1. Report No.

2. Government Accession No.

Technical Report Documentation Page

3. Recipient's Catalog No.

SWUTC/96/465100-1
4. Title and Subtitle

5. Report Date

Using Acceleration Characteristics in Air Quality and Energy

Consumption Analyses

August 1996

7. Author(s)

8. Performing Organization Report No.

6. Performing Organization Code

William L. Eisele, Shawn M. Turner, and Robert J. Benz

465100-1

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

10. Work Unit No.

Texas Transportation Institute

The Texas A&M University System
College Station, Texas 77843-3135

11. Contract or Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

13. Type of Report and Period Covered

0079

Southwest Region University Transportation Center

Texas Transportation Institute
The Texas A&M University System
College Station, Texas 77843-3135

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. Supplementary Notes

Supported by a grant from the Office of the Governor of the state of Texas, Energy Office
16. Abstract

This research investigated the effects of detailed speed and acceleration characteristics on energy consumption utilizing
several fuel consumption models. The relationships between speed and acceleration characteristics, geometric characteristics
(e.g., number of lanes, signal density, driveway density), and traffic flow variability for various roadways were also
investigated. Finally, distributions were produced that summarize the operating characteristics of freeway and arterial street
facilities in the Houston, Texas area. Data for the study were collected on a second-by-second basis on selected freeways and
arterial streets in Houston, Texas using an electronic distance-measuring instrument (DMI) and the floating car technique.
The study found that fuel consumption models incorporating detailed speed and acceleration characteristics provide
statistically different results. Similar results were obtained for both arterial and freeway roadways. Low coefficients of
determination (i.e., R2 less than 0.35) were found when regressing geometric characteristics with the speed and acceleration
characteristics such as average speed or acceleration noise. Relationships between the coefficient of variation of speed or
acceleration noise with average speed provided much higher R2 values when investigating the traffic flow variability of the
travel time runs. These results were similar for peak and off-peak conditions and the different roadway classifications (e.g.,
arterials and freeways).
The distributions of operating characteristics for Houston, Texas summarize the percent of time vehicles are operating
within a given speed and acceleration range. This data is expected to be invaluable for individuals desiring the operational
characteristics of the Houston roadway system, or similar large urban area, as well as those individuals who can apply this
information to future or current mobile source emissions and energy consumption modeling applications.
17. Key Words

18. Distribution Statement

Fuel consumption models, emissions models,

acceleration characteristics, travel time variability

No restrictions. This document is available to the

public through NTIS:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, Virginia 22161

19. Security Classif.(of this report)

20. Security Classif.(of this page)

Unclassified

Unclassified

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72)

Reproduction of completed page authorized

21. No. of Pages

96

22. Price

ii

USING ACCELERATION CHARACTERISTICS IN AIR QUALITY AND

ENERGY CONSUMPTION ANALYSES

by

William L. Eisele
Assistant Research Scientist
Shawn M. Turner
Assistant Research Scientist
and
Robert J. Benz
Assistant Research Scientist

Technical Report 465100-1

Sponsored by
The Office of the Governor of the State of Texas, Energy Office
Southwest Region University Transportation Center
Texas Transportation Institute
The Texas A&M University System
College Station, TX 77843-3135

August 1996

iv

ABSTRACT
This research investigated the effects of detailed speed and acceleration characteristics on
energy consumption utilizing several fuel consumption models. The relationships between speed and
acceleration characteristics, geometric characteristics (e.g., number of lanes, signal density, driveway
density), and traffic flow variability for various roadways were also investigated. Finally, distributions
were produced that summarize the operating characteristics of freeways and arterial streets in the
Houston, Texas area. Data for the study were collected on a second-by-second basis on selected
freeways and arterial streets in Houston, Texas using an electronic distance-measuring instrument
(DMI) and the floating car technique.
The study found that fuel consumption models incorporating detailed speed and acceleration
characteristics provide statistically different results. Similar results were obtained for both arterial
and freeway roadways. Low coefficients of determination (i.e., R2 less than 0.35) were found when
regressing geometric characteristics with the speed and acceleration characteristics such as average
speed or acceleration noise. Relationships between the coefficient of variation of speed or
acceleration noise with average speed provided much higher R2 values when investigating the traffic
flow variability of the travel time runs. These results were similar for peak and off-peak conditions
and the different roadway classifications (e.g., arterials and freeways).
The distributions of operating characteristics for Houston, Texas summarize the percent of
time vehicles are operating within a given speed and acceleration range. This data is expected to be
invaluable for individuals desiring the operational characteristics of the Houston roadway system, or
similar large urban area, as well as those individuals who can apply this information to future or
current mobile source emissions and energy consumption modeling applications.

DISCLAIMER
The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors who are responsible for the
opinions, findings, and conclusions presented herein. The contents do not necessarily reflect the
official views or policies of the Southwest Region University Transportation Center (SWUTC). This
report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation. Any reference to commercial
software packages or hardware is for explanatory purposes only and does not constitute an
endorsement.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This publication was developed as a part of the University Transportation Centers Program
which is funded 50 percent in oil overcharge funds from the Stripper Well Settlement as provided by
the State of Texas Governors Energy Office and approved by the US Department of Energy.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use.
The authors would like to thank Dr. George Dresser for his insight at critical points in the
project. In addition, the authors would like to acknowledge the following individuals for their
assistance:
Luke Albert - data reduction;
Brett Baker - travel time runs;
Pat Beck - graphics;
David Berry - data analyses and computer programming;
Monye Brookover - travel time runs;
Ryan Christianson - data analyses and computer programming;
Ken Clark - travel time runs;
Mark Coscio - travel time runs;
Jim Cullison - travel time runs and quality control of data collection;
Kim Duren - data reduction;
David Fenno - travel time runs;
Chris Hallin - travel time runs;
Monty Poppe - data analyses and computer programming;
Jordan Richard - graphics;
Troy Rother - data reduction and final report editing;
Woodraylyn Smith - travel time runs;
John Vaughn - travel time runs;
Tony Voight - travel time runs;
Kathy Williams - final report editing; and
Steve Wohlschlaeger - travel time runs.

vii

viii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction
Current mobile source emissions and energy consumption analyses are based on average
vehicular speeds over roadway sections that are typically greater than 1 mile (0.6 km) in length.
Recent research has indicated that the fluctuation in speed (i.e., acceleration and deceleration) is more
important than the average speed in determining mobile source emissions and energy consumption.
This fluctuation in speed, known as acceleration noise, has not yet been effectively utilized in vehicle
emissions and fuel consumption analyses because of 1) the difficulty of collecting or estimating speed
data for very short time or distance intervals, and 2) the absence of appropriate computer models to
conduct such analyses.
Study Objectives and Scope
The primary objective of this study is to characterize the speed and acceleration characteristics
of a wide range of traffic flow. Data were collected with a DMI using short increments of time.
Researchers made a preliminary investigation of the effects of detailed speed and acceleration data
on existing fuel consumption models. Comparisons of fuel consumption estimates were made using
speed and acceleration calculations based upon a segment-wide method (average method) and a
second-by-second method (instantaneous method). Detailed acceleration characteristics could be
incorporated into the next generation of mobile source emissions and energy consumption models.
Models that incorporate acceleration characteristics are expected to provide more accurate estimates
of mobile source emissions and energy consumption and of the changes in the emissions and energy
consumption associated with various transportation projects and programs.
The second objective of this study is to examine relationships between the geometric
characteristics, speed and acceleration characteristics, and traffic flow variability for the different
roadway functional classes. These regression equations will be based upon data that are
disaggregated by functional roadway type (e.g., arterial Class I or II, freeways).
The final objective is to compile a reliable data set that describes the speed and acceleration
characteristics of various roadways and operating conditions. The data set produced from this project
can be supplied to interested individuals or organizations for use in development and/or validation
of fuel consumption and/or emissions modeling.
Overview of the Study Design
To accomplish these objectives, data were collected with a distance measuring instrument
(DMI) on a total of 233 centerline-miles (375 km) of freeway routes and 198 centerline-miles (319
km) of arterial routes. From the speed information provided by the DMI, further speed and
acceleration characteristics were calculated. In addition, geometric characteristics were collected
along the corridors.
ix

Once the data were collected with the DMI, three distinct modules of information were
created. The first data set includes the speed and acceleration characteristics computed from the DMI
files for each corridor. The second data set includes the results of utilizing both an instantaneous and
average calculation of several fuel consumption model estimates based upon speed and acceleration
rate. Such analyses are imperative to show any differences in such models when collection of vehicle
speeds is allowed as often as every second. The last data set that is merged with the others is the
geometric characteristics that were collected along the travel time routes. The data were then
combined, summarized appropriately, and statistical analyses were performed in order to evaluate the
objectives of the study.
Findings
Fuel Consumption Model Analyses
Since the difference between the average and instantaneous methods of fuel consumption
estimation for several models was desired, a paired t-test was utilized. T-tests were performed on
the different arterial classes (e.g., Class I, Class II, and freeways) at the aggregated level (i.e., not
disaggregated by average speed, for example). The null hypothesis for the tests is that there is no
difference between the two methods of calculating fuel consumption. Therefore, if significance is
found, the null hypothesis can be rejected and there is a difference between the two methods of fuel
consumption estimation. A critical level of significance of 5 percent was used in the analyses to
determine significance. Results of the analyses are shown in Table 3. Some of the findings from the
fuel consumption analyses are discussed below.
Rausmodel did not yield significant differences in fuel consumption estimation for any of the
functional classes. Although the model is not intended for freeways, and indeed normality was not
found for that condition, the arterial classes yielded insignificant results as well. The FREQ10 models
for freeways and arterials were both found to be insignificant for the Class I arterials. The final model
that demonstrates insignificant results is McGill for the Class II arterials. It should be noted that
insignificance was only found for a few situations. Furthermore, some models demonstrate
significance for operating conditions for which the model does not have speed data.
It is important to note that the analyses presented here compare only the average and
instantaneous methods of fuel consumption estimation for any one model. It does not compare the
models to one another, nor is it possible from this analyses to determine that one model is better than
another model. However, one can determine which models demonstrate a significant difference that
can be attributed to the detailed data set produced by performing travel time runs with the DMI.
Regression and Correlation Analyses
Models relating geometric characteristics and acceleration characteristics were developed
based upon peak and off-peak conditions, different functional classifications, and stratifications on
some variables (e.g., for driveway densities greater than 20 per mile). The linear regression models
x

generally produced low coefficients of determination (R2). The highest R2 values achieved were less
than 0.35 for any of the conditions studied. This model was often between the dependent variable
of average speed and the independent variables of signal density and/or driveway density for the
arterial sections in either the peak or off-peak conditions. The addition of independent variables after
signal density and driveway density (i.e., producing graphs with greater than three independent
variables) often resulted in increasing the R2 value only a few hundredths. Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) procedures were performed as part of the linear regression using a critical level of
significance of 5 percent to determine the significance of the independent variables in the models. The
research team hypothesized that the driveway density and signal density variables would have the
most explanatory power in such relationships and provide higher R2 results than those observed.
For nearly all of the models developed, the signal density and driveway density variables were
found to be significant in the ANOVA procedure. Therefore, these variables were contributing to
the explanation of the variance within the model. It is interesting to note that the 24 hour volume and
the length of the section, the only independent variables used in the freeway analysis, were not always
significant. The 24 hour volume produced significant results more often, however, than the variable
representing the length of the section. This would indicate that the 24 hour volume was critical in
many cases in explaining the variance in the freeway segments with the variables available.
Another observation that was made from evaluating the resulting models was the signs on the
coefficients of the independent variables. Often times, these signs did not make intuitive sense. For
example, as the signal density went down, the coefficient of variation of the speed (CV) would go
up. In this example, it does not make sense that the variation of the traffic speeds, represented by the
CV, should go up when there is less interruption in the traffic stream (i.e., a lower signal density).
However, it is possible that this indicates along these arterial corridors that the signal timing has been
optimized to provide sufficient green time and increased average speeds.
Many observations can be made with regard to the traffic flow variability linear regression
results. The relationship between average speed and the coefficient of variation provided relatively
high R2 values for all functional roadway classes, peak, and off-peak conditions. Further,
relationships utilizing average speed to predict the acceleration noise produced relatively lower R2
results. Although acceleration noise is a better measure of the traffic variability over a travel time run
than average speed, the lower R2 values determined for this relationship indicate a significant amount
of traffic operation that is unexplained by aggregating the instantaneous readings from the DMI.
The next portion of the analysis focused on investigating the value of CV, average speed,
relevant geometric characteristics, and the speed profile at a given speed to realize any possible trends
that may exist. The most interesting characteristic of these analyses was realizing the importance of
the location of the travel time run section that is being investigated. Theoretically, one could have
sections placed such that the CV could be just about any value (i.e., located anywhere along the speed
profile). Due to the inherent variability in these relationships, and the geometric versus speed and
acceleration characteristics, developing estimating regression equations is difficult. Similar results
were found for other roadway classes and conditions (e.g., peak and off-peak).
xi

