a systematic process of nine steps. It is in effect, this type of
systematic approach to teaching that acted as the catalyst for the creation of
another view of the way humans learn.
Behaviorist learning theory had served its purpose and its approach and
goals were becoming outdated according to Constructivists like Seymour
Papert. Constructivist learning theory sought to improve on what Behaviorist
learning theory had already established by focussing on the motivation and
ability for humans to construct learning for themselves. It viewed
Behaviorism as being too teacher centered and directed. Constructivists
regarded the educational system as a process of matching skill objectives
with test items. It was void of meaningful learning. They also saw the
teaching process focus too much on individual work rather than on group
work.
The final critique of Behaviourist learning theory from the Constructivist
perspective helped define the core of Constructivism. To imply that
knowledge is separate to the human mind and that it must be transferred to
the learner in a teacher cantered approach fundamentally was counter to the
Constructivist theory of learning.
Constructivists believe that all humans have the ability to construct
knowledge in their own minds through a process of discovery and problem
solving. The extent to which this process can take place naturally, without
structure and teaching is the defining factor amongst those who advocate
this learning theory.
Jean Piaget, 1969 a Swiss psychologist, observed human development as
progressive stages of cognitive development. His four stages, which
xlix
commence at infancy and progress into adulthood, characterize the cognitive

abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment.
Seymour Papert, psychologist and contemporary critique of Behaviorist
teaching methods, writes in his book, The Children's Machine:
Thus, constructionism, my personal reconstruction of constructivism
has as its main feature the fact that it looks more closely than other
educational -isms at the idea of mental construction. It attaches special
importance to the role of constructions in the world as a support for
those in the head, thereby becoming less of a purely mentalist
doctrine. (Papert, 1993, p.142)
As the inventor of LOGO, the programming tool for children, Papert too
believed that children as learners have a natural curiosity to construct
meaning of their world. The educational system as Papert saw it was too
structured and it stifled this natural curiosity. The means by which children
were being taught relegated them to a role of passive recipients of the
teaching hence, they were not motivated to construct any learning for
themselves. Learning according to Constructivists is a question of motivating
an individual to attach new meaning to past cognitive experiences. According
to Papert:
It [constuctivsm] does not call in question the value of instruction as
such. That would be silly: Even the statement (endorsed if not
originated by Piaget) that every act of teaching deprives the child of an
opportunity for discovery is not a categorical imperative against
teaching, but a paradoxically expressed reminder to keep it in check.
The constructionist attitude to teaching is not at all dismissive because
it is minimalist - the goal is to teach in such a way as to produce the
most learning for the least teaching. Of course, this cannot be
achieved simply by reducing the quantity of teaching while leaving
l
everything unchanged. The principle other necessary change parallels

an African proverb: If a man is hungry you can give him a fish, but it is
better to give him a line and teach him to catch fish himself. (Papert,
1993, p.139)
Papert's desire to have children become motivated learners, critical thinkers,
problem-solvers and metacognitionists is to be achieved through educational
reform that provides the learner with the necessary tools to participate and to
take ownership of the learning process. According to Papert, the computer is
the appropriate tool to achieve such desired educational reform.
These desired objectives of Papert and others who share the Constructivist
view of learning are coming closer to reality as more people discover the
power of computer technology. From Donald Tapscott's perspective, Papert's
desired reality is happening now, as a paradigm shift to more interactive
learning due to the exploitation of the digital media is taking place in our
learning institutions.
Tapscott cites eight shifts in learning today:
From linear to hypermedia.
From instruction to construction and discovery.
From teacher-centered to learner-centered education.
From absorbing material to learning how to navigate and how to learn.
From school to lifelong learning.
From one-size-fits-all to customized learning.
From learning as torture as learning as fun.
From the teacher as transmitter to the teacher as facilitator.
Fitting the other Theories onto the Spectrum
Behaviorism
Constructivism
Directed Instruction
Non-directed Instruction
Objectivist
Constructivist
Teacher-centered
Learner-centered
Behavioral observations
Cognitive operations
Focus on the individual
Group work is emphasized
More focussed on one approach
More holistic in approach
li
Source:
Tapscott, Don. (1998). Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation. New York:
McGraw Hill
Fundamentally, Constructivism is a cognitive learning theory because of its

focus on the mental processes that construct meaning
Information-Processing theory regards human learning as being analogous
to a computer and its ability to store memory. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p.59)
As humans we process information initially with our senses. This information
is either processed into our short term memory or it is lost. If this information
is used and practised it is only then put into long term memory.
The complexity of understanding how humans learn is reflective of our
complexity as biological, social and cognitive animals. Many theories exist,
all focussing on different aspects of our make-up as humans. Each theory is
an attempt to explain how we learn, act and behave: Sigmund Freud (1987)
focussed on our sub-conscious, Skinner on our observable behaviour,
cognitive psychologists on our mental processes, humanistic psychology on
our social and interpersonal development. Howard Gardner took a more
holistic approach in describing our cognitive profiles. His classification of
human intellectual ability into seven intelligences incorporates many aspects
of psychology to define the cognitive behaviour of humans. Before moving
on to Multiple Intelligences , refer to the following hyperlinks for information
on other learning theories.
2.8.3 Theory of Multiple Intelligences:

Human intelligence should not be equated solely with linguistic or logicalmathematical intelligence alone, according to Howard Gardner. As the author
of a new way of looking at human intelligences, Gardner, a Harvard
professor, identified a total of seven different intelligences that humans may
possess. His list includes:
Linguistic intelligence
lii
Logical-mathematical intelligence
Spatial intelligence
Musical intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic
Interpersonal intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence
Gardner is working on more intelligences that qualify as cognitive processes:
"Multiple intelligences theory, on the other hand, pluralizes the traditional
concept" (Gardner, 1993, p.15)
Gardner's fascination with human intelligence and how the brain works was
started with an investigation of people who had experienced brain damage of
some sort. He recognized that not all abilities, whether cognitive or motorsensory, were eliminated from the individual's repertoire despite having
endured some form of brain damage. Gardner hypothesized that we possess
more than one form of intelligence.
The theory of multiple intelligences provides a more holistic view of the
intelligence of humans. Gardner advocates that we may all attempt to
develop each of these intelligences to our optimum level. However, we may
be more adept in only certain of these intelligences. We may however, aspire
through practice and development to improve in the remaining intelligences.
The use of technology appeals to this view of intelligence in that Gardner's
theory acknowledges that cognition is not a linear process. The computer as
a learning tool has enormous potential in developing the different forms of
intelligences of Gardner's theory.
2.9 Beyond training: re-conceptualizing learning at work
There is a widespread view that existing versions of management and
management theory are inadequate in our changing world: indeed, we are
liii
often said to be in the midst of a frenzied search for new approaches to

management (Eccles and Nohria, 1992; Hamel and Prahalad, 1994). Many
writers (e.g. Kets de Vries, 1995) identify as the basic flaw in current
paradigms of management the essentially rationalistic or Cartesian cast of
mind which thinks in terms of linearity, quantification, and command and
control organisation. This, sometimes identified as "Second Wave"
management thinking, is often compared unfavourably with "Third Wave"
theory in which issues of learning and knowledge management are taken as
central.
In all kinds of contexts, when we offer people training we help them prepare
to undertake a particular task or range of tasks. Teaching people to drive is a
good example. The purpose and scope of the training is relatively narrow
and well-d, being typically short-term with outcomes that can be specified in
a degree of detail, probably as competencies or skills. Work-based training
naturally focuses on the skills individuals need in their current employment;
other forms of training may focus on the skills needed to secure employment,
such as communication skills or the skills of information technology.
When we think of development, on the other hand, we are likely to have in
mind considerations of wider personal growth and change. Here we may not
be proposing any particular goal, instead sensing that the individual is
capable of more than they are achieving in their current position. The frame
of reference is longer-term and more open-ended: it is unlikely to be focused
on their present employment and may well be connected only in the loosest
way with the needs of the employing organisation as a whole. We may
encourage the individual to undertake a course of study (say, for an MBA), or
attach them for a while to a different department to "broaden their vision".
Those companies (such as Ford, through its EDAP scheme) which give their
employees "learning credits" to learn a foreign language or whatever they
liv
would wish to learn are showing their commitment to this kind of

