American Secondary Education 39(2) Spring 2011

Postschool Goals and

Transition Services for Students
with Learning Disabilities
Authors
Alfred W. Daviso, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor with the Department
of Curricular Instructional Studies at Akron University in Akron, Ohio.
Stephen C. Denney, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor with the Department
of Inclusive Services and Exceptional Learners at Ashland University in Ashland, Ohio.

Robert M. Baer, Ph. D., is Outreach Director for the Center for Innovation
and Transition and Employment at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio.

Robert Flexer, Ph.D., is a Distinguished Professor with the Department of

Lifespan Development and Educational Sciences at Kent State University in
Kent, Ohio.

Abstract
This article describes the initial findings for students with learning disabilities
from the first year of The Ohio Longitudinal Transition Study (OLTS). The
study included 416 participants with learning disabilities who were exiting
high school. Data from an in-school survey were analyzed by sample demographics (e.g. school setting, school type, gender, and ethnicity) and by various postschool goals (e.g. employment, postsecondary education). Findings
indicated that the students courses of study were tied to their postschool
goals. Ratings provided by students indicated that students with learning disabilities were discerning consumers of transition planning and services. Recommendations are made for further investigation of the match between students expected and actual postschool outcomes, and suggestions are given
for more effectively providing services to students with learning disabilities.

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The identification of transition services that promote positive postschool

outcomes is critical. In spite of almost twenty years of mandated transition services, students with learning disabilities (LD) continue to experience
postschool outcomes that are less desirable than individuals without disabilities (Mellard & Lancaster, 2003; SRI, 2005). In most studies that followup on postsecondary outcomes, students with LD continue to lag behind
their peers in employment outcomes (Fourqurean et al., 1991; Haring et al.,
1990; Janiga & Costenbader, 2002; Rojewski, 1999; Scuccimarra & Speece,
1990). Their postsecondary education outcomes are also substantially less
favorable than those of individuals without disabilities (Fourqurean et al.,
1991; Haring et al., 1990; Janiga & Costenbader, 2002; Rojewski, 1999;
Scuccimarra & Speece, 1990). Additionally, students with LD who participate in postsecondary education often have to take remedial classes and
smaller course loads, which lengthen the time required to complete their
degree requirements (Fourqurean et al., 1991; Vogel & Adelman, 2001).
Students with LD have generally perceived their secondary education
as a way to get a better job and a better overall quality of life, as well as a
way to gain college entrance (Kortering & Braziel, 2002); however, the postschool outcomes they anticipate often differ from the postschool results they
experience. Thompson et al. (2000) found that, although 86% of students
with LD anticipated participating in postsecondary education, many of them
had not even taken entrance exams. Additionally, transition planning and
services provided for students with LD have varied greatly across schools
(Goldberg et al., 2003; Hitchings et al., 2001), suggesting that there is little
consensus regarding which transition practices are truly effective. Studies
have also found that students with LD were dissatisfied with the information
provided to them at the secondary level regarding college services and the
process for documenting the need for specific accommodations (Janiga &
Costenbader, 2002; Vogel & Adelman, 2001).
Follow-up studies on employment outcomes for students with LD have
indicated that they were generally satisfied with their current employment,
but few had ever received a raise or a promotion (Haring et al., 1990; Rojewski, 1996, 1999; Scuccimarra & Speece, 1990). Some transition services
were positively correlated with career advancement: vocational training,
opportunities for career exploration, and on the job training (Lindstrom
& Benz, 2002), but studies on employment outcomes showed little evidence of consistency across schools in how these services were provided or
planned for (Greene & Kochhar-Bryant, 2003).
The purpose of this study was to determine whether courses of study
and transition services for students with LD were related to their postschool
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goals and whether those services were satisfactory from the students point
of view. Of primary importance was the congruence between the students
secondary programs, their expected postschool goals, and their satisfaction.
Specifically, the research questions that guided this study were:
1. What were the employment and postsecondary education goals of
individuals with LD exiting secondary education in Ohio?
2. How well did the students secondary program and transition services predict their postschool goals after controlling for students
characteristics?
3. What did students perceive as the most helpful in meeting their transition goals at the time of high school exit?

Method
Participants
The population studied was a large sub-sample of students surveyed as part
of the Ohio Longitudinal Transition Study (OLTS). In this study, 250 local
education agencies (LEA) were asked to voluntarily participate and collect
data to represent a cross-section of urban, suburban, and rural areas. At
each of the 48 LEAs that agreed to participate, all students with an IEP who
graduated or aged out of special education in 2004 were surveyed.
Students with LD made up 57.9% of the total sample. Table 1 shows
how the LD subsample compared to the overall OLTS sample and to students with LD statewide. As shown in this table, the subsample generally
matched the profile of students who had exited in 2004 except for a minor
underrepresentation of minorities.

