Our Memory Palace: Collaborative

Spatial Storytelling Through Online

Multi-Player Integration
Nick van Someren Brand
Universiteit Utrecht
Faculty of Humanities
MA New Media & Digital Culture
3178137
nick.vansomerenbrand@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
While most multi-player online role-playing games (MORPGs) use chat functions and
gestures as computer-mediated communication (CMC), FromSoftwares Dark Souls
breaks new ground in this area, but consequently also in storytelling methods. Like so
many other narrative videogames it utilizes environmental storytelling, but as a new
online feature, it also allows randomly interconnected gamers to manipulate and
contribute to each others virtual environments. This paper examines how online play -and role-play in particular -- can influence a narrative through such interaction, with the
MORGP Dark Souls as case study. By applying its social, spatially embedded gameplay
aspects to Henry Jenkins environmental storytelling model, this study argues that players
joined in shared play can contribute to collaborative spatial storytelling, thus revising
Jenkins model for this type of game structure.
Keywords
video games, narrative, collaborative environmental storytelling, online multi-player
integration, role-play, immersion , mise-en-scene
INTRODUCTION: LOST IN DIGITALIZATION
Although not a trait exclusive to the computer-based role-playing game (CRPG) genre, in
this type of video game, actions undertaken by the player may affect the main storyline.
Sometimes, they do so in significant manners. The ability to interact with the story
reflects the roots of the genre: tabletop RPGs, also known as Pen and Paper RPGs (PnP
RPGs), in which the player creates a character and its story, and then devises the
characters actions according to a set of rules (Cols et. al. 2012, 107). Generally, PnP
RPGs are played by two or more people in the same room, including a game (or dungeon)
master who serves as both narrator and all non-playable characters (NPCs). In some form,
all variations on the CRPG genre can be traced back to the first major PnP RPG
Dungeons & Dragons, or D&D (TSR 1974) (Achterbosch et. al. 2008).
Within the core set of rules and instructions is determined by the game master, the only
boundary is the players imagination. There are, however, inescapable differences in
medium specificity between CRPGs and PnP RPGs. Even though video games as a
medium are built on the notion of interactivity, video game structures by definition have a
much more limiting set of rules than the minds of game masters and players in D&D do.
From a narratologist perspective, Cols and his colleagues categorize the player of
CRPGs as a reader, as opposed to an author in PnP RPGs (2012, 107). This backs up
the performance theorists notion that as an author, a tabletop player is effectively

Personal Tutorial - drs. Ren Glas - Faculty of Humanities

engaging in a mode of collaborative storytelling (Jenkins 2004, 121). Collaborative

storytelling in PnP RPGs is understood as multiple authors producing one discourse and
one story. That discourse, also called plot or shared play, is seen as the product of play,
analogous to a book or movie (Kim 2003).
So, as a reader, can a player of CRPGs with multi-player functionalities (MORPGs)
engage in collaborative storytelling? The medium-specific differences between PnP and
MORPGs implicate two major narratological discrepancies in player agency. First, the
narrative agency of the video game player is significantly diminished in comparison to
that of a tabletop player. Secondly, the agency of other players joined in the shared play
of a MORPG is reduced to an even greater extent. In most MORPGs, joint players can
only linearly accelerate or decelerate each others advancement through the story -- they
are not able to influence it structurally. So aside from video games that permit tabletoplike control over the narrative like Neverwinter Nights (BioWare 2002), how do players
influence each others narrative, or each others perception of it? What narrative agency
do joined players really have without assuming a meta-position over the story, to
communicate with each other off-character and break role-play?
Case Study: Dark Souls
In this paper, a closer look is taken at the highly acclaimed MORPG Dark Souls
(FromSoftware 2011), unofficial successor to the equally renowned Demons Souls
(FromSoftware 2010). 1 Its designers strived to empower role-play, or rather, to enforce it.
Hidetaki Miyazaki, the games creator and creative director, posits the games lack of a
voice chat functionality as illustration for this endeavor:
It is very difficult to get the players to actually role-play
-- to pretend like you are a warrior, or a vampire. It is
embarrassing and becomes a barrier to enjoyment. So by
not having realtime voice chat there we are hoping that it
will be easier for users to take on the role and see other
characters and understand that they are a vampire, they
are a soldier and so on. (Edge 2012)
In fact, the game doesnt even support regular in-game chat, including the recently
released PC version. The only way to verbally communicate with one another is by
leaving spatially embedded messages in Lordran, the diegetic virtual environment
(diegesis is the total world of the story action (Bordwell & Thompson 2004, 70-71)).
Despite this deviant CMC, Edge Magazine still considers the possibility that Dark Souls
could very well be the most social game ever made (2011, 109).
Furthermore, what makes this game exceptionally suited as a case study for this research,
is its integration of online features, rather than setting up a separate game mode for multiplayer functionalities or enforcing online play. Played primarily in single player mode,
utilizing the online functions of Dark Souls is optional and not a prerequisite to ultimately
beat the game. 2 The players private virtual environment runs parallel with that of others;
avatars of players in the direct vicinity shortly appear as ethereal ghosts, for example. It is
possible to summon other players or invade their spaces as host and vice versa through
Soapstones left on the ground. During shared play, there is only one host. Players
joining his or her private space cannot interact with NPCs, but can manipulate
environmental elements (open doors, activate switches) and slay enemies.
Method
Through a media theoretically based, narratological analysis of Dark Souls spatially
embedded online gameplay functions, I argue that these functions allow gamers joined in
-- 2 --