development.
Training tends to presuppose that there is an answer - a problem that can be
solved - rather than a difficulty that may have to be worked with, which the
process of development by contrast may acknowledge. In being oriented to
skills - to doing rather than being - it does not address the affective and other
dimensions of the personal. Training is individualistic and does not attempt to
do justice to the organisational, social or political (think of the way these will
be ignored in "stress management skills" training).
Training is obviously necessary, and development is fashionable. Both
notions underlie much of what is written about the Learning Society into
which we are widely supposed to be moving. It is important to see that while
training and conceptions of skill are vital in the kinds of fields to which they
are appropriate they are damaging if applied in other areas of human
learning. Talk of "personal relationship skills" or "listening skills" gets
something very wrong. Who, in distress or difficulty, would want "listening
skills" exercised on them?
Development, meanwhile, carries its own dangers. Often its vocabulary is
that of "personal growth".. (Papert, 1993, p.129) This moves the focus of
concern from the organisation to the individual, with the corollary that where
failure occurs it is the individual, exclusively, that is to blame. Investment in
too personal a notion of development may be an excuse for not thinking
about the contexts - political, organizational and economic - in which these
"developed" people are going to live their lives in the future, in or out of work.
Development is insouciant about the connection between people and their
work: country hotels host all kinds of outdoor management development
programmes, in the faith (by no means always misplaced) that this will be
lv
somehow beneficial back in the office, irrespective of what kind of office,

what place of work that is.
We suggest that there is a need here for a reconceptualisation of adult
learning in order to give us a picture of the process that takes us beyond the
relative narrowness of training but avoids the decontextualisation of
development. At the heart of this reconceptualisation is the idea of people in
dialectical relationship with organisations. That is to say, this way of thinking
of adult learning foregrounds the importance of the connection between
individuals and the organisations which in some sense or other they belong
to, whether it is their workplaces, communities, social or leisure
organisations or organisations of any other sort.
In a world where the great majority of the top 500 Fortune organizations sell
nothing but the ideas and knowledge of their people, these points apply with
especial force. (Kets de Vries, 1995)
The knowledge economy

One of the most familiar ideas of our time is that the Western world is rapidly
moving towards a knowledge economy: an economy in which the
development and application of knowledge replaces capital, raw materials
and labour as the main means of production . Knowledge management - the
explicit and systematic management of knowledge and the associated
processes of creating, gathering, organising, diffusion, use and commercial
exploitation - is foregrounded in the organisations of the knowledge
economy. It requires, for example, transforming personal knowledge into
corporate knowledge that can be widely shared throughout an organisation
and appropriately applied.
It is possible to identify some key themes and characteristic strategies in
knowledge management (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). Key themes include
the importance of knowing what we know, and of releasing the existing
lvi
(hidden) knowledge in an organisation; enhancing tacit knowledge via

strategies for improving interaction and (often but not always) converting tacit
knowledge into explicit; making knowledge management an explicit function
of the organization and encouraging employees to be self-conscious
managers of knowledge, in addition to their other tasks. Characteristic
strategies of an organisation in the knowledge economy include the
appointment of a knowledge leader, the development of knowledge bases
(best practices, expert directories, market intelligence, etc.), the use of
collaborative technologies, such as Intranets or groupware for rapid
information access, and the development of knowledge webs, i.e. networks
of experts who collaborate across divisions. According to Wenting (Wentling,
1992) we need to be alert to the danger that such strategies may drive us
along the route of the management of information systems at the expense of
working to support the people in whose heads the knowledge lies.
Beyond training
This takes us beyond training. Training, which by its nature pre-specifies
outcomes, inevitably forecloses on the kinds of knowledge that are taken to
be relevant to the knowledge economy (this is a particular irony if the
knowledge economy is premised on rapid and exponential change). The link
between knowledge management and the learning organisation emphasises
the contribution that personnel/personal development can make in the
knowledge economy. But this is not development in vacuo. It is the dialectical
relationship between person and organisation which we wrote of above.
Guile and Fonda (1998) argue that the nature of work is changing and that a
"process-based organisation" made up of "flatter, partnership-based,
customer-focused, team and project-orientated structures" is resulting. As a
result, they argue that a new learning paradigm is required in which
organisational and individual development has to be seen as a single
process of relationships
lvii
I advocate the need to go beyond training and development because we

recognise that neither is enough and each has its characteristic limitations.
Development is too open, training not open enough. Training cannot cope
with a world of uncertainty, while development may accept it to the point of
giving no guidance in how to shape the world. Training cannot deal with a
high degree of complexity: development does too little to bring order to
complexity. We also advocate the need to go beyond the ideas of
organisational development and the learning organisation in ways which
fundamentally tie together the organisation and its members; for neither
should be developed at the expense of the other, and neither operates
successfully without the other. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p.59) The frustration
and sense of disappointment and pointlessness experienced by employees
who are sent off on courses but are not allowed to implement or practise
what they have learned when they return to their organisations is a huge
waste.
A new framework
To go beyond training, then, in the narrower sense, what is required is a
conception of personal/personnel development which is richer and more
responsive to the conditions of a knowledge economy and which moves us
to a new paradigm: a way of valuing thinking and feeling. Organisations,
which take knowledge management seriously, will share many of the
characteristics of the "learning organisation" familiar in literature and
practice. They emphasise openness (knowledge needs to be seen as public
property), the development of new knowledge and new kinds of knowledge,
the importance of awareness (consciousness-raising) about knowledge as a
product and process.
We propose that there are seven fundamental principles, which require
attention if this new framework is to be developed. All are derived from
lviii
consideration of the changing conditions, which the knowledge economy

brings. They are the principles of:
openness - as the starting point: recognising and removing barriers,

setting the tone which allows learning to happen.
uncertainty - expecting uncertainty and helping people to cope with it
because we cannot predict future knowledge.
complexity - problems and solutions are complex in this world.
Rushing to the latest "quick-fix" is not the answer.
relationships - learning is a social activity and we must recognise the
importance of building relationships to facilitate learning.
reflection - allows us to "know what we know" so we must build
systems to ensure that reflection has a recognised and valued place in
the organisation.
reframing - involves thinking outside of the usual boundaries, thus
aiding the development of both a long-term view and new knowledge.
restoration - ensures that what we are good at is not lost but is
preserved in a new harmony of purposeful relationships.
2.10 Achieving Harmony and High Performance in the Workplace

Imagine the perfect business: all employees are self-motivated, delivering
top-level performances, and working efficiently and smoothly with office
mates and executives alike. Far from being an impossible dream, this type of
harmonious and high performing environment is not only achievable; it is
becoming essential to a companys bottom line. Happy, successful
employees are not only more productive but also, more likely to remain loyal
and present on the job, maximizing efficiency and saving the company
hundreds of thousands of dollars in continuous rehiring and retraining costs.
(Skinner, 1968, p.64)
The key to creating this type of stable, productive workplace is to put
employees in charge of their own success. Employees who are empowered
to manage their own growth and achievement on the job tend to be more
self-satisfied, more cooperative, and more pro-active in trouble-shooting and
solving problems. Ultimately, they are more invested in contributing to the
organizations efficiency and bottom line because they know they have the
lix
power to affect change within the organization and to promote and control
their own career growth.
Fortunately, how to achieve this type of positive and pro-active changeover is
not guesswork. We have access to research-based steps and tools to teach
employees at all levels how to take personal ownership of job success. The
developed steps are geared toward giving employees a clear sense of their
personal and professional strengths and weaknesses, and consequently,
teaching them how those traits can be leveraged to improve both
performance and compatibility on the job.
To gain this awareness, it is important that employees go through the
process of evaluating themselves from four different viewpoints: individually;
in relation to their job; in relation to their co-workers; and in relation to their
organization. (Skinner, 1968, p.70)
Understanding and Appreciating Assets
Individually, the first essential step is for an employee to gain a deep
understanding and appreciation of what makes them unique. Most of us
have a general sense of who we are and what we bring to the table simply
by virtue of having compiled a professional resume and completed the job
application and hiring process. But what many employees dont have a clear
sense of is the multitude of assets and leadership qualities they have
acquired, and even refined, through their own life experiences. (Nonaka and
Takeuchi, 1995). Perhaps they have served as captain of the football team
or managed a fund raising drive in their community -personally motivated
roles, which have contributed to their management and leadership skills. By
identifying these roles, employees broaden their view of their competencies
and at the same time gather a clear sense of what best motivates them
naturally, and what type of activities or environments are most conducive to
their productivity.
lx
Next comes an even more essential awareness: how their personal and
professional assets match with the requirements of their particular job; a
valuable process we call fit/gap analysis. (Kessels, 1996) While most
employees are aware they have certain competencies that they were hired
for - such as knowledge of a certain type of software, or being able to
organize information in a certain way they often lack a clear sense of how
their
personal
behavioural
style
may
be
short-circuiting
their
job
effectiveness or impacting important working relationships. A manager who