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Table 1. Comparison of Participants in Study to OLTS

Demographics
Total

Study Sample

OLTS Sample

Ohio Diplomates
2000

n (416)

n (741)

n (9,709)

Male

253

60.1

432

58.5

Female

162

38.8

307

41.4

White

348

83.7

592

81.1

8,257

85.0

African-American

43

10.3

101

13.6

1,283

13.2

Other Ethnicity

25

6.0

37

5.3

169

1.8

Urban

118

28.5

230

31.3

Suburban

219

52.2

385

52.4

Rural

75

18.2

120

16.3

Gender

Ethnicity

School Setting

Note. *Not available from the 24th Annual Report to Congress (Baer et al., 2005).

Instrument
The survey used in this study consisted of two partsa student record review and a student/family interview. It was derived from a follow-up survey developed by Ohios systems change project for transition (Baer, et al.,
2003), and from follow-up surveys developed for the National Longitudinal
Study for Transition (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996). The surveys face validity
was tested over four years at ten LEAs (Baer et al., 2003).
During piloting, the teachers administering the surveys evaluated the
survey process and each question in the survey for clarity, content, and
reliability. Survey questions were discarded or revised if the teachers found
they were hard for students to understand, lacked consistent interpretation,
or elicited unreliable information based on what the teachers administering
the surveys knew about their students. Student responses to some questions
were cross-checked against student records to determine whether they were
congruent with information known about the student. Items with less than
95% agreement were discarded. After the survey questions were refined
and edited, the questionnaire was put into a bubble format for easier coding. Table 2 shows the post school outcomes that were investigated in the
exit survey

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Procedure
Participants were surveyed in the spring of their final year in school. Surveys were conducted by the students special education teachers in person,
generally as part of the students exit IEP. In most cases, students provided
all of the information on their own, but for approximately 4% of students
with LD this information was provided by parents or significant others. Prior
to the interview, teachers conducted a record review to obtain information
about student disability designations and the secondary education programs
in which they were involved. Teachers were trained to administer the surveys and code student responses during two half-day sessions. They were allowed to paraphrase questions in order to make them more understandable.
A sample copy of the survey can be found at www.olts.org.

Analysis
Descriptive statistics and frequency counts were performed on the data to
indicate the distribution of employment and post-secondary employment
goals of students with LD, courses of study, service participation, and satisfaction. Means and frequencies were analyzed for differences based on
gender, school setting, ethnicity, and type of school. The analysis of descriptive statistics was used to answer the first research question and to identify
variables that may significantly impact transition services.
A chi-square analysis was used to identify variables that significantly influenced students transition services (gender and vocational participation).
It is a goodness of fit test suggested by Huck (2000) to compare two or more
samples on a dichotomous variable. One-way ANOVAs were employed to
assess statistical significance when three or more sub-groups were compared (i.e., ethnicity, school setting, and school type). T-tests and ANOVAs
are appropriate statistical measures of mean differences or scores between
sub-groups (Huck). The type of analysis for each comparison depended on
the nature of the dependent variable.
The chi-square analysis and a review of the literature were used to
identify variables for a logistic regression analysis to see whether students
transition services predicted their postschool goals after controlling for other
variables. The use of logistic regression allows odds ratios to be calculated
for prediction. This process was completed twice in order to identify predictors for employment and for postsecondary education goals, with or without
employment. These were the dependent variables in each case (Huck, 2000).

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Findings
Postschool Goals and Courses of Study
The categories of students employment and postsecondary education goals
are listed in Table 2. Students identified as many goals as appropriate. For
example, a student could choose both work and postsecondary education,
or they could indicate multiple postsecondary education options. The postschool goal responses indicated that over 80% of the students anticipated
some type of employment, and almost 70% of the sample anticipated participating in some type of postsecondary education. (This was a non-duplicated
count; some students chose more than one postsecondary education option).
Table 2. Expected Postschool Goals for all Students with Learning Disabilities
Postschool goals

% of sample (n = 416)

Work full-time

53.1

Work part-time

30.3

Attend a 2-year college

32.5

Attend a 4-year college

29.8

Attend a technical school

17.5

Enlist in military

6.0

Receive vocational rehabilitative training services

5.3

Receive other training services

5.0

Any postsecondary education

69.6

Other

3.4

The courses of study and transition service categories included educational activities in which students participated while in secondary education. Table 3 shows the respondents participation in various courses of
study and transition services.