shared play to affect (the discourse of) each others narratives without breaching its
diegesis. If so, this may be a new mode of storytelling in videogames. To analyze this
mode, I will use Henry Jenkins environmental storytelling model as a fundament,
thereby possibly expanding it or refining it (2004). In order to do so, the theatrically
based mise-en-scene will serve as the overarching concept. Its six defining attributes
will be divided into two chapters: non-verbal role-play and environmental storytelling.
First, I will establish that non-verbal role-play is in fact similar to operating within the
diegesis of a narrative. This is a prerequisite for the players to adequately engage in their
own, new form of storytelling through diegetically spatial, but indirect CMC. By
revisiting Jenkins model with the mise-en-scene elements, I will plead that Dark Souls
makes the first steps towards expanding that model into one of collaborative spatial
storytelling. Therefore, the main research question is as follows: How can online shared
play in Dark Souls be understood as an expansion of the environmental storytelling
model?
STORYTELLING THROUGH MISE-EN-SCENE
For a story to take place, a spatial dimension is required in which existents, its characters
and setting, partake in an organized series of events (Chatman 1980). Without spatiality,
conveying a story becomes nearly impossible. In fact, Bordwell & Thompson claim that
out of all cinematic techniques, spatial features are the ones that stick in our memories the
most (2004, 176). In film theory, these features are referred to as mise-en-scene and
defined as all of the elements placed in front of the camera to be photographed: the
settings and props, lighting, costumes and makeup, and figure behavior (ibid., 504). Of
course, if applied to an online video game, this definition requires some tinkering. Aside
from the elements being rendered rather than photographed, the player often assumes a
certain amount of control over the camera, as digital environments offer the possibility of
navigating through those spaces (Murray 2001). Thus, guiding the players attention
across the mise-en-scene as a designer takes on a different form. The elements in the
mise-en-scene can be divided into two groups, of which the narratological relevance will
be explained through two frameworks: setting, props and lighting through
environmental storytelling and costumes, makeup and figure behavior through role-play.
Before going further into the relevance of role-play, a short analysis of the theoretical
framework around environmental storytelling. 3 Smith and Worch define the concept as
the act of staging player-space with environmental properties that can be interpreted as a
meaningful whole, furthering the narrative of the game (2010). However, their game
design perspective emphasizes the implementation of narrative cues in the virtual
environment, instead of explaining the phenomenon. Nitsche, on the other hand, focuses
on the players reading of these cues from a more communicative standpoint with a
cognitive bias, dubbing them evocative narrative elements:
Such elements can be anything and any situation
encountered in a game world that is structured to support
and possibly guide the players comprehension. The
elements task is to improve a players experience and
understanding of the game world. Players encounter and
read these elements, comprehend the information in the
context of a fictional world, and learn from them as they
build contextual connections between elements. (2008,
37)
Although Nitsches concept supports the understanding of environmental storytelling, it
encapsulates all narrative cues, rather than just the spatial ones. To identify and analyze
-- 3 --

the cues brought about by players in Dark Souls, Jenkins environmental storytelling
model is more tangible and possibly suitable for adaptation in accordance with the
games functionalities. In his influential article Game Design as Narrative Architecture,
he builds upon the notion of environmental storytelling as coined by Don Carson in
reference to the design of amusement park attractions, such as Disneys Pirates of the
Caribbean (2005). Carson explains that it is the physical space that does much of the
work of conveying the story the designers are trying to tell... Armed only with their own
knowledge of the world, and those visions collected from movies and books, the audience
is ripe to be dropped into your adventure (2000).
Henry Jenkins Environmental Storytelling Model
Like Carson, Jenkins strongly emphasizes the immersive qualities of environmental
storytelling. His model was an effort to find middle-ground in the media theoretical
ludology vs. narratology debate, which was still brewing in 2005. He breaks the concept
down into four non-exclusive ways to create the spatial preconditions for an immersive
narrative experience:

In an evoked narrative, spatial design is applied to either enhance our sense of

immersion within a familiar world or communicate a fresh perspective on that
story through the altering of established details (129).
o

In an enacted narrative, the space and the players advancement through it is the
story and environmental elements may influence that advancement, determining
the games pace.
o

Example: the excessive heat of the microwave tunnel in Metal Gear

Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots (Kojima Productions 2008) delays the
protagonists movement in the decisive final seconds of the storys
climax.

In an embedded narrative, environmental elements contain narrative information,

leaving players to establish causality between the element and what it signifies:
the game space becomes a memory palace whose contents must be deciphered
as the player tries to reconstruct the plot (129).
o

Example: a castle in The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (Bethesda 2012) may

draw upon other known medieval settings or an earlier installment of the
series.

Example: blood splatter on the walls of Dead Spaces interiors (EA

Redwood Shores 2008) signifies that someone was injured in the vicinity
and danger may still be present.

In an emergent narrative, the game space provides elements that are imbued with
narrative potential, enabling the story-constructing activity of the players,
mostly seen in open-ended game structures (129).4
o

Example: placing a bookcase in the house of a character in The Sims

(Maxis 2000), one of many possibilities, improves the characters
intelligence, which opens up new narrative options.

With a focus on game designers as narrative architects, Jenkins makes no clear reference
to how environmental storytelling practically affects gameplay. In an effort to refine the
model for this purpose, Fernndez-Vara argues for the analysis of indices (2011).
Semiotically speaking, an indice is a sign that has a physical connection with the idea it
represents (Peirce 1998). Through indexical storytelling, paradoxically footed in
linguistic theory, players can restore a specific behavior, a script that may be encouraged
and afforded by the game (Fernndez-Vara 2011). Indeed, this notion relies heavily on
-- 4 --

Nitsches concept of evocative narrative elements, structuring the players awareness of

possible actions within the game. Fernndez-Vara does not, however, explicitly state if
her mode of storytelling is to be understood as an addition to or revision of Jenkins
model. While interpreting the mode of indexical storytelling, it is difficult to classify it as
either one, since she mainly focuses on the embedded narrative. Therefore, it is safer to
assume that indexical storytelling is no refinement of, but an alternative to environmental
(or embedded) storytelling. Still, her suggestion is highly relevant to this paper and its
case study, as it refers specifically to generating stories through traces, both on the part
of the designer and on the player (ibid.). These traces, or indices, respectively construct
two types of stories: the history of the game world and that of the player. These histories
are, within Fernndez-Varas definition of indexical storytelling, part of the mise-en-scene
and within the diegesis of the virtual environment, as will be established in the next two
chapters.
DIEGETICALLY ROLE-PLAYING WITH A MUTE AVATAR
When a film director conventionally composes the mise-en-scene, each and every
element is added deliberately, affixed to the filmic plane with a purpose. This is no
different in a single-player game. As long as the gamer refrains from modding or
cheating, the narrative and its corresponding mise-en-scene are highly controlled by its
designers. Yet, allowing multiple players to share the same virtual environment gives way
to new possibilities for the gamers, as well as uncertainties for the designers. Whereas the
world is projected at the viewer in cinema, the player is dramatically positioned within
that world in videogames (Nitsche 2008, 209; Poole 2000, 98). With that positioning, the
player gains control over a virtual body, an avatar, and with it, receives a set of
expectations of behavior, forcing the player into a role (Vallius et. al. 2008, 73; Morie
2002). Nonetheless, there is no telling whether or not the player will actually live up to
that dramatical positioning by engaging in role-play.
According to Montola, it is possible to play any kind of RPG without actually roleplaying (2008, 22). This implies utilizing off-character language, which Dark Souls
creator Miyazaki tried to prevent (see earlier quote). Role-players generally aim for a
suspension of disbelief that is as strong as possible, so all communications should follow
the norms of the game setting (Manninen 2003). In PnP RPGs, the original form of the
genre, the dramatical positioning of the player is central to its gameplay -- the game itself
is created in the interaction between player(s) or between player(s) and game master(s)
within a specified diegetic framework (Hakkarainen & Stenros 2002). Players may even
be excluded from play for stepping out of the illusory bounds (Edwards 2001).
So, what narrative agency do players have within that specified diegetic framework using
the mise-en-scene? Before turning to Jenkins model and its corresponding mise-en-scene
elements, the costumes, makeup and figure behavior are to be analyzed, for they too
can be characterized as dramaturgic forms of CMC as well as storytelling. As this study
focuses on how these elements are applied Dark Souls, it is important to note that even
though some attributes may be similar in other MORPGS, they can be significantly
different from those in other games within this genre.
Costume and Makeup versus Equipment & Humanity
The first action a player is to undertake when starting a new game in whatever RPG is
creating a character (also called an avatar in CRPGs). In Dark Souls, the player can
choose from several starting classes which are not defined by their physique, but by their
attributes (strength, endurance, intelligence and so on) and therefore aptitude for a
certain gameplay style (melee or ranged, dealing physical or magic damage).
Customizing the avatars stature does not affect gameplay or the narrative. Thus, more so