Since the geometric characteristics (e.g., number of lanes, signal density) do not change for
a given roadway section, it is possible to aggregate the resulting speed and acceleration characteristics
together for these travel time runs. This was performed and regression equations were produced and
the results are shown in Table 5. The R2 values in Table 5 are very similar, or slightly higher, than
those produced when each travel time run was plotted. This was expected since it produces a graph
with fewer points that are aggregated closer to the regression line.
Roadway Operating Characteristics: Speed and Acceleration
The travel time and speed data collected for this study were summarized to obtain speed and
acceleration distributions. These speed and acceleration distributions provide quantitative information
about the operating characteristics of the freeways and arterial streets under study. These
distributions are also very important in designing and validating the next generation of emissions
models that are based upon acceleration patterns, not average speeds.
The speed distributions for different functional classes were markedly different, with freeways
exhibiting higher speeds and arterial streets exhibiting lower speeds and more idle time. The data for
off-peak period conditions (mid-day) were also examined, and found to be similar to peak period
conditions. Although the researchers had hypothesized that a significant difference would exist
between peak and off-peak period operating characteristics, the examination of speed distributions
was unable to confirm the hypothesis.
The acceleration distributions for different functional classes where different but not
necessarily distinctive. The floating car method of data collection may have affected the true
acceleration characteristics of different roadway types, thereby smoothing the potential
acceleration/deceleration differences between freeways and arterial streets. The similarity of the
distributions for different functional classes may also indicate that, indeed, only small difference exist
between acceleration characteristics for different functional roadway classes.
The three-dimensional speed-acceleration distribution for all freeway and arterial street routes
shows a large peak of the data at 60 mph (97 kph), with another smaller peak at 0 mph (steadystate). The acceleration and deceleration ranges close to 0 mph/sec can also be seen on the figure as
small ridges.
The three-dimensional speed-acceleration distribution for freeway routes only show a large
proportion of travel that occurs in the 55 to 60 mph (89 to 97 kph) range with a small range in
accelerations. Figures 31 and 32 show the speed-acceleration distributions for Class I and II arterials,
respectively. Like the speed distributions discussed earlier, there is a marked difference between
functional classes. Class I and II arterial streets show smaller but comparable speed peaks at 0
mph, or idle time.

xii

Conclusions and Recommendations

Fuel Consumption Model Comparisons
Significance was determined for many of the functional classes when comparing fuel
consumption estimation based upon both the average and instantaneous methods. From these results
it can be concluded that, in general, significant differences can be expected when applying a detailed
data set such as that produced by a DMI in a travel time run to the estimation of fuel consumption.
It is important to note that when reviewing the results of Table 3, it is imperative to study Table 2 to
verify the conditions (e.g., speed range, functional classification) for which a model is valid.
Regression and Correlation Analyses
Development of regression equations between speed and acceleration characteristics,
geometric characteristics, and traffic flow variability was performed in the study. The regression
equations did not yield an R2 higher than 0.35 when comparing any combination of the geometric
characteristics with the speed and acceleration characteristics. Signal density and/or driveway density
were found to be significant for most of the conditions evaluated with the aid of ANOVA procedures
using a critical level of significance of 5 percent.
Several factors that could account for the findings were considered. The true affect of the
driveway density may not be reflected in the travel time data since the floating car method was
utilized. It is possible that the influence of driveways on the right-most lane may not be included into
a travel time run that includes a driver passing as many vehicles as pass the driver. In addition, travel
variability induced by traffic signals is difficult to quantify. Peak and off-peak conditions often have
different signal timings to optimize traffic flow. Average speeds, and motorist delay, will vary
depending upon when motorists arrive at the traffic signal. The location of the travel time run section
was also found to be of importance when measuring the coefficient of variation of the speed. If a
travel time run is performed immediately prior to a traffic signal or lane-drop on a freeway, the results
will differ compared to a run performed in an uninterrupted flow section. Unfortunately, the data
base did not contain a variable relating to the section definition (e.g., before or after a traffic signal)
of the travel time run, but this would be an interesting element for further study. Finally, it was
found that, although acceleration noise is a better measure to determine the operating characteristics
of a section than average speed, there is still a significant portion of the instantaneous travel
characteristics (e.g., speed, acceleration) that are lost when aggregating over an entire section.
Roadway Operating Characteristics: Speed and Acceleration
The travel time/speed data collected for this study showed a significant difference in the speed
distributions for different functional classes (e.g., freeways, Class I arterials, Class II arterials). The
acceleration distributions for different roadway functional classes were less distinctive between
functional classes, indicating that acceleration characteristics were similar between freeways and
arterial streets. The floating car data collection technique used in this study may have smoothed
xiii

some of the acceleration differences between freeways and arterials streets, so a definitive statement
cannot be made. A data collection that obtains a more representative sample of the range of
operating characteristics of motorists (e.g., instrumenting random vehicles) would likely provide a
more distinct difference between functional classes.
The study also produced three-dimensional speed-acceleration distributions that were typical
of the freeway and arterial street system in Houston, Texas. The speed-acceleration distributions do
exhibit significant differences between freeways and arterial streets, mainly with respect to speed
differences. The speed and acceleration data set used to produce these summary distributions is
expected to be useful in validating the next generation of emissions models that are currently in the
developmental stages.
DMI Technology for the Data Collection Effort
The distance measuring instrument was found to be an invaluable tool for performing this
study. The instantaneous data points provided at every 0.5 second yielded a data set that allows for
detailed speed and acceleration information. From this data, the significance of the instantaneous data
set on estimating fuel consumption estimates could be evaluated, regression equations were
evaluated, and traffic operating distributions could be prepared. The ASCII format of the output was
easily manipulated for analyses and evaluation. Data collection methods that produce these
instantaneous speed and acceleration data will continue to prove to be useful in the transportation
community for application to many transportation concerns (e.g., air quality, traffic operations).
Future Research Needs
The study identified some areas where additional research is needed. The first is the need for
the development of mobile source emissions models that can incorporate acceleration characteristics.
Research of this kind is currently in progress.
There is a need for better characterization of acceleration characteristics for different roadway
facilities. Characterizing acceleration characteristics by percent of time in a particular driving
condition (e.g., idle, cruise, acceleration, or deceleration) is useful for the development of appropriate
driving cycles that replicate these conditions.
There is much variability both along a travel time run and between travel time runs along
sections. Additional research is needed that focuses on determining appropriate methods to quantify
this variability in a consistent and meaningful manner (e.g., separate the driver and traffic influences).
In general, the DMI and similar technologies for data collection, allow for larger amounts of
descriptive data that has not been possible in the past. Research must now begin to focus on
performance measures that are best utilized (e.g., coefficient of variation) for quantifying the
aggregation of this data for transportation-related concerns.

xiv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
DISCLAIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Study Objectives and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Organization of Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CHAPTER II. BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Acceleration Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Acceleration Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Quality of Flow Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Total Absolute Second-to-Second Differences in Speed Per Mile (TAD) . . . . . . 7
Other Acceleration Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Graphical Representation of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Driving Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Current Driving Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Concerns About the FTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fuel Consumption Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Emissions Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Graphical Representation of Fuel Consumption and Emissions Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Summary of Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

xv

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page
CHAPTER III. STUDY DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Overview of Study Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
The Houston Metropolitan Area and the Data Collected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Roadway Geometric Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
DMI Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Development of Data Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Speed and Acceleration Characteristics Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fuel Consumption Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Geometric Characteristics Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Levels of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Quality Control Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Initial Examination of the Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Fuel Consumption Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Regression and Correlation Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Data Base of Useful Emissions Modeling Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel Consumption Model Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Regression and Correlation Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Roadway Operation Characteristics: Speed and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Speed Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acceleration Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-Dimensional Speed-Acceleration Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37
37
39
49
49
54
59

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fuel Consumption Model Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Regression and Correlation Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Roadway Operation Characteristics: Speed and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DMI Technology for the Data Collection Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Future Research Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69
69
69
70
71
71

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

xvi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1.
FIGURE 2.
FIGURE 3.
FIGURE 4.
FIGURE 5.
FIGURE 6.
FIGURE 7.
FIGURE 8.
FIGURE 9.
FIGURE 10.
FIGURE 11.
FIGURE 12.
FIGURE 13.
FIGURE 14.
FIGURE 15.
FIGURE 16.
FIGURE 17.
FIGURE 18.
FIGURE 19.
FIGURE 20.
FIGURE 21.
FIGURE 22.
FIGURE 23.
FIGURE 24.
FIGURE 25.
FIGURE 26.
FIGURE 27.
FIGURE 28.
FIGURE 29.
FIGURE 30.

Page
Example Speed Profile for Katy Freeway (I-10) in Houston, Texas . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Vehicle Speed Distributions for Three Data Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Cumulative Distribution of Acceleration Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Frequency Bar Graph of Acceleration Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Graph of Speed and Acceleration Noise about the Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3-Dimensional Graph Comparing Speed, Acceleration, and Frequency . . . . . . . 11
Graphical Representation of Speed Profile and Emission Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Overall Approach for Using Acceleration Characteristics in Air
Quality and Energy Consumption Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Sample Roadway Inventory Field Data Collection Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Travel Time Routes (Houston, Texas) Used for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Example of DMIREAD Input Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Example of Output from DMIREAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Relationship Between Average Speed and CV for Freeway Sections
During Peak Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Relationship Between Average Speed and Acceleration Noise for
Freeway Sections During Peak Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Relationship Between Average Speed and Acceleration Noise for
Class I Arterials During Off-Peak Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Relationship Between Average Speed and the Standard Deviation of
Speed for Class I Arterials During Off-Peak Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Relationship Between Average Speed and CV for Class II Arterials
During Peak Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Relationship Between Average Speed and Acceleration Noise for
Class II Arterials During Peak Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Relationship Between Average Speed and CV for Freeway Segments
During Peak Periods (Aggregated by Travel Time Section) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Relationship Between Average Speed and Acceleration Noise for Freeway
Segments During Peak Periods (Aggregated by Travel Time Section) . . . . . . . . 48
Speed Distribution for Freeways and Arterial Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Speed Distribution for Freeways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Speed Distribution for Class I Arterial Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Speed Distribution for Class II Arterial Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Acceleration Distribution for Freeways and Arterial Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Acceleration Distribution for Freeways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Acceleration Distribution for Class I Arterial Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Acceleration Distribution for Class II Arterial Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3-Dimensional Speed-Acceleration Distribution for
Freeways and Arterial Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3-Dimensional Speed-Acceleration Distribution for Freeways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
xvii

LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

Page
FIGURE 31. 3-Dimensional Speed-Acceleration Distribution for Class I Arterial Streets . . . . 64
FIGURE 32. 3-Dimensional Speed-Acceleration Distribution for Class II Arterial Streets . . . . 66

xviii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1.
TABLE 2.
TABLE 3.
TABLE 4.
TABLE 5.
TABLE 6.
TABLE 7.
TABLE 8.
TABLE 9.
TABLE 10.

Page
Speed and Acceleration Distribution by Percentage of Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Characteristics of Fuel Consumption Models Utilized in the Analyses . . . . . . . . 31
Probabilities Resulting From Comparing the Average and Instantaneous
Methods of Fuel Consumption Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Traffic Operating Characteristics for Roadway Classes During Peak
and Off-Peak Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
R2 Values Observed Between Average Speed and
Operating Characteristics for Different Roadway Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Speed-Acceleration Matrix for Freeways and Arterial Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Speed-Acceleration Matrix for Freeways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Speed-Acceleration Matrix for Class I Arterial Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Speed-Acceleration Matrix for Class II Arterial Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Percent of Time Spent in Each Operating Mode by
Roadway Functional Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

xix

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Since the oil embargo of 1973, there has been an increased concern for energy efficiency and
reduction of mobile source emissions from vehicles operating on the transportation system. This
concern for energy efficiency and reduced emissions has fostered the development of a new discipline
within the transportation field. Models for both energy consumption and mobile source emissions
have made up a large facet of this new discipline. As such models become more rigorous, there has
also been an improvement in the ability to collect more detailed operations data. This additional data,
in turn, can be applied to improve the accuracy and level of detail of the energy consumption and
mobile source emissions modeling.
Mechanical distance measuring instruments (DMIs) that attach to a vehicless transmission
were used in the late 1950s to collect speed and delay data. Reducing the large quantities of data
collected with the mechanical equipment to a usable form proved to be difficult and time-consuming.
Electronic DMIs have replaced the mechanical versions, and the advent of portable computers has
simplified the collection and reduction of detailed speed data. Several transportation agencies across
the United States use DMIs and portable computers for travel time studies. Most of these agencies,
however, have few uses for speed profiles other than the identification of geometric bottlenecks and
problem areas. These speed profiles are commonly aggregated to provide average speeds between
major cross streets [ to 1 mile intervals (0.8 to 1.6 km)] of the study corridor.
Acceleration noise, or the fluctuation of speed along a roadway, is a concept that was first
studied in the early 1960s. Acceleration noise is defined as the standard deviation of changes in
vehicular speed and has units of miles per hour per second. Detailed speed data at small intervals
(speeds every second) are required to accurately calculate acceleration noise. This type of detailed
speed data is readily available using electronic DMIs and portable computers.
Two computer models, EMFAC and MOBILE, are used to estimate mobile source emission
rates for California and the remainder of the United States, respectively. Other computer models that
use emission rates from EMFAC or MOBILE have been developed to estimate the potential emission
reduction benefits of transportation control measures (TCMs). TCMs are required by the Clean Air
Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990 for areas designated as severe or extreme non-attainment areas.
The TCM computer models primarily rely on changes in the number of trips, vehicle miles of travel,
and average speed to estimate the emission reductions of proposed TCMs. The Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), the agency responsible for enforcing the CAAA of 1990, has not issued
any standard procedures or methodologies for calculating the potential emission reduction benefits
of TCMs.
Extensive research continues on new methods of evaluating drive cycle changes on vehicular
emissions and fuel economy. Drive cycle changes are based on the four vehicle operating modes:
acceleration, deceleration, cruise, and idle. The changes in speed are more important to estimating
emissions and fuel consumption than average speed. These operating modes can be easily
characterized with the detailed speed data available through the use of electronic DMIs. Models in
1