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Table 3. Course of Study Participation Percentages

Educational activity

% (n = 416)

Some mainstream academics

90.6 (344)

Vocational classes

59.4 (247)

Mainstream academics for specials & electives only

22.8 (95)

Self-contained classes

.2 (1)

Work study

30.3 (126)

Career and technical education

57.9 (241)

Option 4/job training services

4.1 (17)

A chi-square analysis of gender indicated that males were significantly

more likely to choose full-time employment (X2 = 5.01, p < .016) whereas
females were significantly more likely to expect part-time employment after
graduation (X2 = 10.34, p < .001). In regard to postsecondary education, females were significantly more likely to choose a 2-year college (X2 = 4.239,
p < .026) and 4-year college participation (X2 = 4.34, p < .025), whereas
males were significantly more likely to choose technical school (X2 = 10.46,
p < .001). Males were more likely to expect enlistment in the military (X2 =
10.15, p < .001), whereas females were more likely to expect enrollment in
any postsecondary education (X2 = 3.93, p < .030).
A chi-square analysis of school settings and students goals revealed
statistically significant differences in school setting for students with goals of
4-year college (X2 = 6.54, p < .038) and technical school participation (X2 =
11.68, p < .003). Students from rural settings were less likely to anticipate
enrollment in a 4-year college than students from suburban settings (X2 =
6.30, p < .012). Expectations of enrolling in technical school enrollment
was significantly less likely for students from suburban settings than for students from urban settings (X2 = 9.87, p < .002) or students from rural settings
(X2 = 5.78, p < .016).
A chi-square analysis indicated a significant difference in vocational
class participation (X2 = 5.72, p < .017), with males taking more vocational
classes than females. Males also participated in career and technical education at significantly higher rates than females (X2 = 5.34, p < .021). A chi
square analysis also showed that African American students participated in
work study programs at a significantly higher rate than White, non-Hispanic
students (X2 = 3.76, p < .042).

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Prediction Of Postschool Goals

The second research question focused on the relationship between the students demographic characteristics, school characteristics, transition services and their postschool goals. A logistic regression analysis was used to
identify predictors for samples of students who chose employment only (See
Table 4) and for those who chose postsecondary education only (See Table
5). The Exp (B) is an index which estimates the likelihood or probability of
an outcome or event occurring (Huck, 2000). For example, after controlling
for demographic covariates, students who participated in vocational education were almost four times more likely to choose employment only as a
postschool goal (Exp B= 3.941).
Table 4. Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting
Student Employment Only Goals (N = 416)
B

SE B

df

Sig.

Exp(B)

Some mainstream academics

Variables

-.494

.425

.245

.610

Mainstream for only specials or electives

.813

.287

.005*

2.255

Was student in work study?

.572

.252

.023*

1.771

Was student in vocational education?

1.371

.635

.031*

3.941

Was student in Option 4?

-1.086

.604

.072

.337

Type of school setting

-.349

.184

.058

.706

Type of school

1.258

.323

.000*

3.520

Gender

-.409

.222

.065

.664

Ethnicity

.377

.205

.101

1.401

Note. * indicates a significant predictor variable

The employment model correctly identified 73.4% of the students who

chose only employment and 58.2% of the students who did not choose
employment only. The overall employment model correctly classified 67%
of the sample. The postsecondary model identified 56.3% of students who
indicated only postsecondary education and 62.6% of the students who did
not choose postsecondary education as a postschool outcome. The overall
postsecondary model was able to correctly identify 59.4% of the sample.

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Table 5. S
 ummary of Logistic Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting
Postsecondary Education Only Goals (N = 416)
Variables
Proficiency testing passage

SE B

df

Sig.

Exp(B)

.561

.211

.008*

1.753

Was student in vocational education?

.073

.252

.771

1.076

Type of school setting

-.081

.246

.743

.922

Type of school (high school)

.900

.279

.001*

2.461

Gender

-.040

.212

.850

.961

Ethnicity (White, non-Hispanic)

-.074

.282

.793

.929

Note. *indicates a significant predictor variable

Ratings Of Educational Services

The third research question in this study focused on students perceptions
of the services they received during their secondary education (See Table
6). Students rated the usefulness of these services using a 4-point scale.
The highest rated activities were paid work on own (3.24) and career
and technical education (3.24). Two other activities received ratings above
three: job shadowing (3.15) and extracurricular activities (3.11).
Table 6. R
 atings of School Services and Transitional Activities for all Students
With Learning Disabilities
_
Services and activities
X
n
SD
Proficiency testing

1.89

359

.984

IEP and transition meetings

2.84

391

.932

School supervised work

2.82

146

1.02

School supervised volunteer

2.64

181

.993

Job shadowing

3.15

197

.915

In-school job

2.78

121

.970

Paid work on own

3.24

329

.874

Classes at a community college

2.70

57

1.06

Career and technical education

3.24

253

.764

Extracurricular activities

3.11

259

1.01

Preparation for college entrance exams

2.83

161

.915

Vocational rehabilitation services

2.90

79

1.01

MRDD services

1.80

27

1.03

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There were minimal statistical differences in ratings across ethnicity.