-- 5 --

than being slender or brawny, in this case the costume that comes with the chosen class is
an external projection of an internal state (Jenkins 2005, 127).
Figure 1: The ten starting classes of Dark Souls.

Together with their attributes, their equipment, or lack

thereof, defines their affinity for a gameplay style.
Although not for posture, the same is true for physical appearance, analogous to
makeup. Choosing from different races with accessory gameplay and narrative effects is
not uncommon in RPGs, but in Dark Souls makeup is applied differently. Complexly
woven through the gameplay is the issue of Humanity, which the player can
accumulate by using an item. 5 When Undead, the avatar is a moving yet decaying
corpse, contrary to a healthy looking Human. One of the many effects of being
Human rather than Undead is the ability to summon NPCs and other gamers playing
online.
Upon choosing players that present themselves to complement the protagonists (or
hosts) party, his or her choice is completely dependent on a visual representation of the
presented characters, of which costume is by far the most important factor. 6 Contrary to
many other CRPGs, starting classes only serve as a generic suggestion to depart from. In
Dark Souls, every class can learn any skill and outfits are not exclusive to classes. Put
differently, there is no way of knowing which role a character fulfills, other than to rely
on their choice of costume (Manninen 2003). This makes Jenkins statement more
applicable to this videogame than most other CRPGs. Players engaging in cooperative
play even are encouraged to look the part in the designated Dark Souls Wikispace
(2012). Certain players may therefore favor outfits that represent their gameplay style
over one that optimally balances movement speed and protective capabilities.

-- 6 --

Exploring Dark Souls open environment, the player may stumble upon new costumes,
unique in the sense that they can only be found once in each playthrough at fixed
locations. Equipping this clothing holds three indices. Firstly, it denotes a characters
fighting style, movement speed and thus its capability to complement those of the host
and other characters in the party. Secondly, and more applicable to the history of the
player, it can illustrate the players power and progress through the environment, since
some armors cannot be acquired prior to overcoming obstacles with varying degrees of
difficulty (Manninen 2003). On a related note, it may thirdly indicate the players
experience with and knowledge of the environment, its inhabitants and therefore the
system of rules. Certain costumes, habitually the ones most coveted by the players, are
extremely hard to obtain, be it because they are hidden in very obscure places and/or
absurdly well guarded. 7 Put differently, costumes can showcase the role, power and
experience of both character and player.
Figure Behavior versus Player Actions
Whereas abstract shapes and animated figures can be quite influential in the mise-enscene, the most intuitively familiar cases of figure expression and movement in the
mise-en-scene are actors playing roles (Bordwell & Thompson 2004, 199). On par with
actors in silent movies, Dark Souls characters rely on non-verbal expressive features that
are communicated through body language, or what Manninen calls kinesics (2003).8
According to him, kinesics can serve a variety of purposes, but most relevant to this paper
are the dramaturgical actions and normatively regulated actions.
NPCs in Dark Souls can teach the character gestures to convey a certain emotional
disposition. In the dramaturgical category, the player does not apply gestures to directly
improve his situation in the game and as such, the application is not instrumental. Some
examples are Well, what is it (spreading both arms and taking a few steps forward),
Hurrah (triumphantly raising the right hand weapon) and Prayer (kneeling
ceremoniously). Nevertheless, a dramaturgical action may extend beyond the noninstrumental. Bowing upon encountering other players, for example, illustrates a
respectful attitude and can result in more coherent teamwork, a mutually beneficial effect.
The instrumentality of normatively regulated kinesics, on the other hand, is determined
by the players as a community. Manninen states that gestures in particular, can act as
special sign, or secret code, of a player group. Again, Dark Souls provides an adequate
example. Characters with a risen shield might wish to convey that danger is present,
especially if the shield is risen and lowered in a high frequency. This, in itself, is an
indice: I actively protect myself as danger is afoot.
Like the shield example, all the above mentioned elements of the mise-en-scene can be
interpreted as indices: the sign is physically connected with the idea behind it, either
through convention (dramaturgical actions) or consensus (normatively regulated actions).
As the elements costume, makeup and figure behavior cannot transfer off-character
information in CRPGs, players are not able to break role-play in this perspective. In fact,
determining whether or not someone is actively role-playing in Dark Souls is all but
impossible, for there is no way of referring to the non-diegetic and tamper with the
suspension of disbelief.
ENVIRONMENTAL PASTS, PRESENTS AND FUTURES
Indeed, with linguistic expressions taken out of the equation, character related mise-enscene elements can have carry significant narrative information as indices. In the previous
chapter, this study refrained from connecting these indices to Fernndez-Varas traces,
as she only ascribes the term in relation to inanimate objects. Obviously, a costume in
itself is inanimate, but her definition and examples imply that it does not become a
trace unless it is statically embedded in the environment, like on a corpse or modeling
-- 7 --