development would presumably place an emphasis on the fluctuation of speeds instead of the average
speed in computing emission rates and energy consumption. The concept of such techniques
represents a new approach to calculating emission rates and could become a standard for the next
generation of emission rate computer models.
Problem Statement
Current mobile source emissions and energy consumption analyses are based on average
vehicular speeds over roadway sections that are typically greater than 1 mile (0.6 km) in length.
Recent research has indicated that the fluctuation in speed (i.e., acceleration and deceleration) is more
important than the average speed in determining mobile source emissions and energy consumption.
This fluctuation in speed, known as acceleration noise, has not yet been effectively utilized in vehicle
emissions and fuel consumption analyses because of 1) the difficulty of collecting or estimating speed
data for very short time or distance intervals, and 2) the absence of appropriate computer models to
conduct such analyses.
Study Objectives and Scope
The primary objective of this study was to characterize the speed and acceleration
characteristics of a wide range of traffic flow. Data were collected with a DMI using short
increments of time. Researchers made a preliminary investigation of the effects of detailed speed and
acceleration data on existing fuel consumption models. Comparisons of fuel consumption estimates
were made using speed and acceleration calculations based upon a segment-wide (average method)
and a second-by-second (instantaneous method). Detailed acceleration characteristics could be
incorporated into the next generation of mobile source emissions and energy consumption models.
Models that incorporate acceleration characteristics are expected to provide more accurate estimates
of mobile source emissions and energy consumption and of the changes in the emissions and energy
consumption associated with various transportation projects and programs.
The second objective of this study is to examine relationships between the geometric
characteristics, speed and acceleration characteristics, and traffic flow variability for the different
roadway functional classes. These regression equations will be based upon data that are
disaggregated by functional roadway type (e.g., arterial Class I or II, freeways).
The final objective is to compile a reliable data set that describes the speed and acceleration
characteristics of various roadways and operating conditions. The data set produced from this project
can be supplied to interested individuals or organizations for use in development and/or validation
of fuel consumption and/or emissions modeling.

Organization of Report
This report is organized into five chapters:
Chapter One, Introduction, provides an introduction to the research topic and presents the
research objectives and scope.
Chapter Two, Background, provides general information about previous studies of
acceleration characteristics and driving cycles. In addition, a summary is provided of previous fuel
consumption and emissions modeling.
Chapter Three, Study Design, contains a summary of the procedures used to collect the data
and develop the appropriate data bases (e.g., speed and acceleration characteristics, geometric
characteristics, and fuel consumption model estimates). The analysis techniques are also described
in this section of the report.
Chapter Four, Findings, presents the major findings for the research study. The findings
include the results of statistical tests to evaluate the significance of utilizing a detailed speed and
acceleration data set on fuel consumption estimation. The relationships between the speed and
acceleration characteristics, geometric characteristics, and fuel consumption model estimates are also
discussed in this section. Trends in the data base containing operational characteristics of roadways
in the Houston, Texas area and its application in emissions and fuel consumption modeling is also
addressed. This chapter concludes with remarks about the success of using DMI technology for data
collection.
Chapter Five, Conclusions and Recommendations, presents the conclusions and
recommendations based upon the findings described in Chapter Four. These conclusions begin with
a discussion of the use of the detailed data set for evaluation of the differences for fuel consumption
model estimation. The useful regression relationships and the application to transportation planning
concerns are addressed. The content and usefulness of the operating characteristics data base for the
Houston, Texas area is also reviewed. The advantages of DMI technology in data collection, and the
need for future research in several areas encountered in this research study are addressed at the end
of this chapter.

CHAPTER II. BACKGROUND

This chapter provides general information about other studies of acceleration characteristics,
related data collection techniques, driving cycles, and fuel consumption and emissions modeling. In
addition, sections that discuss the graphical representation of fuel consumption and emissions data
are included. The literature search identified over forty references that are summarized topically in
the paragraphs that follow.
Acceleration Characteristics
Several acceleration characteristics will be evaluated to make comparisons between the
Federal Test Procedure (FTP) and the various functional classes upon which data are obtained. These
acceleration characteristics found in the literature are discussed in the following section.
Acceleration Noise
Early studies demonstrate that acceleration noise is a useful traffic parameter for evaluating
traffic flow by investigating it under different conditions (e.g., hilly, heavy volume) ( 1). Acceleration
noise, or standard deviation of the acceleration, is defined as the root mean square of the
accelerations, and is also described by Montroll and Potts in their car following study ( 2). The Jones
and Potts approximation to acceleration noise, which utilizes three variables of a constant speed
change [2 mph (3 kph) is frequently used], the running time of the vehicle for each speed change, and
the total running time of the vehicle, is found in the literature in various reports ( 1,3,4). The
relationship for acceleration noise, or standard deviation of acceleration, for good level roads ranges
from about 0.01 times the acceleration due to gravity + 0.002 times the acceleration due to gravity
for speeds between 20 mph (32 kph) and 60 mph (97 kph). Furthermore, for speeds greater than 60
mph (97 kph) or less than 20 mph (32 kph), these values increase ( 2,5,6). One study suggests that
acceleration noise generally has been observed to decrease with increasing speed, though that may
not hold true for very high speeds [perhaps greater than 60 mph (97 kph)] ( 7).
Furthermore, several studies have indicated that some acceleration noise is natural due to
a drivers inability to maintain a constant speed through all the changes in geometry and other
information processing tasks that consume attention time ( 2,7,8). The additional acceleration noise
is due to vehicle interactions. Equation 1 is the form of the acceleration noise as presented by Drew
and Dudek (3).

Total Absolute Second-to-Second Differences in Speed Per Mile (TAD)

Larsen and Effa introduce the use of a characteristic termed the Total Absolute Second-toSecond Differences in Speed Per Mile (TAD) in research performed in developing real-world drive
cycles (11). This topic, as well as this variable, will be discussed in later sections of this report. This
variable is calculated in the same manner as ? s, or speed changes per mile, in GreenshieldsQuality
of Flow Index.
Other Acceleration Characteristics
A study attempting to predict accident risk proposed using the following characteristics: mean
velocity gradient (about the mean and the origin), velocity noise, average velocity, average
acceleration, and acceleration noise ( 7). The mean velocity gradient, defined as the acceleration noise
divided by the average velocity, was introduced by Helly and Baker ( 9). The authors point out the
fact that acceleration noise is not a good measure when traffic is flowing slowly (e.g., signalized
segments) and that the mean velocity gradient is a better measure since it is a relative measure that
can accommodate for the congestion at slower speeds.
Data Collection
The method of data collection is one of the most critical aspects to be considered in any
research project. For studies of this type, test vehicle techniques are often utilized. This is the
method used for data collection in Houston, Texas for the Houston-Galveston Regional
Transportation Study to determine the travel times on different roadways in the area ( 12). This
method operates on the premise that the driver doing the data collection will pass roughly the same
number of vehicles that pass him/her.
A distance measuring instrument (DMI) can be used to collect speed information at a given
time or distance interval. The instrument, which is accurate to + 1 foot (0.3 meter) in 1000 feet (305
meters), is secured to the vehicles transmission and sends a pulse to an on-board lap-top computer.
The computer then records the appropriate time, speed, and incremental distance. From this
information, a speed profile is easily constructed. A similar method of data collection has been used
in the past to determine a freeway congestion index (FCI) ( 13).
Another method of data collection is the chase car technique in which a vehicle is randomly
selected in the traffic stream (target vehicle) and is followed by an equipped data collection vehicle.
This was the method utilized in a study to develop real-world driving cycles ( 11). Data was
collected with the aid of a laser system that can determine the target vehicles speed from the
known change in speed and distance of the vehicle. Larsen has indicated that since emissions are a
larger problem at the higher speeds and higher accelerations and decelerations (i.e., non-average
driving conditions), test vehicle methods may not be obtaining the appropriate type of data. It was
suggested that perhaps the outliers are the individuals of most importance and a method to select and
obtain data for these individuals is necessary ( 14). Larsen expressed how data collection can also be
7

supplemented with simultaneous video taping. Effa and Larsen used such video as an additional
quality control measure in their study to ensure that the facility types for each section of the route
were characterized and grouped accurately. These route sections were aggregated together based
upon average speed only for analysis purposes ( 11).
Pela expressed a similar concern in regard to the use of test vehicle data collection ( 15). Pelas
concern was that random vehicle sampling will not be achieved if instrumented vans are used, and he
discussed the fact that individuals were actually solicited for vehicle instrumentation in a study in
which he was involved ( 16).
Graphical Representation of Data
After the data are collected, there are several different ways in which they can be presented to
make eventual comparisons between, for example, the FTP, other drive cycles, or field data. A very
common graphical representation is speed versus time, or a speed profile (Figure 1) . Such a graph
enables the reader to see the number and location of starts, stops, and the respective slopes in the
graph. The proportion of time throughout the trip that a vehicle is operating within a given speed
range is a valuable way of representing speed data (Figure 2). This information can also be presented
with a cumulative distribution for either speeds or accelerations of vehicles (Figure 3). A frequency
bar graph with the acceleration rate in mph/sec is also helpful (Figure 4). This graph could be
established with metric units also (e.g., kph/sec). It allows the reader to see the distribution of the
acceleration rates easily. Such a graph was found in many studies while reviewing the literature. A
similar frequency bar graph can be constructed with speed ranges of 5 mph (8.0 kph). Such a graph
may not always demonstrate a normal distribution since the distribution may be based upon a limited
number of observations.
There are several additional graphical representations in the literature as well. One study
demonstrated the use of graphical representations that show speed on the x-axis and the acceleration
noise about the mean along the y-axis (Figure 5). A similar graph was shown for acceleration noise
about the origin, and this graph was also created for speed ( 7). These graphs tend to show a
curvilinear relationship with relatively higher standard deviations of acceleration or speed at lower
speeds [7 to 10 ft/sec (2 to 3 m/s)] and relatively smaller standard deviations of acceleration or speed
at higher speeds [49 ft/sec (15 m/s)]. Winzer presents some interesting graphs relating acceleration
noise and combinations of two of the three primary macroscopic flow parameters ( 19). One such
nomograph shows the increase in acceleration noise as the traffic volume increases. Other graphs
featuring two curves were required to account for the discontinuity in flow parameters between
congested and non-congested flow.

Driving Cycles
The FTP is a driving cycle that was developed over twenty years ago to provide emission
information for light-duty vehicles. However, vehicles and driving characteristics have changed since
the development of this cycle, and this area of study is quickly expanding as more representative
driving cycles are studied.
Current Driving Cycles
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) supplied information about how to obtain
the current driving cycles being considered along with reports explaining their development. Below
is a summary of these driving cycles ( 21):
ARB02: This cycle was developed by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) based on
data from their Los Angeles chase car study. The purpose of the cycle is to test vehicles over in-use
operation outside of the FTP, including extreme in-use driving events.
HL07: This engineered cycle was developed by EPA in coordination with the auto
manufacturers. The purpose of this cycle is to test vehicles on a series of acceleration events over
a range of speeds. The severity of the accelerations are such that most vehicles will go into wide
open throttle. This cycle has constant power (therefore, constant slopes in the time vs. speed profile)
with high engine load for the engine wide-open.
REP05: This cycle was developed to represent in-use driving that is outside the boundary of
the current FTP driving cycle. The cycle was generated from a composite data set which equally
represented Los Angeles chase car data and Baltimore 3-parameter instrumented vehicle data. The
primary purpose of the cycle is assessing in-use emissions.
REM01: This cycle was developed to represent start driving behavior as well as that portion
of in-use driving which is not represented by REP05. Start driving is represented by the first 258
seconds of the cycle. The remainder of the cycle represents in-use driving which was not captured
by the start or REP05 cycles. When combined, the REP05 and REM01 are intended to characterize
the full range of in-use driving. The primary purpose of this cycle is assessing in-use emissions. The
cycle was generated from a composite data set which equally represented Los Angeles chase car data
and Baltimore 3-parameter instrumented vehicle data.
UNIF01: This cycle was developed to represent the full-range of in-use driving in a single
cycle. The methodology used in generating the cycle is largely consistent with previous efforts by
CARB to develop a unified cycle. The cycle was generated from a composite data set which equally
represented Los Angeles chase car data and Baltimore 3-parameter instrumented vehicle data.