has an effusive and anecdotal communication style, for example, may
energize two members of the project team, but remain unaware that he or
she is inadvertently irritating or offending a third. With some fit/gap analysis
training (Van Dersal 1962), this manager can modify his or her
communication style to foster a more positive relationship and consequently
promote better efficiency and productivity from the entire team. Likewise,
managers who are fully cognizant of their workers fits and gaps can be more
effective in hiring and placing employees where they will be most productive
and successful. In other words, with this new awareness, they become
better, more effective managers.
Maintaining Critical Connections
This fit/gap analysis is one of the most empowering tools an employee can
be given to manage their own success. Beyond having a good fit of
behaviour and skills for the job requirements, an employee must be able to
foster and maintain successful relationships with certain key people the
boss, critical team members, people for whom the employee is responsible,
external and internal customers - on whom their job success is dependant.
(Van Dersal 1962),
These are critical connections that can mean the
difference between success and failure on the job. Employees, who clearly
recognize and understand how their behavioural style is likely to fit with or to
lxi
challenge the styles of key co-workers, are better able to address and
develop strategies to compensate and to improve compatibility. (Van Dersal
1962, p12).
In addition to knowing and understanding the fits and gaps in workplace
relationships, it is important for an employee to evaluate how they fit in with
the company culture. Some indicators of a companys culture are the manner
in which decisions are made in the organization; the frequency, style and
format of internal communication; and the pace and work ethic of the
organization. An effective exercise is to have an employee describe their
companys culture on paper, then compare it against a similar description of
an environment in which they imagine themselves or have known
themselves to perform best. (McGhee, W., & Thayer, P. W. 1961, p45).
Pro-Action for Job Success
In the end, what emerges is a clear picture of what its going to take for a
particular individual to succeed on the job. The final step is for the employee
to draw up a specific action plan to help achieve personal and organizational
success. With this newly acquired awareness of their strengths and
weaknesses employees can leverage their strengths to accomplish that
success as well as devise strategies to bridge gaps where they exist. With
this sort of information, employees are not only able to improve conditions
and relationships in their current job positions, but also, are empowered to
chose and vie for better job positions by recognizing those career areas
where their assets are a better fit.
Employee and executive development is a continuous process, not a oneshot project, and no single approach is going to meet the needs of every
business. (Halim, A., & Ali, M. M. 1988, p67) However, experience and
research have shown us that investment in this type of training and
development is one of the most effective ways companies can improve
lxii
productivity. Employees at every level who feel empowered to manage their

own growth and achievement are more likely to seek strategies for solving
those challenges that arise with co-workers and feel more equipped to do so.
More importantly, they see themselves as part of the solution, as being able
to effect change when necessary and ultimately, they consider themselves
invested in the success of the organization.
2.11 Enhancing the Bottom Line: Manpower Training and the Return
on Investment
An organisations greatest asset
If people are an organisations greatest asset then the training and
development of those assets has to be viewed as investment in human
capital and not just as another expense. (Bass, B. M., & Vaughan, J. A.
1966).
The benefits of training and education in any organisation includes increased
productivity, fewer errors, higher staff moral, lower turnover rates, product
consistency, and customer advocacy amongst others. Organisations that
grow are those that obtain and manage knowledge the quickest and
cheapest.
Challengers
There are however numerous training and development challengers that
face both the organisation and its employees. For example; the vast amount
of information available where does it all fit in terms of the organisation and
how is it to be used effectively? The rapid rate of change how often does
knowledge need to be updated? The complexity of content how is the
need-to-know best defined? The varied and shifting skill sets what
competencies are needed to do the job right first time? Finite time to learn
what tools are best used to develop knowledge quickly and efficiently?
(Bass, B. M., & Vaughan, J. A. 1966).
lxiii
In todays world, organisations need a highly skilled workforce to stay

competitive. They need to quickly distribute information globally to
employees, customers and partners and manage their training process with
an eye firmly on the bottom line while acknowledging new products, changes
in technology and just in time learning requirements.
In the more traditional view of employee development, learning was seen as
budgeted expenses and peripheral to the organisations development and
growth. (Halim, A., & Ali, M. M. 1988, p60. As an entity, knowledge has been
entrusted to a select few and meted out in small portions to those close to
the top. Face-to-face instructor-led training was viewed as the only and most
appropriate way of disseminating knowledge and that learning needs should
only be addressed as required. It made sense therefore that any return on
investment was a non-issue.
The new reality
The new reality is, of course, quite different. More and more organisations
are starting to understand that both learning and knowledge have enterprisewide implications and have to be aligned directly and firmly to business
goals.
Also, many more options are available to disseminate knowledge and aid in
learning today. Technology-enabled training includes computer-based
instruction; Web based tutoring, electronic mentoring and workshops, virtual
classrooms, video streaming and a wide variety of personalised training
models. These delivery methodologies, when blended in some way with the
face-to-face method, create new and powerful models to help people learn
anytime, anywhere; always on, always there.
lxiv
In the new reality an organisation needs a well-developed competency plan

or roadmap for its workforce from the management team to the shop floor
operations. It is obvious that training and education will need to be extended
to all employees based on competency determined roadmaps and business
needs. Hence, identifying and developing a sound framework that can
measure returns on this investment become of paramount importance.
To help ensure a good return, organisational training and development must
be focused on its needs and must result in measurable changes in
knowledge, skills and abilities. The investment must also result in
behavioural change, make a difference to business results as well as meet
the needs of the learner.
At the end of the day, it will be the learner ROI that is most valuable.
Achieving good returns
A huge amount of money is currently being spent training people and the
growth of this investment is staggering. For example, total training in the
United States is projected to grow from USD 63.5 billion in 1999 to USD 72.8
billion by 2002 (source: IDC). Taking advantage of reduced costs, scalable
delivery and other technological advantages that the Web can provide, it is
estimated that Internet related learning will quadruple in two years to USD 4
billion and could reach USD 11.4 billion by 2003. (source : IDC) In addition,
more soft skills contents are included as part of the learning package.
A poor return on investment does not mean that the training and
development is inherently ineffective. The learning may be poorly planned
and badly implemented, if it is implemented at all. Employees who are
involved in training without assessing needs, either theirs or the
organizations, may find their newly acquired skills not effectively integrated
into the workplace.
lxv
At a minimum an organization needs to consider five basic questions with

respect to learning and a healthy return on investment. These are:
What to train: what skills are needed to meet current and future business
goals?
Who to train: who needs to be trained in the role that contributes best to
meet business needs?
Where to train: where is training most effectively best carried out: on-thejob, in a face-to-face environment or does a hybrid model need to be put in
place?
When to train: when is the best time to schedule training so it meets the
dynamic demands of the workplace?
How to train: which delivery options are available to aid in the learning
process and how should these options be combined to be most effective?
Measuring the results
Return on investment is determined by taking the actual cost of the training
from the total value of the benefits. This sum is then divided by the cost of
the training. The first step in measuring ROI is to itemize costs. Once costs
are determined the various benefits can be counted. Typical tangible benefits
include:
- Time savings
- Improved productivity
- Labor savings
- Improved quality
- Improved health and safety
- Better employee moral
Putting the financial aside, the most important questions to consider should
be:
1. Was the learning relevant to the needs of the organisation?
2. Did the learning achieve its goal?
lxvi
3. Is the learning being used in an appropriate manner?

4. Is the learning making a difference to the way the business is working?
Redefining organisational learning
The evolution of information and communications technology in the learning
environment is revolutionising the perception, practice and process of
learning. Technology is changing both the structure and the business of
learning.
The impact of technology on learning
Technology-enabled learning is not ever going to replace the role of direct
peer and/or instructor contact in learning. Technology and personal contact
can be used to complement each other, primarily because there are aspects
of training that technology can provide for, and aspects that are best left to
the human touch in the traditional settings.
However, technology-enabled learning has removed the confines of the
traditional learning environment and provided unprecedented access to
quality learning resources regardless of the location of the learner. The Web
has also brought together widespread communities of learners both inside
and outside the organisation. This combination has empowered both
learners and organisations to take control of learning, making the concept of
individualised lifelong learning a reality. The vision of customised learning
anytime, anywhere has arrived and learning will never be the same again.
Training and content providers, policymakers and the high-tech industry
have been partnering for many years to bring the benefits of computer
technology to the classroom. While the integration of technology as a
learning tool has been a gradual process, learners of all ages are reaping
benefits at an exponential rate due to the increasing ubiquity of the Web.
lxvii
Current technology provides four complementary learning enhancements

that help learners to learn anytime, anywhere. While far from distinct and
often integrated, these elements form a baseline for understanding the new
paradigm of learning that is taking place in organisations of all types and
sizes.
1. Access to Content: The web is making information available to learners
and enabling real-time, real-world exploration from the desktop.
2. Distributed Learning: The Web is providing unparalleled learning
materials that integrate rich curriculum, expert instruction, and global
discussions through a distributed repository.
3. Individualised Learning: The Web is providing the tools to tailor content
and instruction to the unique learning needs and styles of organisations.
Learners can be directed through integrated diagnostic assessments to
linked, supplemental enrichment or remedial curriculum.
4. Improved Communications: The Web is facilitating efficient and effective
contact and enabling peer netwo`rks and learner interaction with facilitators.
Conclusion
According to Gagne (Gagne and Briggs, 1974, p. 14) in a relatively
known and predictable world rational solutions can be planned, for
training as for anything else. A programme can be organised and
implemented so that a workforce acquires the skills it needs. These
skills will be the possessions of individuals (and will vanish with them
when they leave the organisation): where else can learning be located
but in the individual, whether in his or her head or hands? But perhaps
we are beginning to see the limitations of this way of understanding
things. To conceive learning objectives as WISE and OPEN (as stated)
is to begin to transcend these limitations. They take us into a world
where the old certainties and regularities are rapidly disappearing.
lxviii
They acknowledge the social nature of learning: that knowledge is