torso. There is no evident distinction between an historical event and a present event -- is
a ceremonial sword found on an altar still a trace if the player picks it up to fight with it?
Unlike Nitsches all encompassing evocative narrative elements, Jenkins model also fails
to define this explicitly. Even though Jenkins mentions the mise-en-scene in the
elaboration on his model several times, he concentrates on dissecting an environment
devoid of life, but ridden with mementos of it.
In this chapter, the second, environmental group of mise-en-scene elements is analyzed in
the context of Dark Souls. Despite the status of lighting as being one of the most
important elements of the mise-en-scene for its experiential impact, its narrative
significance is negligible for the purposes of this paper (Bordwell & Thompson 2004,
191).9 Dark Souls defining methods of CMC shall explained by the remaining elements:
Bloodstains by setting and the Soapstones used for messages and signals by
props. By using these methods of CMC, the player takes on the role of director, who
uses mise-en-scene to guide our attention across the screen, shaping our sense of the
space that is represented and emphasizing certain parts of it (ibid., 208).
Setting versus Bloodstains
The setting, the elements in the virtual environment that are not or cannot be manipulated,
is not necessarily a mere container for human events, but can dynamically enter the
narrative action (ibid., 179). Dark Souls evokes a medieval, dark fantasy universe, but
with a few twists. Initially, most structures seem inspired by European architecture such
as the Catacombs and Undead Burg, but exteriors like Ash Lake or the Crystal
Cave offer less referential guidance. In the latter, the player has to cross invisible beams
across a huge crevice: a gameplay aspect unique to this location, with no prior reference
or introduction. This illustrates the passive-aggressively hostile function of the setting: if
not explored carefully, it can be as dangerous as the monsters that roam it. Avoiding deep
water, fatal falls, lava and axes swinging from the ceiling can be quite frustrating when
simultaneously warding off enemies. To aid the player in his or her survival, Dark Souls
provides the Bloodstain system.
Whenever a player dies, a bloodstain is left at that position in ones private space as well
as in those of others, becoming a part of the setting. Touching another players bloodstain
triggers an apparition of that character to replay the final moments leading up to his or her
death. The ethereal projection of the character might roll off a cliff or die at the hands of
an invisible opponent -- either way, there are potentially fatal elements in the vicinity. The
bloodstain itself is a shining example of a trace for reconstructing the history of that
player. However, upon activating the replay, the bloodstain as indice shifts in its mode of
representation. No longer is it a pool of blood for the player to reconstruct the death of a
character with; it is a body of information, containing a spatial reconstruction of that
specific death. The ghost it brings forth represents the movements of a dying character,
rather than being a sign that represents death as a concept.
Although involuntary on the side of the dying character, replaying his or her death
literally guides the attention of the primary player across the environment. As such, figure
behavior becomes a trace, an evocative narrative element that helps the player in shaping
his or her sense of space, potentially revealing its possibilities and impossibilities. In the
act of dying, the character spatially embeds its movement and actions in that very
environment. This makes the setting as a mise-en-scene element and embedded narratives
as a mode of storytelling much more dynamic than Jenkins leads to believe with his
designer-oriented model.