12

US06: This cycle is being proposed to make FTP more realistic. However, the proposal
is not to replace the FTP but to make this an additional test to the FTP. Therefore, there would be
two (2) tests for the federal procedure. US06 is based on high speed accelerations which are not
present in the FTP and is an aggregation to some extent of the REP05 and ARB02 cycles (which
are non-FTP conditions).
AC866: This cycle is part of the UDDS (Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule--FTP). It
is the cycle which represents the second stage (i.e., the bag II stage) of the FTP.
SC01: This cycle is a start cycle which is the same as the first part of REM01. However, the
remainder of it is different.
ST02: This is another start cycle which is similar to SC01.
Other cycles are being developed in research by individuals and organizations ( 22). In
addition, the Coordinating Research Council has annual workshops that address these and many
related issues ( 23).
Concerns About the FTP
A study by Denis, et al, demonstrates the discrepancies between the real-world conditions
and what the FTP actually considers ( 20). This report explains, for example, that the FTP does not
take into account higher acceleration and deceleration rates that their test vehicle could exhibit while
driving. Furthermore, the study explains that, the FTP has more cruise, percent time stopped, and
hard decelerations than the on-road data. The FTP under-represents coasting, and hard and medium
accelerations (20).
A study done by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) addressed these problems with
the FTP by using chase cars in the Los Angeles area to construct seven cycles that are more
representative of the on-road performance of motorists ( 11). These cycles are for both freeway and
arterial sections. Perhaps the most significant work in re-evaluating the FTP was performed by the
Environmental Protection Agency ( 18). This work concludes by explaining that current driving
cycles are still being developed with the data obtained from this study.
Fuel Consumption Modeling
There is extensive literature available on the subject of fuel consumption modeling, and
considerable work is being continued in this area. Two documents explain the different types of fuel
consumption models available and the various independent variables that are necessary for their
operation ( 24,25). The models are ranked according to their simplicity. For example, a simple linear
regression model utilizes input such as the section distance and the number of stop/starts to determine
fuel consumption per trip. On the other hand, an instantaneous fuel consumption model uses secondby-second speed and acceleration to obtain fuel consumption.
13

One study of a fuel economy model looks closely at driving cycle considerations as well ( 26).
The authors note that their equation for fuel economy depends on five principal summary variables,
and with certain simplifying assumptions, three or four variables may be sufficient: average speed,
free-flow velocity, fraction of time vehicle stopped, and perhaps stops per mile. They also discuss
cold start as a factor that they have not yet incorporated into the equation. They also discuss that in
the early 1980s the FTP was estimated to have an error of about 15 percent as compared to actual
driving. Furthermore, the authors indicate it has been estimated to be as high as 30 percent by 2010,
and that it is currently estimated at about 20 to 25 percent error. An and Ross mention that certain
driving characteristics are critical for emissions but not for fuel use ( 26). The authors cite velocity
times acceleration (a variable closely related to engine power output) as an example. With that
distinction made, they suggest that driving cycles for regulation of emissions should be defined
differently from driving cycles for fuel economy. Emissions modeling will be further discussed in a
later section.
One fuel consumption model that is available was developed for FREFLO (the freeway
simulation module of the FHWA CORFLO package for macroscopic modeling of freeway and arterial
networks) (27). The model includes five terms which address rolling, air, and effective inertial
resistances, idle fuel consumption, and effective acceleration. The acceleration was approximated
from FREFLOs density output. Density was used as a surrogate for acceleration noise. It was found
that the model accounted for 99.5 percent of the variation in the constant speed fuel consumption
data and 86.1 percent of the variation in fuel consumption due to acceleration ( 27). The model was
incorporated into the logical structure of FREFLO, and comparison with results from an INTRAS
simulation (microscopic model) showed good correlation. Winzer reinforces Rao and Krammesuse
of density as a surrogate for acceleration noise ( 19). Winzers study shows that there is indeed a high
correlation between the two, in all types of traffic conditions (e.g., low to heavy).
Another fuel consumption model called ARFCOM, developed by the Australian Road Research
Board (ARRB), was also found in the literature ( 28). The model is a detailed, incremental power
model for estimating the fuel consumption of fully warmed-up vehicles. The inputs to the model
include power consumption due to tractive forces, drive-train inefficiencies, accessories and internal
engine friction. The author asserts that even though individual components of total power demand
(such as internal engine friction) change dramatically over a range of engine speeds, the fuel-to-power
efficiency of an engine is fairly constant over a range of power and engine speeds. This simplification
makes the model much more practical for use in traffic management studies. The output of the model
is fuel consumption for the duration of a trip and estimates are within about 5 percent for trip
durations of 30 to 60 minutes. The model appears to be well-suited to estimating the fuelconsumption impacts of geometric and other improvements in roadways.
Another model that seems to be suitable for use in estimating the incremental effects of
changes in traffic management schemes was also found in the literature ( 29). The author describes
this model as an instantaneous, basic (detailed and microscopic) model, and the inputs for this model
are instantaneous speed, acceleration, and grade. The output is fuel consumption for the duration of
a trip and the accuracy is about three percent. The three terms of this model require further
14

explanation. The first term allows for fuel consumption required to maintain engine operation. The
second term allows for fuel consumption required to provide tractive force to the vehicle in
overcoming drag, inertia and gradient forces. The third term uses a product of energy and effective
acceleration (acceleration including effects of gravity on a grade) to account for increased fuel
consumption during hard accelerations. A model developed by Bester in 1981 was also discovered
in the literature search. Although it is also a function of acceleration, speed, and gradient, it is of a
much simpler form (30).
Several models that are only a function of speed were also examined. Five of these models,
from Raus (31), Lindley (32), FREQ10 (33), McGill (34), and NETFLO (35,36) utilize equations to
determine fuel consumption given only speed. However, two of these models are presented in a table
format, as opposed to equations, that define fuel consumption as a function of the speed. One such
model was developed by McGill in 1985 (34) and the other is FREQ10 (33). In addition, FREQ10
contains values for both arterials and freeways, allowing separate evaluation of both facility types
(37). Conversely, NETSIM utilizes a table to determine the fuel consumption as a function of both
acceleration and speed ( 35,36,38).
Emissions Modeling
There is considerable literature in the area of emissions modeling as well. Much of the
literature supports the suspicions that the FTP is not representative of real world driving. One such
report focuses on the high accelerations that are outside of the envelope of the FTP and are high
emitters (39). The authors report that, a single hard acceleration event could produce emissions
equivalent to 50 percent to 64 percent of the total FTP emissions for hydrocarbons, and 236 percent
to 262 percent of the total for carbon monoxide ( 39).
Further studies investigate doubts about the accuracy of the inputs and, hence, the output of
some emissions models. In her report on carbon monoxide modeling, Chapin expresses the concern
that microscale dispersion models depend heavily on input variables that have substantial uncertainties
(40). She suggests that traffic volumes, both overall and on local arterials, may be underestimated
by as much as ten to twenty percent. This, in turn, can result in uncertainties inherent in determining
the composite emissions factor that may result in underestimating emissions by as much as 50 percent.
Furthermore, the author indicates that with all these uncertainties built into dispersion models, the
models are better used in relative comparisons (e.g., comparing do project to dont do project
alternatives) than in attempting to determine whether absolute CO concentrations at critical points
(e.g., hospitals and parks) exceed the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). A study
similar to this was performed by Vaughn to describe the impact of Intelligent Transportation Systems
(ITS) on projects with respect to emissions in arterial systems and networks ( 41).

15

Another report found in the literature describes graphs which are presented in a similar manner
(44). However, this report provides various percentile ranges within the box plots. For comparison
of different driving cycles and their respective emission rates for different conditions (e.g., running,
cold start, or hot start), bar charts can be utilized ( 45).
A useful method to provide speed and acceleration data in table form is shown in Table 1 ( 18).
Such a table shows the frequency at each speed and acceleration in two dimensions rather than with
a three-dimensional graph as shown in Figure 6. With this method of presentation, it is easier to
precisely read percent distribution values than on the three-dimensional graph. This aids individuals
who desire these results for entry into emissions models.
Summary of Literature Review
The preceding literature review has discussed numerous acceleration characteristics, driving
cycles, and related fuel consumption and emissions modeling issues. Acceleration noise is found
discussed with relation to car following stability as early as 1959 ( 5). The report discusses the
interactions of vehicles and its effect upon motoristsspeeds. These alternating speeds, and ensuing
acceleration noise, are formulated and special note is made that future research will be performed to
attempt to correlate acceleration noise to parameters such as mean speed, number of lanes of traffic,
and traffic density. As evidenced in the literature review, acceleration noise has been studied further,
along with additional acceleration characteristics. Additional characteristics include the quality of
traffic flow index (Q Index) introduced by Greenshields ( 10).
In addition to the study of acceleration characteristics, there is continued study on the issues
of fuel consumption and emissions modeling. Shortcomings in regard to the errors of these models
are apparent throughout the literature. A large concern of such models is the error inherent with
some of the input variables (e.g., traffic volumes), and the subsequent effect on the results ( 40).
Several other concerns stem from the fact that the current driving cycle for testing emissions is not
representative of current driving conditions. Hence, much work has been done, and is being
continued, to develop additional cycles that will consider the current driving situations that are not
represented in the FTP.

17

CHAPTER III. STUDY DESIGN

This chapter contains a summary of the procedures used to collect the data and develop the
appropriate data bases (e.g., geometric and acceleration characteristics). Also contained within this
chapter are the methodology and analyses techniques that were used to quantify the fuel consumption
model estimates, investigate correlations and relationships, and develop the data base of useful
emissions modeling information. The overall study approach is described first and is followed with
a discussion of the data collection effort. Subsequent sections discuss the pertinent data bases that
were created for analyses purposes. The final sections of this chapter discuss the statistical analyses
utilized to study correlations and relationships within the data set and to evaluate several fuel
consumption model estimates.
Overview of Study Design
Figure 8 illustrates the procedure that was followed to accomplish the objectives of the study.
The top of the figure begins with the objectives the study has targeted. These objectives are as
follows:
Determine the effects of detailed speed and acceleration characteristics on fuel
consumption;
Investigate relationships between speed and acceleration characteristics, geometric
characteristics, and traffic flow variability; and,
Establish a data base for emissions modeling that can be utilized by others.
To accomplish these tasks, data were collected with a distance measuring instrument (DMI)
on a total of 233 centerline-miles (375 km) of freeway routes and 198 centerline-miles (319 km) of
arterial routes. Summary speed and acceleration characteristics were calculated from the speed
information provided by the DMI. Geometric characteristics were also collected along the corridors.
The following section entitled, Data Collection discusses the data collection procedures used for
the study.
Once the data were collected with the DMI, three distinct modules of information were
created. These are shown in Figure 8. The first data set includes the speed and acceleration
characteristics computed from the DMI files for each corridor. The second data set includes the
results of utilizing both an instantaneous and average calculation of several fuel consumption model
estimates based upon speeds and acceleration rates. Such analyses are imperative to show any
differences in such models when collection of vehicle speeds is allowed as often as every second. The
last data set that is merged with the others is the geometric characteristics that were collected along
the travel time routes.
The data were then combined, summarized appropriately, and statistical analyses were
performed in order to complete the objectives of the study. The results and conclusions are contained
in Chapters IV and V.
19

Data Collection
The Houston Metropolitan Area and the Data Collected
Houston is the fourth largest city in the United States, and the metropolitan area ranks as the
tenth largest. The population is estimated at nearly 1.8 million within the city limits, and 4 million
within the Greater Houston metropolitan area. Geographically, the Houston urbanized area covers
approximately 3,000 square miles (7,770 square kilometers). Due to the large population and
geographic area, Houston has heavy traffic during peak periods that occur from approximately 6:00
to 9:30 a.m. and 3:30 to 7:00 p.m.
Several different types of data were collected for the study. Speed and acceleration
characteristics were obtained from base travel time data. Roadway geometrics were collected in
conjunction with another study being conducted by TTI ( 12). Driveway information was also
collected by recording the number of curb cuts along sections. The speed data were collected using
the DMI technology discussed in the next section of this chapter to obtain speed information every
half second.
Roadway Geometric Characteristics
The Houston TxDOT Districts Planning Department is unique since they have been collecting
detailed roadway geometric information since the mid 1960s for long-term transportation planning
purposes. Roadway inventory, as the geometric information data collection is called, is one of the
types of data that is collected for planning purposes. This information is necessary since Houston has
no zoning, with the exception of deed restrictions. Geometric roadway information is often used to
develop growth trends, estimate existing capacity, and determine projected facility needs.
Data for the Roadway Inventory were collected within the Houston Galveston Regional
Transportation Study (HGRTS) (12). The study known as Roadway Inventory consists of the
collection of roadway information shown in Figure 9 (field data collection sheet). The data collection
includes a survey of every FHWA functionally classed roadway segment as well as other selected
roadway segments. Data are collected on all segments and compiled in a data base. Roadways were
divided into segments with limits set where minor arterials or higher class roadways cross the
surveyed roadway, or when the roadway cross section has a geometric change (e.g., number of lanes,
median type). Segments typically ranged from 0.10 miles (0.2 km) to 1.5 miles (2.4 km) in urban
areas and up to 6.0 miles (9.7 km) in rural areas. With the roadways divided into segments, physical
inventories were conducted in the field. Field inventories involved measurements with a measuring
wheel, observations, and recording all other pertinent information.
From the roadway segments provided in the Roadway Inventory, the research team determined
which travel time routes would be utilized for the data collection effort. The team considered the
location and convenience of the roadways with their data collection cost, while providing a random
sampling of routes. Figure 10 illustrates the location of the freeways, Class I arterials, and Class II
21

arterials used for the travel time routes in the study. The terminology of Class I and Class II arterial
segments, defined in the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), was used by the research team to classify
these segments based upon the posted speed limit and geometric characteristics of the arterial ( 46)