created by people in combination with each other and also lives in
social relationships (and so will not vanish with the employee). It is a
function of persons in interaction and not a possession of individuals. .
(Papert, 1993, p.142)
And, finally, the organisation which understands the value of going

beyond training will pay attention to the seven principles of openness,
uncertainty, complexity and so on. It will be prepared to initiate and
sustain dialogue among its members on the state of these issues in
their workplaces. It will perhaps consider appraising performance in
ways which require people to set WISE and OPEN and not SMART
objectives for themselves. Otherwise it is hard to see how
organisations will develop the flexibility and creativity necessary for "a
new economic order in which the daily work environment is an
authentic learning situation that highlights the role of the learner"
(Kessels, 1996) rather than that of the teacher, trainer or training
programme.
References
(1)
Bass, B. M., & Vaughan, J. A. (1966). Training in industry: The management of learning.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
(2)
Flippo, E. B. (1961). Principles of personnel management. New York: McGraw Hill. Halim,
A., & Ali, M. M. (1988). Administration and management of training programmes
Bangladesh Journal of Training and Development, 1 (2), 1-19.
lxix
(3)
Guile, D. and Fonda, N. (1998), Performance Management Through Capability, Issues in

People Management, 25, London: Institute of Personnel and Development.
(4)
Halim, A., & Ali, M. M. (1988). Administration and management of training programmes.
Bangladesh Journal of Training and Development, 1 (2), 1-19.
(5)
Jucious, M. J. (1963). Personnel management (5th ed.). Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.
Kirkpatrick, D. (1976). Evaluation of training. In R. L. Craig (Ed.), Training and
development handbook. New York: McGraw Hill.
(6)
Lynton, R. P., & Pareek, U. (1990). Training for development. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian
Press.
(7)
Malone, V. M. (1984). Inservice training and staff development. In B. E. Swanson Van

Dorsal, W. R. (1962).
(8)
Mary Anne Hogue "A Five-Step Approach to Training," , DIETARY MANAGER, September 1992 Adams, J. S
(1975)
(9)
McGhee, W., & Thayer, P. W. (1961). Training in business and industry. New York: John
Wiley and Sons. Raab, R. T., Swanson, B. E., Wentling, T. L., & dark, C. D. (Eds.). (1987).
A trainer's guide to evaluation. Rome: FAO.
(10)
Nwachukwu C. C (20000) Human Resource Management (Port Harcourt: UNIPORT PRESS LTD.)
(11)
Nonaka , I and Takeuchi, H. 1995. The Knowledge Creating Company: How Japanese
Companies create the Dynamics of Innovation. New York: Oxford University Press.
(12)
Roger D. Wimmer and Joseph R. Domimk, Mass Media Research: An Introduction, 2nd Edition, Wadaworth
Publishing Company, California, 1987, P. 47.
(13)
Tapscott, Don. (1998). Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation. New York:
McGraw Hill
(14)
Richard M. Steer and Lyman, w. Proper motivation and work behaviour. (New York M. Hill).1992
(15)
Wentling, T. L. (1992). Planning for effective training: A guide to curriculum development.

Rome: FAO.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
lxx
Introduction
The term methodology by science or discipline is the act of describing
how the research is to be carried out. Research in the other hand has
been defined by Professor Moody (1977:172) as I quote Research per
se constitutes a method for the discovery of truth, it is really a method
of critical thinking.
It comprises defining and redefining problems;
formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions, collecting data

organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and making
conclusions.
However in view of the fact that the above definition are based on
experimental research as such no consideration is give to the various
modes of inquiries that exist within a particular field or sub-field.
Another renowned scholar Professor Baridam (2001:7) has defined it
as thus Research a the activity of investigating the phenomena of
human experience which leads to new knowledge, using methods of
inquiry which are currently accepted as adequate by scholars in the
field. The key words in this definition are new knowledge, methods of
inquiry and currently accepted.
This chapter will critically examine the research design, area of study,
population, data collection, data analysis techniques, sampling
procedure, questionnaire design etc.
3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN
Nachmias and Nochmais (1976) see research as the model of proof
that allow the researcher to draw inferences under investigation. In
this research work two types of statistics are employed, descriptive and
inferential statistics. The descriptive statistics allow the researcher to
lxxi
generalized from characteristic of a small group to a larger group

unmeasured by the researcher.
The descriptive studies where the aim is to generate new facts are
largely quasi-experimental Baridam (1990:43).
Research questions
have been raised for the purpose of facilitating the research work
based on the objective of the research.
Therefore in this study, the survey method was adopted.
The
procedure involved in the administration of questionnaire is by way of

personal interview of company employees.
Opinions of employees
relating to their perception of training and development was obtained

through the individual interview and the questionnaire. The approach
to the study was both narrative and analytical.
3.2 SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND SIZE
3.2.1 AREA OF STUDY
Although the topic addressed the issue of training and development
generally, it was limited to the employee of Delta Steel Company
(DSC), Aladja near Warri, Delta State as case study.
3.2.2 POPULATION
Population is the total number of living human beings in a defined area

of interest.
But to statistician according to Moses Yode Omotosho
(1999:3) Population consists of objects in an area of interest, such

objects which may be living or non living, must be countable and may
be finite. Population is finite when it has a specific number and infinite
when the number is too large to be known.
3.2.3 TARGET POPULATION
lxxii
Target population is defined as the totality of elements which are under

discussion and about which information is desired Mood, Alexender
Mcfarlane (1913:222)
The target population in this research is the DSC workers; this includes
the operations, administrative staff, and other employees of DSC as
they constitute a significant proportion of the work force.
Figure 1: Diagrammatic Representation of Target Population.
Target
Population
Accessible
Population
Source: Baridam (2001:90)
Sample
Sample
Findings
3.2.4 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

A sample is defined as that position of the population from which data
is actually collected. Sample survey is an examination of a part of a
population that enables the researcher to make references about the
population. The population of this research is the total workforce of
Delta Steel Company Limited Aladja. DSC has an accessible
population of 1,500 workers. Sampling is necessary because
population of over 1,500 workers cannot be covered within the limited
time at the researchers disposal.
Why sample is preferred to population are as follows:
(1)
Analysis based on sample is as precise as that based on the

entire population
lxxiii
(2)
Use of sample is time saving and cost minimizing
(3)
The use of population to obtain some of its parameters may not

be practicable especially with infinite population.
The non probability sampling will be used due to its ease,

convenience, less expensive, no time consuming and results are valid
as the results is obtained from probability sampling (Baridam 1995)
The simple random sampling technique was adopted in drawing up the
sample for the study. The technique was chosen because the result
provides a good representation of all categories of workers in the
company.
The problem of insufficient sample size as a true
representative of the population did not arise because of the nature of

the research, which was basically on appraisal.
Also the type of
problem to be investigated determines the type of sample design to be

adopted.
3.2.5 DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
It is not very easy to determine the number of subjects that can be
included in a study. However other things being equal, the larger the
size of the study population, the more precise will be the finds of the
experiment. No researcher can be certain of the representation of a
population unless the entire population is tested, and studying the
entire population can be
very difficult.
However the ability of the
researcher to establish that the sample selection is a representative of

the population on critical parameters at an acceptable level of
probability (i.e confidence level). A scientific method of generating the
sample size will be adopted using the Yaro Yamens formula. The
Yamens formular according to Baridam (2001:93), is used for
determining the sample size from a heterogeneous population.
The Yaro Yamens formula is shown as thus:
lxxiv
n= N
1 + N (e)2
Where
n
e
N
=
=
=
Sample size sought

Level of significance
Population Size
The above formular is appropriate in determining the sample size

irrespective of the size of the population as in the case with this study.
Table 3.1
Determination of Departmental Sample Size
Department
Company Population
Administration
390
Operations
950
Others
160
Total
1500
Source:
DSC organigram & Field Study
N
N
1 + N (e)2
1500
1 + 1500 (0.05)2
1500
1 + 1500 (0.021)
1500
1 + 1.69
1500
2.69
= 299.5 300
lxxv
Total Sample Size

78
190
32
300
3.36 DETERMINATION OF DEPARTMENT SAMPLE SIZE

Deductively from the total sample size, the various department sample
size was calculated. See table 3.1. The formula applied was Bowleys
Population allocation formular (1964) and Nzelibe (1999.201) shown
below.
nh
nNh
N
The number of units allocated to each
The total sample assize
Nh
The number of employees in each company
The Population Size
Where
nh
department
For Administration nh =
=
For Operation nh
For Other nh
300 x 390
1500
78 78
=
300 x 950
1500
190 190
300 x 160
1500
32
32
Following the Bowleys population allocation formular described above,

the following total sample sizes were derived for the four categories.
Administration
78
lxxvi
Operation
190
Others (Casual)
32
300
3.3.7 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