-- 8 --

Props versus Soapstones

Whereas the bloodstain is a cognitive mapping device that spatially embeds itself without
the consent of the dying player who rather had prevented its occurrence, Dark Souls
provides many more spatially embedded gameplay functions. They are (mostly)
voluntarily triggered through the use of items, or props: objects in the setting that have a
function within the ongoing action (Bordwell & Thompson 2005, 183). While there are
many items available for online use, this study focuses on those with an environmental
effect: messaging and summoning. As the in-game description for these items says: In
Lordran, the flow of time is distorted, and these props can either assist, deceive, or halt
the player in his or her progression.
After acquiring the Orange Guidance Soapstone, the player is able to compose, view
and rate messages within a fixed format. Opening phrases like Try... or Beware of...
complement geographical indications like ...Left or enemy strengths or weaknesses,
such as ...Tail or ...Lying in ambush. Very much like the bloodstains, these messages
can turn the players attention to a previously unnoticed aspect of the environment, for
example the Illusory wall. Some walls disappear upon interacting with them, at times
revealing quite important locations. Much like the afore mentioned invisible beam, the
existence of illusory walls is not introduced by the game structure. Purely based on
audiovisual cues, one cannot tell if a wall is illusory. For the discovery of these illusory
walls, most (beginning) players are dependent on the messages of other players that found
them by accident or went through the extremely time consuming process of testing the
walls in the sandbox environment.10

Figure 2: The design of the spatially embedded

messages is universal -- to view it and its ratings, the
player needs to activate the sign in order to see it in the
non-diegetic graphical user-interface.
Another spatially embedded function is that related to summoning. By using a White
Sign Soapstone, a player leaves a sign on the ground. If encountered by another player
in his or her private space, this sign carries several meanings: the offering player is
currently in the same area, in the same level tier and willing to aid others in that area.
Approaching this sign triggers a static representation of the offering players avatar (see
-- 9 --

Costume). Reversely, a Red Sign Soapstone signifies the same, but invites a player into
the private space for a versus battle, instead of cooperative play. Even more interesting is
the Eye of Death: when activated by the host, the private spaces of two random players
are cursed, and therewith inhabited with much more dangerous enemies. The only way to
actively lift this curse is to search for the symbol of the Eye of Death, found at the
current position of the host in his or her own private space, use it to invade the host and
beat him or her. Again, this solution is not explicitly revealed to the player.
Environmental Storytelling Revisited
One of the defining qualities of Dark Souls is its lack of player guidance. The rules of the
game space are rarely explained, so aside from structuring a cognitive map through trial
and error, players apply a form of location based learning to add to each others cognitive
map. To recognize the potential impact of players on environmental storytelling, game
designers Smith and Worch differentiate between design of the environment itself, and
what they call systemic environmental storytelling (2010). With the tools provided by
the designers, the player explicates his or her own history. Consequently, the player may
help to determine the future of another. In this respect, the elements of the mise-en-scene
have proven quite useful to analyze the spatial and temporal relationship between player
and environment. So how do these elements as incorporated in Dark Souls reflect upon
Jenkins environmental storytelling model?
Firstly, what Fernndez-Vara and Nitsche understood well, is that the term
environmental is quite misleading. Through the course of this study, it has become
evident that existing models on digital environmental storytelling poorly define what an
environment encompasses. Characters that participate in a diegetic manner are not
explicitly labeled as a part of the environment, even though they may carry a significant
amount of narrative cues. As much as blood splatter on the wall, the characters scar that
the blood sprung from contains narrative information, tells a story of its own. Thus, their
costume, physical appearance and behavior all evoke narrative references.
Secondly, while it is true that players in Dark Souls can only linearly accelerate or
decelerate each others progress through the main story, their agency is undeniable on the
level of the micronarrative. This too, is acknowledged by both Fernndez-Vara and
implicitly by Nitsche. Players leave a myriad of traces in the shared space, leaving others
to decipher it and use the contained knowledge as they see fit. The player as a reader
becomes an experiential author, shaping the way others interpret their surroundings and
each other. Through this transformation, they gain agency in the enacted narrative without
overstepping the boundaries of the diegesis. By leaving traces in the environment, one
influences the pace of progression of other players, sending them on a detour, shortcut or
even turn back.
Finally, environmental storytelling does not only pertain to historical events only. In most
cases, it is a clear reference to what has happened, but also encompasses a present
situation and possible future outcomes. A joining character pointing towards its goal or
praying before a statue can hold narrative significance. Even though the ethereal
appearance of players in the vicinity is only momentary, it can be interpreted as a trace,
an indication of the actions others are undertaking, embedded both spatially and
temporally. Despite their evanescent liveness, they signify an occurrence that is not
historical, but present, not symbolical, but actual. In this sense, the embedded narrative
transcends the causal question of how did this happen? -- the real question is: How
can I prevent this from happening to me?