Key Map #
Sheet #
HOUSTON-GALVESTON REGIONAL TRANSPORTATION STUDY
HARRIS COUNTY STREET INVENTORY
AS OF
/ /
STREET
LIMITS
SECTION NO.
STATE SYSTEM
LOCATION

TYPE
FEDERAL SYSTEM
URBAN AREA

FUNCTIONAL CLASS
TEXAS TRUNK SYSTEM
MAINTENANCE

LENGTH
MI.
R.O.W. WIDTH
ROAD WIDTH
NO. OF LANES
MEDIAN WIDTH
MEDIAN DESIGN
SIDEWALKS
CURBS
SHOULDERS
FT.
SHOULDER TYPE
SURFACE TYPE
SURFACE CONDITION
ILLUMINATION
PARKING
MARKING
TRAFFIC SIGNALS
STOP SIGNS
YIELD SIGNS
CAUTION LIGHTS
CHANNELIZED INTERSECTIONS
SPEED LIMIT
RAILROAD CROSSINGS:
UNPROTECTED
CROSSBUCKS
FLASHING LIGHTS
FLASHING LIGHTS & GATES
24 - HOUR VOLUME

COUNT DATE

ADT

(OVER)

FIELD INITIALS

REMARKS:
RECORD #:
PAGE #:

1
1

Figure 9. Sample Roadway Inventory Field Data Collection Sheet

22

YEAR

DMI Data Collection

Travel time data collection in the Houston area is currently performed with a DMI for the
Houston-Galveston Regional Transportation Study (HGRTS) ( 12). The following discussion
explains the details of DMI data collection and how it was utilized for this study.
About the Software: Computer Aided Transportation Software (CATS), an integrated computer
program, was developed by the Texas Transportation Institute (TTI) to improve the collection of
travel time and speed data for traffic studies ( 47). The CATS software currently consists of three
modules: DMIREAD, DMISTAT, and DMIPLOT.
The data collection module, DMIREAD, which is used with a laptop computer connected
through the serial port to a DMI, collects detailed speed, distance, and clock time data while traveling
through a corridor. The operator enters information about the run from a menu system that includes:
Roadway Name, Roadway Type, Travel Direction, User Name, Odometer Reading, Weather
Conditions, etc. (Figure 11). DMIREAD opens the serial port, sets the DMI to the correct mode,
places the operators input (run data) in the header, obtains speed and distance information from the
DMI, time stamps each data record, formats the data, and writes it to an ASCII file. The information
that is provided in the ASCII file are the event number, cumulative and interval distance, speed, a
clock time stamp for each reading, and the header (run data) information (Figure 12). The program
typically collects data on a half-second interval, but has the capability of collecting the data as
frequently as 0.10 of a second.
Reliability in the data collection effort results when the travel time run is performed on a
predetermined route. Prior to beginning the data collection, a driver and an observer will use the
DMI to accurately determine the distances between the predetermined checkpoints. The checkpoint
distances are collected and entered into a yard-stick file that will be used by the DMISTAT analysis
module to perform statistics on each section. The travel time run is then conducted, taking care to
mark the first checkpoint and all subsequent checkpoints very accurately by pressing any key on the
laptop computer which will write a !!! MARK !!! to the ASCII file (see Figure 12). Redundancy
is introduced by the operator concurrently marking the checkpoints as the travel time run is being
made and comparing this information with the data obtained by using the yard-stick to determine
the checkpoints. If a conflict is found, typically the problem is that the operator is marking the wrong
checkpoint location (i.e., the wrong cross street). Of course, each problem requires a case-by-case
investigation. Extensive quality control was performed on the travel time data files prior to analyses
to ensure the data were acceptable prior to analyses. Quality control measures are discussed in a later
section of this report.

24

FREEWAY NAME
FREEWAY TYPE
FREEWAY DIRECTION
DATE TODAY
WEATHER CONDITION
LIGHT CONDITION
PAVEMENT CONDITION
SCHDEULED TIME
DRIVER
MILE START
START TIME
!!! MARK !!!
1.
0.001
2.
0.003
3.
0.004
4.
0.007
5.
0.016
6.
0.021
7.
0.026
8.
0.031
9.
0.037
10.
0.042
11.
0.048
12.
0.054
13.
0.059
14.
0.065
15.
0.070
16.
0.076
17.
0.081
18.
0.086
19.
0.091
20.
0.097
21.
0.102
22.
0.107
23.
0.113
24.
0.118
25.
0.123
26.
0.128
27.
0.133
28.
0.138
29.
0.143
30.
0.148
31.
0.153
32.
0.157
33.
0.162
34.
0.167
35.
0.171
36.
0.176
37.
0.180
38.
0.184
39.
0.188
40.
0.193
41.
0.197
42.
0.201
43.
0.206
44.
0.210
45.
0.214
46.
0.219
47.
0.223
48.
0.227
49.
0.232
50.
0.236

0.001
0.002
0.001
0.004
0.009
0.005
0.006
0.005
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.005
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.005
0.006
0.005
0.006
0.005
0.005
0.006
0.005
0.006
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.004
0.005
0.004
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005

:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

KATY FREEWAY
MAIN LANES
IN BOUND
3/9/1995
CLEAR
NORMAL DAYLIGHT
DRY
06:30
atm
15171
Thu Mar 09 06:33:11 1995

46
46
46
46
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
46
46
47
47
46
46
46
45
45
44
44
44
45
45
44
44
42
42
42
40
40
39
39
37
37
37
37
37
36
36
36
37
37
37
37
37
37

@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@

Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu
Thu

Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar
Mar

09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09
09

06:33:11
06:33:11
06:33:12
06:33:12
06:33:13
06:33:13
06:33:14
06:33:14
06:33:14
06:33:15
06:33:15
06:33:16
06:33:16
06:33:17
06:33:17
06:33:17
06:33:18
06:33:18
06:33:19
06:33:19
06:33:20
06:33:20
06:33:20
06:33:21
06:33:21
06:33:22
06:33:22
06:33:22
06:33:23
06:33:23
06:33:24
06:33:24
06:33:25
06:33:25
06:33:25
06:33:26
06:33:26
06:33:27
06:33:27
06:33:28
06:33:28
06:33:28
06:33:29
06:33:29
06:33:30
06:33:30
06:33:30
06:33:31
06:33:31
06:33:32

1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995

Figure 12. Example of Output From DMIREAD

26

!!! MARK !!!

!!! MARK !!!
!!! MARK !!!

Either method enables the user to post-analyze the data via the ASCII format as shown in
Figure 12. Header information (run data) provided by the operator from a menu format is used to
uniquely name each ASCII output data file so that it indicates a roadway name, roadway type,
direction of travel, date, and time. This feature eliminates the problem of overwriting previously
collected data files.
The other two software modules are Excel macros that are written in Visual Basic. The
DMIPLOT module opens the ASCII file, formats the data, plots a speed profile, and uses the header
information for title and labeling purposes. The DMISTAT module opens the ASCII file, formats
the data, provides interval and cumulative distance and time, calculates average speed, standard
deviation, percent time between different speed ranges, and estimates a level of service based on
speed.
Increase in Quantity of Data: The software system provides a vast amount of data for each travel
time run, as shown in Figure 12. The operator enters information about the travel time run such as
route name, direction, type, and weather (see Figure 11), before the program starts, and writes the
header data to the ASCII file. The software system (program and DMI) provides header information
which includes:
C
C
C
C
C

C
C
C
C
C

Route Name
Route Direction
Route Type
Driver Name
Run Date

Start Time (computer generated)

Weather Conditions
Light Conditions (daylight, night, fog)
Pavement Status (wet, dry, etc.)
Scheduled Start Time

In addition, the program provides an event number, cumulative distance, speed, and computer
time stamp at a rate of up to once every 0.1 seconds. This results in much more data than is collected
using the manual method. This level of detail provides some distinct advantages. First, checkpoints
can be determined from the travel time data log even if the observer does not mark the location while
making the travel time run. Quality control checks can be made to determine if the location of the
checkpoints are being marked accurately. The greatest benefit from this type of data collection
technique is the increased volume of data. Instead of an average speed every quarter mile to two
miles (0.4 to 3.2 kilometers) the data can be recorded every 0.10 second. From these data files a far
more detailed analysis can be performed. In addition, the program uses the header data for the
automatic file naming system to ensure that no files are overwritten.
Ease and Consistency of Data Collection: The software system provides ease and efficiency of
operation, as well as consistency of the data collection process. Once the travel time runs are
completed, files can be downloaded and the analysis software, DMIPLOT and DMISTAT, can be
used to process the data within minutes per output file. With computer generated files, there are no
problems with interpretation of the data or data entry errors. More accurate and consistent recording
of time that each run was started and when checkpoints are crossed are provided. The consistent data
format allows for automated data reduction, which will be discussed later.
27

Another distinct advantage is that the data is in ASCII format, allowing the output files to be
viewed or analyzed in almost any software package. Other programs are in various data base formats
which are not easily viewed or manipulated.
Potential Limitations: As with any type of data collection, there are some drawbacks. One of the
limitations associated with computer aided data collection is that the number of runs are limited to
the number of laptops and the number of DMI units that are installed in available vehicles. Additional
drawbacks are that the size of each data file can get overwhelming and disk storage space is a
potential problem. However, the increased size of and decreased cost of hard disk space, along with
the use of compression utilities for long-term storage, alleviates this problem. A minor problem is
getting power to the laptop computers. Battery life can be as long as 4 hours, but if batteries are not
charged fully or if they are altered by constant charging and discharging, problems can develop. A/C
adapters are available at a modest cost.
The human factor (e.g., missing checkpoints and inaccurate calibration) will always be a
problem. However, these problems can be solved or isolated with proper education and training.
These problems can be easily overcome with modest precautions, and the benefits far outweigh any
disadvantages. Quality control was a very important aspect of the study. Several checks and crosschecks, were performed in order to discover and correct travel time run files that were incorrect for
different reasons (e.g., incorrect units, unreasonable speeds).
Development of Data Matrix
The final data set analyzed for this study was quite extensive and was comprised of data from
three sources: 1) speed and acceleration characteristics, 2) fuel consumption calculations, and 3)
geometric characteristics. This section will further explain the development, content, and usefulness
of these three modules.
Speed and Acceleration Characteristics Module
The speed and acceleration characteristics portion of the data set is a direct result of the DMI
travel time runs. The travel time run output (see Figure 12), contains the speed of the vehicle at a
specified distance. A total of 382 travel time runs are incorporated into the final data set. There are:
100 Class I arterials, 81 Class II arterials, 71 with both Class I and Class II arterial segments together,
and 130 freeway segments. These travel time runs are further disaggregated by section because
several of the travel time runs cover sections of roadway that are not geometrically similar and,
therefore, should not be analyzed together. For example, a roadway can change from divided to
undivided or from a two-lane section to a four-lane section. Travel time runs that contain portions
of arterial Class I and arterial Class II sections were separated.

28

After disaggregating the DMI travel time runs for the different functional classes of roadway,
there were 843 travel time runs for Class I arterials, 1,018 runs for Class II arterials, and 1,087 runs
on freeways. As discussed in the preceding section Data Collection, the travel time runs were
collected at different times of the day. The reduction of these DMI travel time runs into similar
groups for analyses is discussed in the Levels of Analyses section in a later section of this report.
The following speed and acceleration characteristics were calculated with the DMI data:

Average Speed
Average Acceleration
Standard Deviation of Speed
Standard Deviation of Acceleration (Acceleration Noise)
Mean Velocity Gradient as Defined by Helly and Baker (9)
GreenshieldsQ Index (10)
Total Absolute Second-to-Second Differences in Speed Per Mile (TAD) ( 11)

While calculations were created to perform the analyses of the acceleration characteristics,
variables were also utilized that calculate and save the speed and acceleration distributions by
percentage of time (see Table 1). This information is valuable for individuals who require data sets
broken down by percent of time at a specified speed and acceleration for different conditions (e.g.,
facility type). Such information is critical in emissions modeling and related fields (e.g., determination
of drive cycles).
Fuel Consumption Module
The literature search identified several fuel consumption models that would be beneficial in a
comparative analysis. The instantaneous speed and acceleration, and average speed and acceleration
model results were compared using these models. The instantaneous method involved calculating
the speed and acceleration for every other observation (i.e., every 1.0 second) in the data set and
calculating the instantaneous fuel consumption estimate for the different models. The instantaneous
fuel consumption estimate for every other observation was then averaged over the entire travel time
run to determine the average fuel consumption. Hence, the final result is a fuel consumption estimate
based upon instantaneous calculations of fuel consumption.
The fuel consumption estimate based upon average speed values was obtained as follows. The
speed for the travel time run was computed as the total distance over the total time. The acceleration
was computed the same as for the instantaneous method. This computation remained the same since
the true acceleration is required and can be obtained in this fashion. In addition, by keeping the
accelerations consistent, the respective differences in fuel consumption will be produced in a
consistent manner. After computing speed and acceleration in this manner, the fuel consumption
estimate for the average method was performed for each travel time run. Analyses in the Levels of
Analyses section of this report discuss the methods used to test for significant differences between
the instantaneous and average methods of fuel consumption estimation.