The basic instrument for data collection was the questionnaire. The
questionnaire was highly structured and touched all areas of
occupational hazards that are particular to the oil industry and the
various
management
techniques
minimizing /eliminating these.
and
approaches
used
in
The close-end question types were
presented. This was done to enable easy coding and respondents to

express their view in precise terms.
Interview was also used especially at the early stage of the study.
This method of data collection enable the researcher obtain first hand
information from top and middle level management when the need
arose.
3.4
DATA COLLECTION METHOD

Data were collected from two major sources primary and secondary
sources. Primary data is defined as a data collected and used for the
purpose for which it was collected. The secondary data in the other
hand is that used for a purpose other than that for which it is collected.
In this study the use of primary and secondary systems of data
collection was adopted.
Information from the primary source was
collected from respondents through the use of the administered

questionnaire. The secondary source was obtained from DSC records,
statistical abstracts, research reports, bulletins, journals, text books
and Newspapers.
Data were obtained by the researcher himself.

lxxvii
Questionnaires were personally administered and collected by the

researcher.
A total of 300 copies of the questionnaires were distributed to the
various categories of SDSC Staff which was arrived at with the use of
Yaro Yamens formula. This was further broken down into departments
by the use of Bowleys population allocation formula so as to determine
how many staff in the three areas are to be administered with the
questionnaire.
As earlier computed, a total of 78 questionnaire were administered to
the administrative staff while 190 questionnaire went to the operation
department.
Also 32 questionnaire were distributed to the other
categories e.g. causal of DSC Staff.

This therefore accounted for a total of 300 questionnaire distributed
and returned by the various categories which was analyzed and
deductions made for the research.
However, where some key officers could be reached, some available
members of staff assisted in administering the questionnaires to them
and collect same from them. These were finally handed over to the
researcher.
3.5
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Regardless of the survey method used in collecting the data for the
study, some type of questionnaire must be developed if the desired
information is to be obtained. There are basically nine steps in the
construction of questionnaire.
Each step is very important in the
lxxviii
preparation of projects although steps may vary in importance in

individual project Baridam (1993:85).
The steps taken in the questionnaire design used in this study are
deciding the information needed, the manner and the way the
questionnaire were asked, the flow and sequence of questions, the
layout and reproduction etc.
3.6
INSTRUMENT VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

According to Baridam (2001:80), validity and reliability are two very
important constructs in the measurement of research variables. Gay
(1996:138) also asserts that the most important characteristics of a
standard test is validity. Validity, he further stated, is indispensable,
that there is no quality or virtue of a test that can compensate for
inadequate validity.
While Baridam (2001:78) defines validity as the extent to which a test
measures what is suppose to be measured, Uzoagulu (1988:101)
defines it simply as the appropriateness of an instrument in measuring
what is intended to measure.
Reliability is the extent to which a measuring instrument is consistent in
measuring whatever it measures (Baridam 2001:78).
Gay (1996:144) states that reliability means dependability or
trustworthiness and that any reliable measure yields the same results
any time it is re-administered.
3.6.1 VALIDITY OF THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT

Validity, according to Gay (1996:139), can be evaluated in terms of
purpose and for a particular group. To check for the validity of the
lxxix
measuring instrument in this project, content validity is applied and it

consist of face and sampling validity.
Face validity is concerned with the researchers subjective evaluation
as to the validity of a measuring instrument (Bardam 2001:80) Baridam
further states that experts opinion on the subject can be sought to
confirm the extent to which the questionnaire has face validity
(2001:81).
The experts consulted in this case are Prof. C.C
Nwachukwu of the Department of Management, University of Port

Harcourt, High Chief C. D Adigo, Head of Safety and Hazard
Department SPDC Nigeria and Dr. A. E Nwachukwu an expert in
Health and Safety Education PHS Department, Delta State University
and Prof. Biyi Afonja, Department of Statistics, University of Ibadan. All
confirmed the question used for the study as adequate for face validity.
Sampling validity is concerned with whether a given population of
situation is adequately sampled Baridam (2001:81). The four expert
also confirms that sampling validity was adequately achieved in the
four categories of the departments used for the study.
3.7
RELIABILITY OF THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT

According to Baridam (2001:78) . Reliability means the extent to which
a measuring instrument is consistent in measuring whatever it
measures.
The data is therefore said to be reliable if they are
consistent, accurate and precise.
The reliability of the measuring
instrument was therefore confirmed by using it twice; first for a seminar

and then for the project proposal before applying it to the final work.
3.8
DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Data Analysis Techniques involves the mathematical and statistical
formula used in analyzing and testing of the research questions and
hypothesis. Data are normally collected so that they can be analyzed,
lxxx
predicted and inferences made from the result. The inferences from
the research will prove if further research is required or not. The widely
used statistical tests are the parametric and non-parametric test.
Non-parametric test are tests about the median of a population or the
median of two populations while the parametric tests are tests about
the population means, variances and proportions H.T Hayslett
(1968:136)
For the purpose of any research, any data collected must be properly
analysed. Thus in this study simple proportions tables, percentages,
etc were used in presenting raw data and result obtained from
interview/questionnaire.
3.9. THE CHI-SQUARE (X)2 TEST

Chi-square (x)2 non- parametric test is a measure of the discrepancy
existing between the observed and the expected frequencies (Spiegal
and Stephens 1999:261) and this is the reason why it is being applied
in this study, in other to determine how an observed set of data fits an
expected set Baridan (2001:165).
The Chi-square (x)2 test can be used for one, two or more variables.
Inference on result were drawn by comparison of the calculated Chisquare with the critical or tabulated Chi-square value. If the calculated
Chi-square is greater than the tabulated value the null hypothesis is
rejected but if less than the tabulated the null hypothesis is accepted.
The formula for the Chi-square is given as thus.
X2
(O E)2
or
X2
(Fo - Fe)
Fe
lxxxi
Where
O
Observed frequency
Expected frequency
Sum of
X2
Chi-square
Fo
Observed frequency
Fe
Expected frequency
Expected frequency is calculated as thus

Fe
TR X TC
GT
Where
TR
Total Row
TC
Total Column
GT
Grand total
Source: Adopted from Ofesu (1976). Mathematical and Statistical

formula.
SUMMARY
Chapter three was concerned with the research methodology which
covered the research design, sampling procedure, the method of data
collection and the statistical tools for testing the hypotheses of the
study.
The sampling
procedure discussed how the sample subjects were
selected from the four department used in the research.

The Yaro Yamens and the Bowleys population allocation formulae
were used for the determination of appropriate sample size.
lxxxii
Date collection were mostly through questionnaire and interviews as

well as through existing literature, journals, periodicals, magazines and
Bulletins.
In the analysis of data, four statistical tools were applied. The tools
were the chi-square (X2), least coefficient and multiple linear regression
analysis.
The reason for their application was also given in the research.
REFERENCES
1.
Roger D. Wimmer and Joseph R. Domimk, Mass Media

Research: An Introduction, 2nd Edition, Wadaworth Publishing
Company, California, 1987, P. 47.
2.
Dom. M. Baridam (2001) Research Methods in Administrative

Sciences. Sherbroke Associated Port Harcout.
3.
E.C. Osuala, Introduction to Research Methodology, African Fep

Publishers Ltd, Onitcha, P.21 - 25.
lxxxiii
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.0 Introduction
The primary data collected for this study through questionnaire are
presented in this chapter in form of tables. The data are then analyzed
using percentages and chi-square statistics to test the hypothesis.
Information could be obtained through contact, communication,
hearsay, numerical data etc.
known as statistical data.
information obtained through data is
Statistical data could be of primary or
secondary data. Yode Omotosho (1990:1).