-- 10--

CONCLUSION: COLLABORATIVE SPATIAL STORYTELLING

With no way of breaking the imagined boundaries of the narratives diegesis and breaking
role-play, online players of Dark Souls gain narrative agency through all six mise-enscene elements. It is through the mise-en-scene that Jenkins environmental storytelling
model can be expanded into a model of collaborative spatial storytelling. To not
acknowledge the narrative significance of how interconnected players apply spatial
features, is not only to miss out on their stories, but also on how they could influence the
discourse of each others stories. Also, collaborative spatial storytelling exceeds revealing
just the past, but can significantly affect the present and future situation of the player.
Dark Souls is a step forward in taking the genre back to where it began: a story created in
the interaction of players.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Ren Glas for the opportunity to write this paper under his
supervision and Marijn Maas for her guidance in earlier stages of writing.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Achterbosch, L., Pierce, R. and Simmons, G. Massively Multiplayer Online RolePlaying Games: The Past, Present and Future. ACM Computer Entertainment, vol. 5, no.
4 (March 2008). Available at http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1324198.1324207
Bordwell, D. and Thompson, K. Film Art: An Introduction (7th ed.). New York: McGrawHill, 2004.
Carson, D. (2001) Environmental Storytelling: Creating Immersive 3D Worlds Using
Lessons Learned from the Theme Park Industry. Gamasutra (March 1, 2000). Available
at http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3186/environmental_storytelling_.php
(Accessed Sep. 2012)
Chatman, S. Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film. Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1995.
Cols, J. et. al. CrossTale: Shared Narratives as a New Interactive Medium. MMEDIA
2012: The Fourth International Conferences on Advances in Multimedia (2012), pp.
106-111.
Dark Souls Wikispace. Guide to Co-operative Play. Wikispaces, 2012. Available at http://
darksoulswiki.wikispaces.com/Guide+to+Co-operative+Play (Accessed Nov. 2012)
Edge Staff. Dark Souls Grand Vision, Edge Magazine, January 2012. Available at
http://www.edge-online.com/features/dark-matters-0/ (Accessed Sep. 2012)
Edge Staff. Post Script: How Dark Souls Forces Us To Reconsider What Makes A Social
Game. Edge Magazine, December 2012, 109.
Edwards, R. (2001) GNS and other matters of role- playing theory, The Forge.
Available at http://www.indie-rpgs.com/articles/1/ (Accessed 10 Oct. 2012)
Fernndez-Vara, C. Game Spaces Speak Volumes: Indexical Storytelling. Proceedings
of DiGRA 2011 Conference: Think Design Play (Cambridge, 2011).

-- 11--

Hakkarainen, H. & Stenros, J. The Meilahti School: Thoughts on Role-Playing. In As