29

Models Used for Analyses . Several of the models identified in the literature search were used in the
fuel consumption analyses portion of the study. Table 2 displays the models used in the analyses.
In addition to the model name and date, this table also shows the independent variables used in the
model to calculate fuel consumption, the applicable speed range, and the functional class orientation
of the model (e.g., arterial and/or freeway).
There are some important notes that should be made about the information provided in Table
2. First, most of the models are based upon equations, but some utilize look-up tables to estimate
fuel consumption. The models that estimate fuel consumption with the look-up tables are FREQ10,
McGill, and NETSIM. Another important point is that throughout this study, grade, which is
incorporated into two of the models, was assumed to be zero. This is a reasonable estimate for the
Houston, Texas area where the data were collected. The Speed Range and Functional Class
Orientationvalues are based upon what is in the literature, or in the absence, professional judgement.
For the purposes of this study it was necessary to convert the output units of the fuel
consumption models to a common unit. The unit 1,000 multiplied by gallons/second, was utilized.
A time-based unit for fuel consumption (e.g., seconds) was selected over a distance-based unit (e.g.,
miles) since it provides reasonable values during idle conditions (i.e., stopped at signals or traffic
queues).
In order to perform analyses on all the models in the same manner, it was necessary to ensure
that all the models were extrapolated from 0 to 75 miles per hour (121 kph) (i.e., the range of
possible values encountered in the data set). Linear extrapolation provided a reasonable assessment
of fuel consumption estimates for undefined ranges. Interpolation was used to estimate fuel
consumption rates in the models that use look-up tables since the values are often recorded in
increments of 5 miles per hour (8.0 kph) in the tables.

30

31

Speed and Acceleration

Speed

Raus / 1981
Lindley / 1986
FREQ10 / 1990
FREQ10 / 1990
McGill / 1984
FREFLO / 1994
NETFLO/pre-1980
data

10

11

NETSIM / 1986
data
Grade assumed to be zero.

25 to 81

Speed, Acceleration, and

Grade1

Bester / 1980

Speed and Acceleration

Speed

Speed

Speed

Speed

Speed

9 to 76

Speed, Acceleration, and

Grade1

Biggs and Akcelik /

1986

0 to 75

0 to 25

7 to 75

15 to 70

5 to 40

0 to 70

1 to 55

1 to 35

9 to 76

Speed and Acceleration

Bowyer, Akcelik,
and Biggs / 1985

SPEED RANGE
(MPH)

INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE(S)

NAME / DATE

MODEL No.

Arterial

Arterial

Freeway

Freeway

Arterial

Freeway

Arterial and Freeway

Arterial

Arterial and Freeway

Arterial and Freeway

Arterial and Freeway

FUNCTIONAL CLASS
ORIENTATION

Table 2. Characteristics of Fuel Consumption Models Utilized in the Analyses

Geometric Characteristics Module

The final component of the data set is the geometric characteristics. Many of these
characteristics are part of the roadway inventory that is collected for the Houston-Galveston Regional
Transportation Study (HGRTS) (12). In addition to the variables available in HGRTS, the number
of driveways along the study routes were recorded during the data collection effort. The list below
displays the variables contained in the geometric characteristics module along with any necessary
description.

Study route
1st cross street
2nd cross street
Roadway section number (numbered consecutively)
Facility type (e.g., under construction, divided, undivided, one-way)
Functional classification (e.g., interstate, freeway, principal arterial, minor arterial)
Length of the section
Width of the roadway surface
Number of lanes
Width of median
Design of median (e.g., no median, curbs, guardrail and/or fence, open and/or drainage ditch,
painted)
Parking restrictions (e.g., none, no restrictions both sides, no parking anytime both sides, a.m.
and/or p.m. restrictions both sides)
Number of signals
Number of stop signs
Posted speed limit
24-hour tube volume
Number of channelizations per section (e.g., turn bays)
Number of driveways in traveling direction

From the list above, informative density variables such as signals per mile, stops per mile, and
driveways per mile can be computed. Additional variables that were calculated include average lane
width and the hourly volume per lane. These density variables will be used for analyses of geometric
characteristics and the speed and acceleration characteristics. Such analyses are further described in
the sections that follow.
Levels of Analyses
The three data modules described above were merged together prior to beginning the statistical
analyses. In addition, several quality control measures were used to ensure the data were read
properly and contain appropriate information.

32

Quality Control Measures

Quality control of the data prior to statistical analyses was an important element of this study.
Since the data were subject to many conversions and disaggregations it was imperative that the data
be closely scrutinized throughout the data reduction process.
The original DMI travel time run files were checked for several items that would create
problems in the computer analyses and subsequent results. These checks include searching for blank
lines or missing variables, formatting problems (i.e., information not located in the correct place),
incorrect units, nonconsecutive observation numbers, lack of consistency, and unreasonable values.
Similar checks were also made after the original DMI travel time run files were disaggregated
into sections. A check was made to ensure that observations (i.e., lines of the data files) were not
copied twice or left out while being disaggregated. Several of the DMI travel time run files were
selected for individual scrutiny to ensure that no areas of concern could be found. The most effective
method to search for errors was running the files through the statistical package utilized for analyses.
The program alerts the operator to suspect values and syntax problems that may be present in the
DMI travel time run files.
Initial Examination of the Data Set
Prior to analyses of the data set, it is important to examine the data to determine exactly what
trends and patterns may be present. At this preliminary point of the analyses, it is important to obtain
a basic understanding of the data set and its contents. This information is generally provided by
obtaining descriptive statistics for the data set. The following list contains the analyses that were
performed at this initial level.
Produce frequency tables that illustrate the number of observations in different groups of
data (e.g., at average speeds in a given speed range for freeways).
Ensure that the number of observations in the different groups is sufficient for statistical
analyses.
Produce histograms and normality tests to ensure the data obtained for each of the groups
originates from a normal distribution.
In addition to allowing the researcher to get an understanding for the distributions of the data,
such analyses allow for checks that ensure the data originate from a normal distribution and whether
the sample sizes are adequate. Since many statistical analyses (e.g., t-tests, analysis of variance) are
only applicable when these assumptions are true, it is important to investigate these descriptive
statistics.

33

After looking at the data, it was necessary to decide how the roadway functional classes would
be separated into groups. The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) shows the level of service for
different arterial classes based upon the average travel speed ( 46). The research team used the
terminology of Class I and Class II from the HCM to classify the arterial segments based upon the
posted speed limit and geometric characteristics of the arterial. A typical free-flow speed of 40 mph
(64 kph) is reported for Class I arterials in the HCM, 33 mph (53 kph) for Class II arterials, and 27
mph (43 kph) for Class III arterials according to the HCM ( 46). Class III arterials tend to be in, or
near, the downtown and since travel time data were not being collected in these areas, Class III
arterials were not included in the study.
Fuel Consumption Analyses
The objective of the fuel consumption analyses is to investigate any significant differences
between model results for the instantaneous and average methods of estimating fuel consumption.
The calculation of the instantaneous and average fuel consumption estimates was explained in detail
in a previous section entitled, Fuel Consumption Module . The tests for significance were
performed utilizing t-tests within each roadway functional class. If significance is found, analyses of
variance (ANOVA) tests were performed to discover what variables explain where the variance is
being introduced. Example variables include signal density, number of lanes, or hourly volume per
lane.
It is important to note that these analyses will not conclude which model is the best model
for fuel consumption estimation. These analyses only identify significant differences between the two
methods of fuel consumption estimation. However, the analyses can provide a relative measure of
the estimation trends of the models (i.e., a group of models give similar results while one or two seem
to give outlier estimations relative to the group).
Regression and Correlation Analyses
The next step of the analyses was to bring the three modules of data together to investigate
any correlations among the variables involved for a given functional roadway class. Regression
equations were evaluated between the speed and acceleration characteristics, geometric
characteristics, and traffic flow variability (e.g., average speed compared to the coefficient of
variation of speed). Coefficient of determination (R 2 value) was evaluated to determine the degree
to which the independent variables explain the effects on the dependent variable. There were several
relationships that were expected to make intuitive sense to be highly related (e.g., signal density and
speed for a given arterial class). These analyses allowed such intuitions to be tested as well as to
discover other relationships.

34

Data Base of Useful Emissions Modeling Information

The final objective of the study is to establish distributions of the operating characteristics of
the Houston, Texas area. This distribution will stratify the operating characteristics (e.g., speed and
acceleration) by peak and off-peak conditions for different roadway classifications. This information
can be utilized by individuals or organizations for use in development and/or validation of fuel
consumption and/or emissions modeling. The tables that were produced with this analysis step are
similar to Table 1. The graphs show acceleration rates along the x-axis and speed bins along the yaxis. Each cell contains the percent of operating time at the given acceleration and speed ranges
along the travel time run.

35

36

CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS

This chapter presents the major findings for the research study. Presented first are the findings
that discuss the significant differences found in comparing the fuel consumption model estimates from
both the instantaneous and average calculations of both speed and acceleration characteristics. The
next section discusses the correlations and regression equations that were found between the speed
and acceleration characteristics and geometric characteristics. The findings with regard to the
development of a speed and acceleration data base are then presented. Finally, the success of using
DMI technology for data collection is discussed.
Fuel Consumption Model Analyses
The first step of the fuel consumption analyses was to ensure that the data are from a normal
distribution. The normality test was satisfied for all the variables representing a difference between
the average method and instantaneous method of fuel consumption estimation except for Rausmodel
on freeways. Since Rausmodel is only good for velocities ranging from 1 to 35 mph (1.6 to 56 kph)
it makes sense that normality may not be found for freeway conditions. Once normality was
discovered for the other models, statistical analyses were performed.
Since the difference between the average and instantaneous methods of fuel consumption
estimation is of concern, a paired t-test is the appropriate analysis tool. T-tests were performed on
the different arterial classes (e.g., Class I, Class II, and freeways) at the aggregated level (i.e., not
disaggregated by average speed, for example). The null hypothesis for the tests is that there is no
difference between the two methods of calculating fuel consumption. Therefore, if significance is
found, the null hypothesis can be rejected and there is a difference between the two methods of fuel
consumption estimation. A critical level of significance of 5 percent was used in the analyses to
determine significance. Results of the analyses are shown in Table 3.
A cursory review of Table 3 indicates that Rausmodel did not yield significant differences in
fuel consumption estimation for any of the functional classes. The FREQ10 models for freeways and
arterials were both found to be insignificant for the Class I arterials. The final model that
demonstrates insignificant results is McGill for the Class II arterials.
It is interesting to note that, although insignificance was only found for a few situations shown
in Table 3, some models demonstrate significance for which the model does not have speed data. For
example, FREFLO is utilized for modeling freeway conditions, but it is based upon speed data in the
range from 7 to 75 mph (11 to 121 kph) (i.e., including arterial speeds) and was found to demonstrate
a significant difference for both arterial and freeway conditions. NETFLO is also for modeling
arterials and is based upon speeds from 0 to 25 mph (0 to 40 kph), but was found to be significant
for freeways. Finally, NETSIM, utilized for simulating arterials, is based upon speed data from 0 to
75 mph (0 to 121 kph) and yields significant results for both arterial classes as well as freeways. The
authors would like to alert the reader that it is important to look at Table 2 in union with Table 3
when interpreting the results to realize what conditions the fuel consumption model is based upon
37

(e.g., speed range) and the functional class orientation for which the model was developed. This
ensures an accurate understanding and interpretation of the results.
It is important to note that the analyses presented here compare only the average and
instantaneous methods of fuel consumption estimation for any one model. It does not compare the
models to one another, nor is it possible from this analyses to determine that any one model is better
than another model. However, by interpreting Tables 2 and 3 together, one can determine which
models demonstrate a significant difference that can be attributed to the detailed data set produced
by performing travel time runs with the DMI.

Table 3. Probabilities Resulting From Comparing the Average and Instantaneous Methods
of Fuel Consumption Estimation
Probability for Different Functional Classes1
MODEL

Class I Arterials
(n=841)

Class II Arterials
(n=1020)

Freeways
(n=1087)

Bowyer, Akcelik, and

Biggs (1985)

0.0001

0.0001

0.0001

Biggs and Akcelik

(1986)

0.0001

0.0001

0.0001

Bester

0.0001

0.0001

0.0001

Raus

0.1000

0.0641

N/A2

Lindley

0.0001

0.0001

0.0001

FREQ10 (Freeways)

0.1257

0.0001

0.0001

FREQ10 (Arterials)

0.2349

0.0001

0.0001

McGill

0.0001

0.0592

0.0001

FREFLO

0.0001

0.0001

0.0001

NET FLO

0.0001

0.0001

0.0001

NETSIM
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
Shaded cells indicate insignificance compared to a critical level of significance of 2.5 percent (twotailed test).
2
The data for this cell were not found to be from a normal distribution.