Primary data is defined as data collected and used for a specific
purpose while secondary data is one, which could be used for other
purpose than what it was collected for. There are two types of data,
the published and the unpublished data. Published data are statistical
abstract, Reports, Bulletins, Journals, Seminars, Unpublished data are
those that exist in files, Registration forms etc.
4.1 QUESTIONNAIRE
This is the form containing prepared questions to which the respondent
is expected to supply answer Yode Omotosho (1990:2). According to
Baridam (2001:102) situation often arises in administrative sciences
research in which the researcher cannot collect or rely on data
collected about people by observation or existing data.
In this
questionnaires
gather
and
interviews
are
commonly
used
to
information. Questionnaires and interviews are commonly used when

the researcher wants to find out a persons knowledge, motivations,
anticipations, attitudes, beliefs, feelings, future plans or past behaviour.
lxxxiv
However the questionnaire is the main research instrument used for

this study.
A total of 300 copies of the questionnaires were
administered to staff of DSC.
The questionnaires were designed
bearing in mind the nine steps in the construction of questionnaires

stated in Baridam (2001:105).
4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data
Data presented simply means the preparation of raw data in the form
that they can be analyzed or interpreted. Data analysis is the process
of comparing data with empirical issues.
It is the process of
categorizing, ordering, manipulating and summarizing data to obtain

answers to the research questions. Data are usually collected in large
amounts. The details and the analysis begin with the reduction of the
irrelevant details and the un-manageable data to a manageable data to
a manageable size.
Out of the 300 copies of the questionnaire administered, 227 were
returned .This represented a response rate of 76 percent .
Once the data have been collected, it is important to transfer them into
a state that can be easily useable. In doing this, the researcher may
have to do the following, edit the raw data, code, score and scale the
data and then summarized the data into statistical tables as shown in
table below
Table 4.1.1: Table showing age range of respondent
Responses (Years) Number of Staff
Percentage %
18 - 30
68
30%
31 - 40
114
50.2%
41 and above
45
19.8%
Total
227
100%
Source: Questionnaire by researcher
lxxxv
Table 1 shows that 68 (30%) respondents are between the age of 18

and 30, 114 (50.2%) between 31 and 40 while 45 (19.8%) are 41 years
and above. We could deduce that the working population are mostly
youths comprising of young graduates with skills, ability and
determination to recall in their careers.
Table 4.1.2: Table showing sex of respondents
Responses
Number of Staff
Percentage %
Male
193
85%
Female
34
15%
Total
227
100%
Table 2 shows that out of 227 respondent, 193 (85%) are male while
34 (15%) are female. The recruitment policy tends to favour male than
female, due to the nature of steel production which requires energetic
men as well as the tedious task of steel melting which are better
undertaken by men. Other reasons being long working hours,
travelling among others. Few females are mostly occupying secretarial
and other administrative positions.
Table 4.1.3: Table showing how the nature of promotion in Delta Steel
Company Limited could be described.
Responses
Senior
%
Junior
%
Total
Staff
Staff
%
Regular
Irregular
38
16.7
158
69.6 196 (86.3)
Non-existent
19
8.4
12
5.3
31 (13.7)
Total
17
25
170
75
227 (100)
As can be seen from table 4, a total of 196 (86.3%) respondents said
that promotion to the next cadre in Delta Steel Company Limited is
irregular, which 31 (13.7%) are of the view that it is non existent. From
lxxxvi
the available records, some staff have spent from 5-10 years on one
grades level without being promoted. An insight into the promotion
exercise shows that the crisis that engulf the Steel Sector as well as
the ineptitude on the part of the management are among another
reasons why promotion delay in the Aladja Steel Company.
Table 4.1.4: Table showing number of years respondents have worked
in Delta Steel Company Limited, Aladja.
Responses
Number of Staff
Percentage %
1 - 5 years
68
30
6 - 10 years
57
25
11 - 15 years
45
20
16 - 20 years
45
20
20 and above
12
5
Total
227
100
From above 68 (30%) have worked between 1 5 years, 57 (25%)
6 10 years, 45 (20%) 11 15 years, 45 (20%) 16 20 years while 12
(5%) are those between 20 years and above. Majority of those serving
now have spent 10 years and above and if motivated they could put in
their best to the success of the company. Also, it should be noted that
this group is potential pensioners if retired from serving.
Table 4.1.5: Table showing how training and development programme
in Delta Steel Company Limited could be described.
Responses
Very effective
Number of Staff
-
Effective
75
Not effective
141
Total
216
lxxxvii
Percentage %
35
65
100
As can be seen from table above, a total of 216 respondents answered

this question. Out of which 141 (65%), said it is not effective, while 75
(35%), said it is effective.
No respondent agreed that it is very
effective. When asked to give reason(s) if not effective, the reasons

ranged
from
undue
favouritism
of
production
and
technical
departments staff and the irregular nature of training itself. Contrary to

the doctrine of total quality management (TQM), those in terms of
training than their counterparts in other departments of the company.
Table 4.1.6: Table showing whether respondents performance
depends on Training and Development.
Responses
Number of Staff
Percentage %
Yes
141
62.1
No
86
37.8
Total
227
100
From the table above, 141 (62.1%) respondents performance depends
on motivation, while 86 (37.8%) does not. This reveals that to majority
of the employers, motivation is a necessary ingredient of performance
and thus one of the significance of this study.
Table 4.1.7: Workers do not perceive inadequate training and

development programme as a major course of low performance and
productivity in Delta Steel Company Limited..
Responses
Number of Staff
Percentage %
Agree
141
62
Disagree
70
31
Dont Know
16
7
Total
227
100
All the 227 respondents answered this question. 141 respondents,
representing 62% agreed that Inadequate training and development
programme is a major course of low performance and productivity in
lxxxviii
Delta Steel Company Limited, 70 respondents, representing 31%

disagreed and 16 respondents (7%) does not know whether
Inadequate and Irregular training and development programme is a
major course of low performance and productivity in Delta Steel
Company Limited.
Table 4.1.8: Training and Development Programmes are not perceived
by management as a major factor for workers Motivation.
Responses
Number of Staff
Percentage %
Agree
201
89
Disagree
20
9
Dont Know
6
2
Total
227
100
representing 89% agreed that Training and Development Programmes
are not perceived by management as a major factor for workers
Motivation in Delta Steel Company Limited, 20 respondents,
representing 9% disagreed and 6 respondents (2%) do not know
whether Training and Development Programmes are not perceived by
management as a major factor for workers Motivation.
Table 4.1.9: DSC staff do not see training and Development as an
aspect of employee motivation.
Responses
Number of Staff
Percentage %
Agree
2
0.88
Disagree
225
99.11
Dont Know
0
0
Total
227
100
representing 99.11% disagreed that DSC staff do not see training and
Development as an aspect of employee motivation in Delta Steel
lxxxix
Company Limited, 2 respondents, representing 0.88% agreed. This

shows that majority of the workers see Employee training and
Development as a form of motivation.
Table 4.1.10: Table showing responses on the ways delegation is used
to develop staff of Delta Steel Company Limited, Aladja.
Responses
Number of Percentage
Staff
%
Acting in Position of Authority
41
20
The Acting Allowance paid
Being recognized to Act
Having Authority over Staff
I have never been delegated
Total
114
52
207
55
25
100
From table above, we can see that total of respondents that answered
this question, 41 (20%) said acting in position of authority is a way of
staff development them. 114 (55%) said delegation develop them in
just being recognized to act while 52 (25%) said they have never been
delegated, so the question of whether it is a way of staff development
does not arise. Although most employees would appreciate the
opportunity of being recognized to act. Superior officers who are either
due to retire or go on leave does not want to embark on such. The
management attitude to sparing such sacred cows reduces the
chances of giving some subordinates the opportunity to act and
subsequently upgraded.
Table 4.1.11: Table showing whether or not staff will leave Delta Steel
Company Limited if they got another job.
Responses
Number of Staff
Percentage %
Yes
143
65
No
77
Total
220
xc
35
100
As shown above, a total of 220 respondents answered the question.

143 (65%) respondents could leave if they get another job. May be
due to long neglect of the Steel Sector by the government and couple
with the ineptitude on the part of the management, while 77 (35%) feel
they do not want to leave may be due to the family consideration, age
and other environmental consideration.
Table 4.1:12: Other Obstacles apart from funding that Staff face in
obtaining Training programmes.
Several staff expressed the view that the training needs of
administrative and support staff lacked recognition compared to other
staff working in higher education. They believed that when training
budgets were tight, training in management, research and academic
skills was given priority over training in administrative and support
functions. This was a particular problem for staff who worked in
institutions where training budgets have been devolved to department
level. These staff spoke of a 'Cinderella effect', whereby they came at
the bottom of the list when training budgets were allocated and so
were often forgotten. They also believed that their managers knew too
little about their area of work to make informed decisions about their
training needs.
However, money was not the only obstacle which administrative and
support staff faced in trying to obtain training. Several believed that
their managers faced a disincentive to encourage training because it
would raise staff expectations:
'I think departments are scared to send you on training courses,
because it means you're going to want new technology, you're
xci
going to want new services, that are going on in that training

course.'
Many also identified a lack of time to attend training courses as an

important obstacle. Few felt that they could take the time to attend
courses even where funding was available. A computer services officer
explained that having identified her basic training needs: '... the
facilities are available, there are courses put on... but I have not got the
time. I do not have the time to go.' This was a familiar story for staff in
the focus groups. As a result, many found themselves struggling to
learn 'on the job'. They tried to make up for this by reading trade
journals and magazines and familiarising themselves with new
developments outside working hours. A member of computer support
staff said: '... you're basically expected to take on that responsibility on
your own, in your own private time.'
There was a general feeling among staff that the pressures of money
and time meant that any new skills that they had picked up had been
developed by default, rather than as a direct result of their institutions'
training policies. In addition, many training needs were left unmet.
4.4 Testing of Hypothesis

According to Singletion, Jr. (1988:86), a hypothesis is a tentative
answer to question raised in the problem. It is an expected but
unconfirmed relationship between two or more variables. The answer
is tentative and speculative.
Chi-square (X2) will be calculated from the score in the tables to test
hypothesis.
The X2 formula (fo - fe)2
xcii
Where: fo = is observed frequency and