Larp Grows Up. Theory and Methods in Larp, edited by M. Gade, L. Thorup & M.
Sander. Copenhagen: Projektgruppen KP03, 2002.
Jenkins, H. Game Design as Narrative Architecture. In First Person: New Media as
Story, Performance, and Game, edited by Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Pat Harrigan, pp.
118-130. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004.
Manninen, T. Interaction Forms and Communicative Actions in Multiplayer Games.
International Journal of Computer Game Research vol. 3, no. 1 (Spring 2003). Available
at http://gamestudies.org/0301/manninen/ (Accessed Nov. 2012)
Montola, M. The Invisible Rules of Role-Playing: The Social Framework of RolePlaying Process. International Journal of Role-Playing vol. 1 (2008), pp. 22-36.
Morie, J.F. Coercive Narratives, Motivation and Role Playing in Virtual Worlds.
University of South Carolina: Marina Del Rey, 2002.
Murray, J. Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in Cyberspace. Cambridge:
The MIT Press, 2001.
Nitsche, M. Video Game Spaces: Image, Play, and Structure in 3D Worlds. Cambridge:
MIT Press, 2009.
Peirce, C. Essential Peirce: Selected Philosophical Writings. Vol. 2. Indiana University
Press: Bloomington, 1998.
Poole, S. Trigger Happy: The Inner Life of Video Games. London: Fourth Estate, 2000.
Siliconera. Demons Souls Director Didnt Think Demons Souls Was *That* Hard.
Available at http://www.siliconera.com/2009/07/10/demons-souls-director-didnt-thinkdemons-souls-was-that-hard/ (Accessed Oct. 2012)
Smith, H, and Worch, M. What Happened Here? Environmental Storytelling. Slides
presented at the Game Developers Conference, San Francisco, 2010. Available at http://
www.worch.com/2010/03/11/gdc-2010/ (accessed Sep. 2012)
Vallius, L. et. al. Experiencing a Multi-Player Computer Game through a Meaningful
Role. In Extending Experiences: Structure, Analysis and Design of Computer Game
Player Experience, edited by Olli Leino, Hanna Wirman and Amyris Fernandez, pp.
73-88. Lapland University Press: Rovaniemi, 2008.
LUDOGRAPHY
2K Boston. (2007) BioShock. [PlayStation 3 Console, Offline] 2K Games: played Dec.
2008 - Jan. 2009.
Bethesda Game Studios. (2011) The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim. [PlayStation 3 Console,
Offline] Bethesda Softworks: played Dec. 2011 - Feb. 2012.
BioWare. (2002) Neverwinter Nights. [PC, Online] Infogrames/Atari MacSoft.
Cyan. (1993) Myst. [PC, Offline Game] Midway Games: played Oct. 2009.

-- 12--

EA Redwood Shores. (2008) Dead Space. [PlayStation 3 Console, Offline] Electronic

Arts: played Dec. 2008 - Jan. 2009.
FromSoftware. (2011) Dark Souls. [PlayStation 3 Console, Online Integrated Features]
Namco Bandai Games: played Oct. 2011 - Oct. 2012.
FromSoftware. (2012) Dark Souls: Artorias of the Abyss. [PlayStation 3 Console, Online
Integrated Features] Namco Bandai Games: played Oct. 2011 - Oct. - Nov. 2012.
From Software. (2010) Demons Souls. [PlayStation 3 Console, Online Integrated
Features] Namco Bandai Games: played Nov. 2010 - May 2011.
Kojima Productions. (2008) Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots. [Playstation 3
Console, Offline] Konami.
Maxis. (2000) The Sims. [PC, Offline] Electronic Arts.

1 Most gameplay features relevant for this paper are equally executed in both Dark Souls
and Demons Souls, so when referring to Dark Souls, a similarity to Demons Souls is
inferred unless explicitly stated otherwise.
2 When referring to Dark Souls, the standard mode of active online integrated functions
is implied.
3 When illustrating the narrative potential of environmental storytelling, the videogames
BioShock (2K Boston 2007) and Myst (Cyan 1993) are considered prime examples.
4 This mode of environmental storytelling is of least importance to this study, as Dark
Souls does not have an open ended structure.
5 Quote marks and capital letters are used, retaining the original orthography from Dark
Souls. The avatars current state of being either Human or Undead is occasionally
narratively referenced, but has no impact on the progress of the story as every (N)PC is
categorized as Undead.
6 Equipment such as weapons and shields are actually known as costume props in
theatre, but will be counted among costume for the sake of structure.
7 These indications require a weighty nuance, though. While an avatars basic outfit
may characterize it as inexperienced, it may very well be possible that equipping it is
the deliberate choice of an experienced player that wishes for a more challenging
playthrough.
8 Facial expressions, of extreme importance for actors in silent films, are disregarded in
this respect: all characters in Dark Souls lack facial animations. By obtaining specific
items in the new expansion for Dark Souls, Artorias of the Abyss, it is possible to
simulate a voice and communicate simple messages like Im sorry or Hello.
9 Worth mentioning is the players ability to create light in the proximity through magic
or items: especially in dark areas like the Tomb of Giants, it is almost impossible to
shape a sense of the environment without it.

-- 13--

10 This method of CMC was initially applied to circumvent the need for a profanity filter.
Producer Takeshi Kajii states on Demons Souls: If we made a freeform messaging
system it would turn it into a large chat, which detracts from the feel of the
world (Siliconera 2009).

-- 14--