38

Regression and Correlation Analyses

The next objective of the study was to investigate regression equations between speed and
acceleration characteristics, geometric characteristics, and traffic flow variability. A concern prior
to beginning this evaluation was the time periods of the travel time runs that included the peak period
conditions (i.e., relatively lower average speeds). The data were studied, including investigating
normal distributions of speed by the time of day of the travel time run, to notice reductions in average
speeds due to the peak period conditions. From such analysis, the peak periods for the travel time
runs in Houston, Texas were taken as 6 to 9 a.m. and 4 to 7 p.m.
Table 4 provides a summary of the operating characteristics that were discovered in the data
set once these peak and off-peak times were determined. Summary statistics are shown for speed,
acceleration, and the coefficient of variation (CV) for speed. The summary statistics include the
following values: average, maximum, minimum, standard deviation, average minimum, and average
maximum. The average maximum and minimum values are the averages for the maximum and
minimum that were recorded for each travel time run section. The average value is the average
recorded for each travel time run on a particular roadway segment.
A cursory review of Table 4 indicates that there is not a significant difference between the
values obtained for peak and off-peak conditions. The research team believes that the peak and offpeak conditions are similar for freeways since there were numerous miles of freeways included in the
peak period that were not congested. These freeways were not congested since they are further away
from the urban area, and some experience nearly free-flow conditions during the peak period. The
same argument can be made for the high off-peak speeds for arterial Class I and Class II segments
as well. Signal timing can also affect the average speeds of Class I and Class II arterial segments
along the corridor (e.g., optimized signal timing can increase average speeds while poor signal timing
can reduce the average speeds). In addition, the acceleration and CV variables are lower and the
speeds are higher for freeway sections than for arterials. This would imply that the arterial segments
are generally experiencing more stop-and-go conditions with hard breaking (i.e., deceleration) and/or
relatively high accelerations. The stop-and-go conditions are generally due to the signal timing along
the corridor.
Once the peak period conditions were determined, geometric characteristics were identified
to use in the linear regression models. The following variables were utilized as independent variables:
signal density expressed as the number of signals per mile, driveway density expressed as the number
of driveways per mile, stop density expressed as the number of stops per mile, length of the section
in miles, and the 24 hour volume per lane. Signal density, driveway density, and stop density were
not applicable for freeway sections. The dependent variables (i.e., speed and acceleration
characteristics) that were used for model development were the standard deviation of the acceleration
(i.e., acceleration noise) in mph/sec, standard deviation of the speed in mph, average speed in mph,
and the coefficient of variation expressed as a percentage (standard deviation of the speed/average
speed).

39

Table 4. Traffic Operating Characteristics for Roadway Classes During

Peak and Off-Peak Periods

Traffic
Stream
Characteristics

All Freeways
and Arterials

Arterials
Freeways

Class I1

Class II1

Peak2

OffPeak3

Peak2

OffPeak3

Peak2

OffPeak3

Peak2

OffPeak3

Average

42.0

39.6

54.7

57.2

38.1

38.5

28.8

28.8

Avg. Maximum

54.0

51.3

61.1

61.6

53.0

51.9

45.7

43.9

Avg. Minimum

22.6

17.8

46.4

51.2

8.7

8.8

2.9

3.7

Standard
Deviation

9.7

10.2

3.9

2.8

13.8

12.9

13.9

12.8

Speed (mph)

Acceleration (mph/sec)
Avg. Maximum

1.96

2.06

1.09

0.91

2.36

2.33

2.75

2.57

Avg. Minimum

-2.30

-2.44

-1.32

-1.10

-2.81

-2.68

-3.16

-3.11

Standard
Deviation
(Acceleration
Noise)

0.64

0.66

0.42

0.37

0.74

0.72

0.85

0.80

Coefficient of Variation of Speed4

Average

32.5

34.2

10.2

5.9

42.3

38.2

53.5

49.3

Maximum

235.6

125.5

111.9

86.2

132.8

125.5

235.6

120.0

6.6

2.6

Minimum
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.7
1.1
2.4
As defined by the 1994 Highway Capacity Manual (HCM).
2
Peak Conditions are from 6 to 9 a.m. and 4 to 7 p.m.
3
Off-Peak Condition is from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m.
4
Coefficient of Variation = Standard Deviation of Speed/Average Speed.
1

40

Normal distribution graphs of these variables were then evaluated to look for useful stratifications
(e.g., for driveway densities greater than 20 per mile) for model development. These stratifications
were used when evaluating linear regression model development between the acceleration
characteristics and geometric characteristics. Models were developed based upon peak and off-peak
conditions, different functional classifications, and stratifications on some variables (e.g., for driveway
densities greater than 20 per mile). The linear regression models generally produced low R 2
relationships. In fact, the highest relationships achieved were less than 0.35 for any of the conditions
studied. This model was often between the dependent variable of average speed and the independent
variables of signal density and/or driveway density for the arterial sections in either the peak or offpeak conditions. The addition of independent variables after signal density and driveway density (i.e.,
producing graphs with greater than three independent variables) often resulted in increasing the R 2
value only a few hundredths. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedures were performed as part of
the linear regression using a critical level of significance of 5 percent for the independent variables
in the relationships. The research team hypothesized that the driveway density and signal density
variables would have the most explanatory power in such relationships and provide higher R 2 results.

For nearly all of the models developed, the signal density and driveway density variables were
found to be significant in the ANOVA procedure. Therefore, these variables were contributing to
the explanation of the variance within the model. It is interesting to note that the 24 hour volume and
the length of the section, the only independent variables used in the freeway analysis, were not always
significant. The 24 hour volume produced significant results more often, however, than the variable
representing the length of the section. This would indicate that the 24 hour volume was critical in
many cases in explaining the variance in the freeway segments with the variables available.
The research team suspected that floating car method did not measure the true affects of the
driveway density on travel times. Since the floating car technique is based upon the premise that the
driver will pass as many vehicles as pass the driver, it is possible that any significant affects of the
driveway density in the right-most lane are not reflected in the results of the travel time runs. This
could influence the results of the model relationships. It was also important to note that there were
not distinct differences between the peak and off-peak periods with respect to the R 2 values and
significance of variables. This will be discussed further in later sections when further analysis are
described.
Another observation that was made from evaluating the resulting models was the signs on the
coefficients of the independent variables. Often times, these signs did not make intuitive sense. For
example, as the signal density went down, the coefficient of variation of speed (CV) would go up.
In this example, it does not make sense that the variation of the traffic speeds, represented by the CV,
should go up when there is less interruption in the traffic stream (i.e., a lower signal density).
However, this could indicate that along these arterial corridors the signal timing has been optimized
to provide sufficient green time and increased average speeds.

41

One point that should be discussed is the use of the variable representing the length of the
segment. This variable was included into the analysis since it was hypothesized that the length of a
segment could explain some of the relationship with the acceleration and speed characteristics.
Intuition would suggest that it is possible, given a longer or shorter section, the degree of aggregation
incurred would produce significant results for the variable. However, this variable was found to be
significant in only one or two cases. This result, along with further analysis below that will be
described, led the research team to believe that a variable explaining the location of the travel time
run would possibly be more explanatory. Unfortunately, such a variable did not exist in the data set
for the study. Closer investigation of the speed profiles indicated that depending upon where a travel
time section was located there could be anticipated results. For example, lower speeds may be
incurred prior to a signal location on arterials or upstream of a lane drop on a freeway section.
One final point that should be discussed is the relationship between average speed and the 24 hour
volume. This relationship also produced an R 2 value less than 0.35 which is counter-intuitive.
However, this low correlation results since the volume and speed data were not collected
simultaneously. Project resources did not allow for the collection of simultaneous speed and volume
data collection. Therefore, speed data were collected with the DMI while 24 hour volume
information was obtained from the Roadway Inventory.
After the geometric characteristics were evaluated, attention was focused upon the traffic flow
variability. This was studied with the aid of graphs producing R 2 values between average speed
(independent variable) and the dependent variables of acceleration noise, standard deviation of the
speed, and the coefficient of variation of the speed. One point on the figure represents the average
speed and average operating characteristic (e.g., CV) for a travel time run through a section. Figures
13 through 18 show these relationships for selected conditions. Figures 13 and 14 are for freeway
sections (peak conditions), Figures 15 and 16 are for Class I arterials (off-peak conditions), and
Figures 17 and 18 are for Class II arterials (peak conditions).

42

The relationship between average speed and the coefficient of variation provided relatively high
R values for all functional roadway classes, peak, and off-peak conditions. Since CV is really a
normalization with the average speed for a travel time run, the relationships are more explanatory.
This normalization is evidently critical since the R 2 values decrease significantly when investigating
the relationship between average speed and the standard deviation of the speed. Further, relationships
utilizing average speed to predict the acceleration noise produced relatively lower R 2 results. This
is probably due to the inherent averaging that occurs to determine the acceleration noise over a
particular travel time run.
2

Investigation of Figure 13 indicates that there is a cluster of points at higher speeds with lower
coefficient of variations while at lower speeds the coefficients of variation indicate a much larger
range of values. The next portion of the analysis focused on investigating the value of CV, average
speed, relevant geometric characteristics, and the speed profile at a given speed to realize any
possible trends that may exist. This evaluation was performed by selecting an average speed for a
given condition (e.g., peak period freeway sections) and evaluating a point below, near, and above
the regression line. After the three points were identified, other runs on the same section were
studied to ensure that the points selected were typical for the particular travel time run section.
As the CV increased for the off-peak Class I arterials, the driveway density and volume increased,
making intuitive sense. However, signal density did not increase throughout as the CV increased.
In fact, the signal density went down to 0.6 signals/mile for the point with the highest CV of 56
percent. In addition to some of the previous findings, this also alludes to the fact that there may
simply not be any clear relationships between the variables considered. For the peak period Class I
arterials, it is interesting to note that the point with the highest CV was from a travel time run that
concluded just prior to a traffic signal. Therefore, the section had no signal density and produced a
relatively high CV since the vehicle was slowing as it approached the intersection. This finding
reinforces that the location of the section should be evaluated since theoretically one could have
sections placed such that the CV could be just about any value (i.e., located anywhere along the speed
profile). Due to the inherent variability in these relationships, and the geometric versus speed and
acceleration characteristics, developing estimating regression equations is difficult. Similar results
were found for other roadway classes and conditions.
After the evaluations above, consideration was again given to the relationships shown in Figures
13 through 18. Since the geometric characteristics (e.g., number of lanes, signal density) do not
change for a given section on which travel time runs are being performed, it is possible to aggregate
the resulting speed and acceleration characteristics together for these runs. This was performed and
regression equations were produced and the results are shown in Table 5. The R 2 values in Table 5
are very similar, or slightly higher, than those produced when each travel time run was plotted. This
was expected since it produces a graph with fewer points that are aggregated closer to the regression
line. For illustrative purposes, Figures 19 and 20 show the resulting graphs for average speed versus
CV and acceleration noise, respectively, for peak period freeway conditions.