Fe = is expecting or rejecting Null hypothesis, Ho will be set
as follows:
If X2 calculated is greater than X2 table value, reject Ho
If X2 Calculated is less than X2 table value, accept Ho.
The reverse will be the case for alternative Hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis H0
This research will test the hypothesis below:
H01 Workers
do
not
perceive
inadequate
training
and
development programme as a major course of low

performance and productivity in Delta Steel Company
Limited.
H02 Training and development programmes are not perceived
by DSC management as major factor for workers
motivation.
H03 DSC staffs do not see training and development as a kind
of employee motivation.
To test the validity of this hypothesis, the below formula can be used.
X2 = fo - fe
fe
where
fo = observed frequency
fe = expected frequency
fe = Row total X Column Total
Grand Total
The above statement of hypotheses can be represented statistically as

thus.
Ho:
o
xciii
Hi:
The hypothesis will be tested using the Chi-square statistical analysis

represented as thus:
X2
Chi-square
Fo
Observed frequency
Fe
Expected frequency
A comparison of calculated X2 and tabulated X2. if the calculated X2

value is less than the tabulated X 2 value, the null hypothesis (Ho) will
be accepted but if the calculated X 2 values is greater than the
tabulated X2, the null hypothesis (Ho) will be rejected.
To determine the level of significance of the computed value of the Chisquare, the degree of freedom (dx) is determined using formula.
df
Row
Column
Therefore df
(2-1)(2-1)
(1)(1)
Where
(R
- 1) (C-
1)
The critical value of degree of freedom and the level of significance

0.05 is given or equal to 3..481.
Conclusion if the value of the Chi-square (X 2) is less than the critical
value of 3.481, we accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative
otherwise we accept the alternative and reject the null hypothesis.
Summarized Chi-square testing procedure.
xciv
a.
Choose the level of significance 0.005 or 0.01
b.
Construct the appropriate confidence interval
c.
If the value o under test falls within the interval or boundaries

accept Ho.
You reject Ho if otherwise.
Analysis of responses obtained show that all respondents agreed that

management provides clinic/hospital facilities as a measure to ensure
good health of workers for and treatment in cases of casualties,
injuries and sicknesses.
Table 4.1.7: Inadequate training and development programme is a
major course of low performance and productivity in Delta Steel
Company Limited
Responses
Agree
Number of Staff
141
Disagree
70
Dont Know
16
Total
227
Percentage %
62
31
7
100
Figure 2
From the table above, using the chi-square formula we have

xcv
fo
141
70
16
227
fe
62
31
7
100
(fo - fe)2 =
fo - fe
79
39
9
127
(fo-fe)2
6241
1521
81
7843
78.43 Calculated
fe
X2 = Calculated=
78.43
with 3 rows and 3 response column

df
df
(3 - 1) (3 .1)
(2)
(2)
= 4
Since the response in row 1 is greater than row 2

We accept H01
Therefore, H01 which states that inadequate training and development
programme is a major course of low performance and productivity in
Delta Steel Company Limited in Delta Steel Company Limited Aladja is
accepted.
Table 4.1.8: Training and Development Programmes are not perceived
by management as a major factor for workers Motivation.
Responses
Number of Staff
Percentage %
Agree
201
89
Disagree
20
9
Dont Know
6
2
Total
227
100
Figure 3
xcvi

fo
201
20
6
227
fe
89
9
2
100
(fo - fe)2 =
fo - fe
112
11
4
127
(fo-fe)2
12544
121
16
16129
161.29 Calculated
fe
X2 = Calculated=
161.29

df
df
(3 - 1) (3 .1)
(2)
(2)
= 4

We accept H02
Therefore, H02 which states Training and Development Programmes
are not perceived by management as a major factor for workers
Motivation is accepted.
Table 4.1.9: DSC staff do not see training and Development as a kind
of employee motivation.
Responses
Number of Staff
Percentage %
Agree
2
0.88
Disagree
225
99.11
Dont Know
0
0
xcvii
Total
227
100
Figure 4

fo
2
225
fe
0.88
99.11
0
227
0
100
(fo - fe)2 =
fo - fe
1.22
125.99
(fo-fe)2
14.884
15625.9
0
126.12
8
0
15639.9
15639.9 Calculated
fe
X2 = Calculated=
15639.9

df
(3 - 1) (2 .1)
(2)
(1)
xcviii
df
= 3

We reject H02
Therefore, H02 which DSC staff do not see training and Development
as a kind of employee motivation is rejected.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.0 Introduction
In this study, the literature reviews of discoveries were made
concerning Training and Development, which enhances productivity in
an organisation.
Technological changes, changes in financial markets, the emergence
of global markets for products and services, international competition,
dramatic increases in foreign direct investment, new business
strategies, new management practices, new forms of business
organization and of the organization of work are among the more
significant developments that are transforming the world of work. Many
of these developments are also components of globalization which is
the name given to the various processes producing the dramatically
increased integration of economic activity in the world today.
These developments offer both opportunities and challenges for
enterprises, workers and countries.
For
enterprises increased
competition has meant more winners and losers. For countries

globalization
has
increased
both
national
development
and
disadvantages as globalization has exacerbated differences in the
xcix
relative
advantages
of
countries.
For
some
workers
these
developments have resulted in career opportunities or successful selfemployment, improved living standards and prosperity but for other
workers they have resulted in job insecurity or unemployment,
declining living standards and poverty. Many of these developments
are dramatically increasing the importance of the application of human
knowledge and skills to economic activity.
Human resources development, education and training are necessary
and essential elements required to take both full advantage of the
opportunities and to rise to the challenges of these developments for
enterprises, workers and countries. There is a growing recognition that
globalization has a social dimension that requires a social response.
Training and Development are components to both the economic and
social response to globalization and Nigerian organisation must be
serious with it.
5.1 Findings:
Responses from staff through oral interview/ focus group discussion.
Key points
In general staff felt that although there was in theory a commitment to
training very little to offer in terms of staff development and career
progression.
DSC Training policies lacked progressive training policies which staff felt
were sensitive to their needs.
Few staff had received formal training despite the changes to their
work roles.
New professional staff were more likely to feel that their training needs
were taken seriously than other staff. But this tended to be an
advantage only in the short term.
Most staff experienced practical obstacles to obtaining the training they
felt they needed.
The biggest obstacles were reduced funding for training, spending
priorities and the lack of time to undertake training.
Staff development: most administrative and support staff did not feel that
DSC were committed to staff development.
Obstacles in training provision

The majority of the staff, however, reported a number of practical obstacles
in relation to training. Most had received little training in recent years. More
important, very few felt they had received the amount of training they needed
to keep on top of their work. They perceived this lack of training to be
particularly problematic given the rate of change they were experiencing in
their jobs and the increased responsibilities many had taken on. These
problems affected the vast majority of staff regardless of their area of work or
institution type.
Funding for training had become increasingly constrained and was
reportedly the biggest obstacle in accessing training. A junior member of
technical support staff said:
'... we are encouraged to go, but I want to do a computer technicians'
course, and the cost is so high for the department... There is
encouragement to do it provided it doesn't cost too much.'
ci
Staff were finding it more and more difficult to attend externally run
training courses which were usually more expensive than internally-run
courses. They were unable to attend external courses where
equivalent internal courses were available. Yet, they felt that internal
courses were often not run to the same standard as training courses in
the private sector. In addition, some staff had to wait for long periods
for cheaper alternatives to become available. And several staff had
experienced problems in gaining access to oversubscribed internal
training courses.
Training for qualifications
The staff studying for a qualification reported that they received financial or
intellectual support from their department only if their courses were
considered to be directly of benefit to their department. As a result, most
were self-financing and were studying outside their workplace. Some
administrative and support staff, particularly the longer-serving staff,
expressed surprise and discontent over the requirement for value for money
in supporting training for qualifications. They expressed a general belief that
DSC should support 'learning for its own sake'. They felt that supporting
training purely on a value-for-money basis was contrary to the aims and
objectives of an organization.
Commitment to staff development

Unlike training provision, most administrative and support staff did not feel
that their DSC was committed to staff development even in theory. Some of
the new professionals working in new posts or in the growth areas had
slightly more favourable experiences of staff development than did other
groups of staff, probably because of DSC desire to develop and fully utilize
their skills. These new professionals also had a more positive experience of
cii
appraisal, which in turn fed into their development. One who had never
worked in an organization that undertook appraisals was very impressed:
'I've just come through the appraisal process... and basically that's
wonderful, you know, I'm not being led into this training course or that
training course [but] suggestions are beginning to come through.'
Yet the same short-termism that emerged in relation to training for new
professionals also happened with staff development. New professionals who
had been in post for a few years seemed to have witnessed a declining
commitment to their development as their jobs stabilised.
Formal procedures for staff development
The absence of both a company commitments to staff development and
coherent institute-wide policies for staff development was widely noted by all
staff in the groups.
'I would quite like to be part of a great plan. Where the manager sortof-says, "Do this, because... it would be good for your career
prospects, if you do it".'
As a result, some felt very unsupported. Staff development was widely
perceived to be 'down to them' rather than something driven by the
company.
None of the staff had had contact with the training or staff development unit
in their department. They certainly did not feel that these units were playing
any role in promoting or coordinating staff development.
Obstacles to staff development
In addition to a general absence of procedures for staff development, staff
also identified some specific obstacles. Most spoke of a 'gap' between
training and staff development. They were rarely able to utilise any new skills
learnt through training, either because they did not have access to the new
ciii
equipment or software packages they had learned to use, or because their

managers were resistant to the introduction of new techniques. A member of
technical support explained:
'... they do a very good managerial course they send technicians on...
but when it came to implementing what you're doing in the department,
it was impossible.
Some of them felt that this seriously undermined the value of their training
and blocked their professional development.
5.2: Summary
The benefits of training and development in any organization includes
increased productivity, fewer errors, higher staff moral, lower turnover rates,
product consistency, and customer advocacy amongst others.
Several factors are known to have influences this and the study helps to
identify the employees perceptions of such factors, using the Delta Steel
Company Limited, Ovwian Aladja, Delta State as a case study.
Inadequate Training and Development programme as cause of drop in
performance in terms of productivity, is the hypothesis formulated and
questionnaires were designed to test this hypothesis.
Oral interview and questionnaire were two key tools used in this research.
5.3 Conclusion
Employee and executive development is a continuous process, not a oneshot project, and no single approach is going to meet the needs of every
business. However, experience and research have shown us that
investment in this type of training and development is one of the most
effective ways companies can improve productivity.
civ
Employees at every level who feel empowered to manage their own

growth and achievement are more likely to seek strategies for solving
those challenges that arise with co-workers and feel more equipped to do
so. More importantly, they see themselves as part of the solution, as being
able to effect change when necessary and ultimately, they consider
themselves invested in the success of the organization. To this effect,
Nigerian Organizations must recognize this, make it a priority and invest in
Employee Training and Development.
5.4 Recommendations
Consequently upon the findings of this study, it is imperative for the
researcher to make the following recommendations to the management of
Delta Steel Company Limited. It is also hope that some of the
recommendation may equally apply to other similar companies within the
same industry. Particularly those with similar problems as identified by the
researcher.
On the strength of the facts and figures previously presented, analysed and
from the findings made, the following recommendation are made.
(1)
There should be progressive training policy in DSC.
(2)
Realistic standard of performance should be set for employees with
definite time frame and based on objective appraisal to determine those

that merited training and it should be granted.
(3)
The biggest obstacles were reduced funding for training,
spending priorities and the lack of time to undertake training. This should be
addressed by allocating fund for training and making it a priority.
(4)
Increase effort in recognition delegation would result in increase
job satisfaction and productivity. Management should imbibe such

philosophy.
cv
(5)
Staff selection for Training devoid of nepotism should be upheld,
if the worker is sure of this, he would work towards better performance. To

this end, sentiments, prejudice and favouritism should be discontented.
(6)
Employees should be allowed to participate in some decision
making. The participation is a very vital factor in task performance. When

employees take part in setting the goal of an organisation, they are bound
to pursue the goals with much vigour and its another way of training and
development.
(7)
Emphasis should be placed on training and development to
embrace all the departments of the organisation in order to reap the

advantages inherent in the philosophy of total quality management (TPM).
BIBLIOBRAPHY
(1)
ADAMS, J. S (1975) Inequality in Social Exchange in Richard M. Steer and

Lyman, w. Proper motivation and work
behaviour. (New York M. Hill).
(2)
ADAMS, S. O AND JOHNSON, T. L (1995) statistics for Beginners, 2nd Edition

(Ibadan Onibonge publishers)
(3)
BASS, B. M., & VAUGHAN, J. A. (1966). Training in industry: The management

of learning. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
(4)
BEER, M. (1966): Leadership, Employee Needs and Motivation Olio State

University, College of Commerce and
Administration, Bureau of Business Research
Monograph No. 129
(5)
DOM. M. BARIDAM (2001) Research Methods in Administrative Sciences.

Sherbroke Associated Port Harcout.
(6)
FLIPPO, E. B. (1961). Principles of personnel management. New York:

McGraw Hill. Halim, A., & Ali, M. M. (1988).
(7)
GUILE, D. AND FONDA, N. (1998), Performance Management Through

Capability, Issues in People Management, 25,
London: Institute of Personnel and Development.
(8)
HALIM, A., & ALI, M. M. (1988). Administration and management of training

programmes. Bangladesh Journal of Training
and Development, 1 (2), 1-19.
cvi
(9)
HOMEWOOD, IL: RICHARD D. IRWIN. KIRKPATRICK, D. (1976). Evaluation

of training. In R. L. Craig (Ed.), Training and
development handbook. New York: McGraw Hill.
(10)
LYNTON, R. P., & PAREEK, U. (1990). Training for development. West

Hartford,
CT: Kumarian Press.
(11)
MALONE, V. M. (1984). Inservice training and staff development. In B. E.

Swanson Van Dorsal, W. R. (1962).
(12)
MARY ANNE HOGUE "A Five-Step Approach to Training," , DIETARY

MANAGER, September 1992 Adams, J. S
(1975)
(13)
MCGHEE, W., & THAYER, P. W. (1961). Training in business and industry.

New York: John Wiley and Sons. Raab, R. T.,
Swanson, B. E., Wentling, T. L., & dark, C. D.
(Eds.). (1987). A trainer's guide to evaluation.
Rome: FAO.
(14)
NWACHUKWU C. C (2000) Human Resource Management (Port Harcourt:

UNIPORT PRESS LTD.)
(15)
NONAKA , I AND TAKEUCHI, H. 1995. The Knowledge Creating Company:

How Japanese Companies create the Dynamics
of Innovation. New York: Oxford University
Press.
(16)
RICHARD M. STEER AND LYMAN, W. Proper motivation and work behaviour.

(New York M. Hill).1992
(17)
ROGER D. WIMMER AND JOSEPH R. DOMIMK, Mass Media Research: An

Introduction, 2nd Edition, Wadaworth Publishing
Company, California, 1987, P. 47.
(18)
TAPSCOTT, DON. (1998). Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation.
New York: McGraw Hill
(19)
WENTLING, T. L. (1992). Planning for effective training: A guide to curriculum

development. Rome: FAO.A Iderfer, C. P (1972)
Existence, relatedness and Growth. Human
needs in organisational setting.
(20)
Websites: www.snalf.com <http://www.snalf.com>.,

www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet5/foxon.html
cvii
APPENDIX (1)
Questionaire
Department of Management Sciences
Faculty of Social sciences
University of Port Harcourt
6th October, 2003.
Dear Sir/ Madam,
Questionnaire on Employee perception of training and Development
Programmes.
The researcher is a final year MBA student of the above named department
and institution.
This questionnaire is designed to get feedback from DSC staff on their
perception Training and Development Programmes.
cviii
The information given will be treated with the strictest confidence, hence no
provision for your name and address. Without your co-operation this project
will be impossible.
Your co-operation in this regard will be highly
appreciated.
Thank you.
Yours faithfully,
IROEGBU PROMISE
QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A
Instruction: Indicate your response by ticking () in the blank box
(1)
Please indicate your age range

18 - 30
31 - 40
41 and above
(2)
Please indicate your sex

Male
Female
(3)
What is your highest educational qualification?

PHD
MBA/MSc/M.A
B.Sc/ HND
OND/ A Level
O. Level
FSLC
cix
(4)
Which department do you work in DSC?

Operations
Administration
Others
(5)
How long have you worked in DSC

1 - 5 years
6 - 10 years
11 - 15 years
16 - 20 years
20 and above
SECTION B
(1)
How could the nature of promotion in Delta Steel Company

Limited could be described?
Regular
Irregular
Non-existent
(2)
How could training and development programme in Delta Steel

Company Limited could be described?
Very effective
Effective
Not effective
(3)
Would you say that your performance depends on Training and

Development?
Yes
No
(4)
Inadequate training and development programme is a major

course of low performance and productivity in Delta Steel
Company Limited
cx
Agree
Disagree
Dont Know
(5)
Training and Development Programmes are not perceived by

management as a major factor for workers Motivation.
Responses
Agree
Disagree
Dont Know
Number of Staff
(6) DSC staff do not see training and Development as an aspect of

employee motivation.
Responses
Number of Staff
Agree
Disagree
Dont Know
(7)
Would you leave Delta Steel Company Limited if you get another
job?
Yes
No
(8)
What other Obstacles apart from funding do Staff face in

obtaining Training programmes.
(9)
Give suggestions on what you think will be the way forward to

DSC Training and Development Programmes
Thank you for being so helpful.
cxi

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