46

Table 5. R 2 Values Observed Between Average Speed and Operating Characteristics for
Different Roadway Classes
Roadway
Functional
Class

All Roadway
Classes

Freeways

Arterials
Class I

Arterials
Class II

R2 Value of Linear Regression

Dependent Variable
Regressed with
Average Speed

Peak Period
Conditions

Off-Peak Period
Conditions

Coefficient of
Variation

0.87

0.84

Acceleration Noise

0.79

0.72

Standard Deviation
of Speed

0.67

0.66

Coefficient of
Variation

0.85

0.73

Acceleration Noise

0.75

0.55

Standard Deviation
of Speed

0.61

0.70

Coefficient of
Variation

0.84

0.78

Acceleration Noise

0.54

0.43

Standard Deviation
of Speed

0.58

0.46

Coefficient of
Variation

0.68

0.68

Acceleration Noise

0.21

0.13

Standard Deviation
of Speed

0.03

0.13

47

Roadway Operating Characteristics: Speed and Acceleration

The travel time and speed data collected for this study were summarized to obtain speed and
acceleration distributions. These speed and acceleration distributions provide quantitative information
about the operating characteristics of the freeways and arterial streets under study. These
distributions are also very important in designing and validating the next generation of emissions
models that are based upon acceleration patterns, not average speeds. The objective of this study was
to quantify the speed and acceleration characteristics on a large sample of freeways and arterial streets
in Houston, Texas, ideally representing conditions for other urban areas with similar roadway and
development patterns. The following sections contain a description of the speed, acceleration, and
speed-acceleration distributions found on these freeways and arterial streets.
Speed Distributions
The speed distributions are a quantitative summary of the percentage of time that was spent in
different 5 mph (8 kph) speed ranges. Figure 21 illustrates the speed distribution for all freeway and
arterial street routes that were surveyed in this study. The distribution shows that 15 percent of the
total trip time was spent traveling above 55 mph (89 kph), while 7 percent was spent in idle
conditions (0 mph). Because this distribution combines freeway and arterial street routes, the higher
speeds of freeway travel are mixed with lower speeds typical of arterial streets. By disaggregating
the data by functional class, the speed distributions for different functional classes become more
distinctive. This study disaggregated the study routes by freeways, Class I arterials, and Class II
arterials.
The speed distribution for the freeway routes is shown in Figure 22. The speed distribution shows
a marked increase in travel speeds above 55 mph (89 kph). For freeways, approximately 72 percent
of the total freeway trip time is relatively free-flow [i.e., above 55 mph (89 kph)]. Another 14 percent
of the trip time is between 45 mph (72 kph) and 55 mph (89 kph) (i.e., slightly congested conditions),
and the remaining 14 percent of the trip time is spent in moderate to severe congestion [i.e., below
45 mph (72 kph)].
The freeway speed distributions contrast sharply with the arterial street speed distributions shown
in Figures 23 and 24. The arterial street distributions show speeds patterns more typical of
interrupted flow. The speeds are lower and more distributed over the entire speed range. For
instance, 32 percent of the total trip time on Class I arterials was above 55 mph (89 kph), while only
1 percent of the total trip time on Class II arterials was above 55 mph (89 kph). The arterial street
distribution also illustrate the additional idle time experienced at signalized intersections: 7 percent
of total trip time for Class I arterials, and 13 percent for Class II arterials.
In summary, the speed distributions for different functional classes were markedly different, with
freeways exhibiting higher speeds and arterial streets exhibiting lower speeds and more idle time. The
data shown in Figures 21 through 24 are for peak period conditions, or those times when congestion
was prevalent on the study routes. The data for off-peak period conditions (mid-day)
49

were also examined, and found to be similar to peak period conditions. Although the researchers had
hypothesized that a significant difference would exist between peak and off-peak period operating
characteristics, the examination of speed distributions was unable to confirm the hypothesis.
Acceleration Distributions
Similar to the speed distribution, the acceleration distribution examined in this study is a
quantitative summary of the acceleration rates [in 1 mph/sec (1.6 kph/sec) ranges] experienced during
a trip. The acceleration distributions were calculated for all freeway and arterial street routes, then
disaggregated by functional class.
The acceleration distribution for all freeway and arterial street study routes is shown in Figure 25.
The figure shows that 60 percent of the total trip time on freeways and arterial streets was at 0
mph/sec, or steady-state conditions. These steady-state conditions could have occurred while the
vehicle was idling at a traffic signal or while the vehicle was traveling at a constant speed on a
freeway or arterial route. Accelerations account for another 21 percent of the trip time, whereas
decelerations are 19 percent of the total trip. The maximum acceleration range was 2 to 3 mph/sec
(3 to 5 kph/sec), and the maximum deceleration range was -4 to -5 mph/sec (-6 to -8 kph/sec). As
with the speed distributions, the researchers hypothesized that acceleration characteristics would vary
by functional class, with arterial streets exhibiting a broader range of accelerations and decelerations.
Figure 26 shows the acceleration distribution for freeway routes only. The steady-state conditions
now account for 66 percent of the total trip time, with the maximum acceleration range at 1 to 2
mph/sec (2 to 3 kph/sec) and the maximum deceleration range from -2 to -3 mph/sec (-3 to -5
kph/sec). The freeway distribution shows more time spent in steady-state conditions (traveling at
constant speed) with less severe acceleration and deceleration rates.
Figures 27 and 28 illustrate the acceleration distributions for Class I and II arterial streets,
respectively. About 60 percent of total trip time for Class I arterials is steady-state, whereas only 54
percent is steady-state for Class II arterials. The maximum acceleration and deceleration rates are
also comparable as well.
In summary, the acceleration distributions for different functional classes where different but not
necessarily distinctive. The floating car method of data collection may have affected the true
acceleration characteristics of different roadway types, thereby smoothing the potential
acceleration/deceleration differences between freeways and arterial streets. The similarity of the
distributions for different functional classes may also indicate that, indeed, only small difference exist
between acceleration characteristics for different functional roadway classes.

54

3-Dimensional Speed-Acceleration Distributions

The most useful distribution in the development of emissions and related modeling tools is the
speed-accelerati on distribution, which shows the typical acceleration rates for various speed ranges.
The speed-acceleration distribution combines the speed distributions (Figures 21 through 24) with
the acceleration distributions (Figures 25 through 28) to form a 3-dimensional distribution. These
distributions provide a quantitative summary of the speeds and accelerations on a second-by-second
basis.
Figure 29 illustrates the 3-dimensional speed-acceleration distribution for all freeway and arterial
street routes in this study. The figure shows a large peak of the data at 60 mph (97 kph), with
another smaller peak at 0 mph (steady-state). The acceleration and deceleration ranges close to
0 mph/sec can also be seen on the figure as small ridges. Table 6, shown on the facing page of
Figure 29, shows the matrix of the percent of total trip time in various speed and acceleration ranges
used to create Figure 29.
The 3-dimensional speed-acceleration distribution for freeway routes only is shown in Figure 30.
The figure clearly show the large proportion of travel that occurs in the 55 to 60 mph (89 to 97 kph)
range with a small range in accelerations. Table 7 shows the matrix of total trip time in various speed
and acceleration ranges used to create Figure 30. Figures 31 and 32 show the speed-acceleration
distributions for Class I and II arterials, respectively. Like the speed distributions discussed earlier,
there is a marked difference between functional classes. Class I and II arterial streets show smaller
but comparable speed peaks at 0 mph, or idle time. Tables 8 and 9 provide the percent of total trip
time in various speed and acceleration ranges for Figures 31 and 32, respectively.

59

Table 10 summarizes the percent of time that the data collection vehicles were operating in the
modes of idle, steady-state (cruise), acceleration, and deceleration for each roadway functional class
based upon the information contained in Tables 6 through 9. A review of Table 10 illustrates that the
arterial streets experienced more time spent in idle, acceleration, and deceleration modes and less time
in steady-state conditions than observed on the freeway segments. The research team believes that
these characteristics are explained by the stop-and-go traffic flow due to signalized corridors.

Table 10. Percent of Time Spent in Each Operating Mode by Roadway Functional Class

Roadway Functional Class

Vehicle
Operating
Mode

Freeways and
Arterial Streets

Freeways

Class I
Arterials

Class II
Arterials

Idle

6.4

0.4

9.2

12.0

Steady-state

53.6

65.7

49.1

41.9

Acceleration

21.3

17.5

22.6

24.9

Deceleration

18.7

16.4

19.1

21.2

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CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents the conclusions and recommendations based upon the findings described
in Chapter Four. The discussion begins with conclusions drawn from findings of statistical analyses
that were applied to the fuel consumption estimation models. The discussion continues with the
relationships that were discovered when comparing the speed and acceleration characteristics,
geometric characteristics, and fuel consumption estimations. The potential uses for these
relationships and prediction equations in planning applications is explained. The content and
usefulness of the data base of operating conditions in the Houston, Texas area is then evaluated. The
recommendations conclude with discussion of the usefulness of the DMI for data collection and the
need for future research in the areas encountered throughout this research study.
Fuel Consumption Model Comparisons
The findings presented in Table 3 show the significance that the detailed data set has when applied
to fuel consumption analyses. Significance was determined for many of the functional classes when
comparing fuel consumption estimation based upon both the average and instantaneous methods.
From these results it can be concluded that, in general, significant differences can be expected when
applying a detailed data set such as that produced by a DMI in a travel time run to the estimation of
fuel consumption. It is important to note that when reviewing the results of Table 3, it is imperative
to study Table 2 to verify the conditions (e.g., speed range, functional classification) for which a
model is valid.
Regression and Correlation Analyses
Development of regression equations between speed and acceleration characteristics, geometric
characteristics, and traffic flow variability was performed in the study. The regression equations did
not yield an R2 higher than 0.35 when comparing any combination of the geometric characteristics
with the speed and acceleration characteristics. Signal density and/or driveway density were found
to be significant for most of the conditions evaluated with the aid of ANOVA procedure using a
critical level of significance of 5 percent.
The evaluation of traffic flow variability performed by regressing average speed with the
independent variables of speed and acceleration characteristics resulted in the R 2 values shown in
Table 5. These values clearly indicate that the CV of speed was a more explanatory indicator of the
trip variability when regressed with average speed (i.e., yielded higher R 2 values) than the standard
deviation of the speed or the acceleration noise.
Several factors that could account for the findings were considered. The true effect of the
driveway density may not be reflected in the travel time data since the floating car method was
utilized. It is possible that the influence of driveways on the right-most lane may not be included into
a travel time run that includes a driver passing as many vehicles as pass the driver. In addition, travel
variability induced by traffic signals is difficult to quantify. Peak and off-peak conditions often have
69

different signal timings to optimize traffic flow. Average speeds, and motorist delay, will vary
depending upon when motorists arrive at the traffic signal. The location of the travel time run was
also found to be of importance when measuring the coefficient of variation of the speed. If a travel
time run is performed immediately prior to a traffic signal or lane-drop on a freeway, the results will
differ compared to a run performed in an uninterrupted flow section. Unfortunately, the data base
did not contain a variable relating to the section definition (e.g., before or after a traffic signal) of the
travel time run, but this would be an interesting element for further study. Finally, it was found that,
although acceleration noise is a better measure to determine the operating characteristics of a section
than average speed, there is still a significant portion of the instantaneous travel characteristics (e.g.,
speed, acceleration) that are lost when aggregating over an entire section.
It was also found that peak and off-peak conditions seemed to operate very similarly (see Table
4). Although the peak and off-peak conditions were carefully selected to define these ranges, traffic
operation did not appear significantly different for the two conditions. This apparent discrepancy is
likely due to the inclusion of freeway routes into the peak-period analyses that are operating near
free-flow conditions during the peak-period. These freeways are those that are relatively far from the
urban area. A similar concern exists for the arterial segments as well. In addition, the arterial
sections could have similar operating characteristics due to the signal timings in the peak or off-peak
periods.
Roadway Operating Characteristics: Speed and Acceleration
This study examined the operating characteristics of freeway and arterial street routes in Houston,
with a specific emphasis on the speed and acceleration distributions. The travel time/speed data
collected for this study showed a significant difference in the speed distributions for different
functional classes (e.g., freeways, Class I arterials, Class II arterials). The result confirmed the
obvious but also provided specific quantitative evidence of the differences between classes.
The acceleration distributions for different roadway functional classes were less distinctive
between functional classes, indicating that acceleration characteristics were similar between freeways
and arterial streets. The floating car data collection technique used in this study may have
smoothed some of the acceleration differences between freeways and arterials streets, so a
definitive statement cannot be made. A data collection method that obtains a representative sample
of the range of operating characteristics of motorists (e.g., instrumenting random vehicles) would
likely provide a more distinct difference between functional classes.
The study also produced three-dimensional speed-acceleration distributions that were typical of
the freeway and arterial street system in Houston, Texas. The speed-acceleration distributions do
exhibit significant differences between freeways and arterial streets, mainly with respect to speed
differences. The speed and acceleration data set used to produce these summary distributions is
expected to be useful in validating the next generation of emissions models that are currently in the
developmental stages.

70

The distribution data contained in this report was collected during the peak traffic period (6 to
9 a.m. and 4 to 7 p.m.). Data during the off-peak traffic period at mid-day (10 a.m. to 3 p.m.) were
also collected and analyzed, with the analyses indicating no significant difference between the peak
and off-peak data. Although it was expected that the peak and off-peak data would be distinctive,
the study could not determine why these distinctions were not apparent.
DMI Technology for the Data Collection Effort
The distance measuring instrument was found to be an invaluable tool for performing this study.
The instantaneous data points provided at every -second yield a data set that allows for detailed
speed and acceleration information. From this data, the significance of the instantaneous data set on
estimating fuel consumption could be evaluated, regression equations were studied, and traffic
operating distributions could be prepared. The ASCII format of the output was easily manipulated
for analyses and evaluation. Data collection methods, such as a DMI or global positioning systems,
that produce these instantaneous speed and acceleration data will continue to prove to be useful in
the transportation community for application to many transportation concerns such as air quality and
traffic operations.
Future Research Needs
The study identified some areas where additional research is needed. The first is the need for the
development of mobile source emissions models that can incorporate acceleration characteristics.
Research of this kind is currently in progress.
There is a need for better characterization of acceleration characteristics for different roadway
facilities. Characterizing acceleration characteristics by percent of time in a particular driving
condition (e.g., idle, cruise, acceleration, or deceleration) is useful for the development of appropriate
driving cycles that replicate these conditions.
There is much variability both along a travel time run and between travel time runs along sections.
Additional research is needed that focuses on determining appropriate methods to quantify this
variability in a consistent and meaningful manner (e.g., separate the driver and traffic influences).
In general, the DMI and similar technologies for data collection, allow for larger amounts of
descriptive data that has not been possible in the past. Research must now begin to focus on
performacne measures that are best utilized (e.g., coefficient of variation) for quantifying the
aggregation of this data for transortation-related concerns.

71

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