Only extracurricular activities showed a statistically significant difference
F(1,243) = 4.154, p < .045, with African American students rating it higher than non-Hispanic White students did. No other services or activities
had significant differences across ethnicity. An analysis of school setting
and activities found that school supervised volunteer work varied significantly with school setting F(2,178) = 5.424, p < .005. Students from urban
schools rated such volunteer work significantly higher than students from
rural schools did, F(2,181) = 4.88, p < .009 and higher than students from
suburban schools did, F(2,181) = 5.30, p < .006.

Transition Planning Ratings

Students were asked to indicate their satisfaction with their transition planning related to their postschool goals and if school prepared them to meet
their goals. Those goals included: employment, postsecondary education,
independent living, and community participation. Students responded by
indicating their satisfaction or dissatisfaction for each transition goal specified on their IEP.
Students in the sample indicated that they were satisfied with their employment goals 82% of the time (n=341). This was the strongest area of
student satisfaction across the four postschool goal areas. Satisfaction with
postsecondary education planning and services was indicated by 65.4% of
the students (n= 272). Satisfaction with independent living goals was reported by 56.7% of the students (n=236). The lowest level of approval was in the
area of community participation with only 46.6% of the students indicating
their satisfaction with transition planning (n=194). When students were
asked if school prepared them to meet their postschool goals, however, over
98% responded positively.
A chi-square analysis indicated that females in the sample rated postsecondary education transition planning significantly higher than males (X2
= 13.45, p < .000). No other statistically significant differences were present
across gender. Students from regular high schools rated their postsecondary
education transition plans significantly higher than students that attended
vocational schools (X2 = 28.49, p < .000). Transition planning that focused
on independent living was rated significantly higher by students from urban
settings than by students from suburban settings (X2 = 14.95, p < .000) and
by students from rural settings (X2 = 8.01, p < .005). Ratings of transition
planning related to community participation were found to be significantly
higher for students from urban settings than for those from suburban settings
(X2 = 10.31, p < .001).
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Discussion
The first question of this study was to identify the anticipated employment
and post-secondary education goals of students with LD as they exited secondary education and their respective secondary programs. The percentage
of students with employment goals in this sample was slightly lower than
found in the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) (SRI, 2005)
which indicated 94% of students with LD expected employment. Employment expectations in this sample were similar to those in the Thompson et
al. (2000) investigation in which employment expectations were calculated
at 86%. A high number of students with LD anticipated both employment
and postsecondary education after graduation. These findings suggest that
students with LD will need to work harder to balance work and school or
they will take more time to complete postsecondary education. It also points
to the importance of employment to pay for postsecondary education.
Postsecondary education expectations, which included entrance into
technical schools as well as two-year and four-year colleges, were reported
by almost 70% of the students in this study. This was a higher rate than the
NLTS2 findings (SRI, 2005) of 54% for students with LD. Even though students responding to the NLTS2 ranged from 15 to 19 years in age compared
to the average of 18.3 years in this study, this large difference suggests an
increasing trend in postsecondary education goals. The dramatic increase
in postsecondary education expectations suggests that the traditional transition models focused on employment (Halpern, 1985; Will, as cited in Flexer
& Baer, 2008) may need to be re-examined for this population. Some more
recent transition models that incorporate a wider range of postschool outcomes are Kohlers Transition Education Model (1998), Siegels Career Pathways Model (1998) and Greenes Career Pathways Model (2003).
Over 90% of students with LD in this study participated in some type
of mainstream academics. Colley and Jamison (1998) and Baer et al. (2003)
found that graduates had higher rates of competitive employment when
educated in integrated settings. The rates of general education academic
participation for students in this study were higher than those found in the
NLTS2 (SRI, 2005), which found students with LD participating in general
education language arts at a rate of 62% and mathematics at 66%. Also, in
this study, 60% of the students with LD participated in career and technical
education. This rate is significantly higher than the NLTS2 data (SRI, 2005)
which was 45% for students with LD. An additional 30% of the students in
this study indicated participation in work study programs at the secondary
level compared to 11% in the NLTS2 (SRI).
Differences between this study and the NLTS2 in career and technical
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education and work study participation rates for students with LD may be
a result of the difference in student ages between the two samples. In the
NLTS2, older students were more likely to have work-study jobs (Cameto
et al., 2003) because participation in both of these educational activities
primarily takes place during the last two years of secondary education. The
difference between this study and the NLTS2 (SRI, 2005) may possibly be
the result of Ohios relatively strong secondary career and technical education programming and the common practice of applying work study credit toward graduation. Along with postschool goal expectations, students
courses of study also varied across gender. Many male students with LD
continued to be directed into traditional career paths emphasizing employment after graduation while females were directed more toward postsecondary education.
In summary, a considerable percentage (83%) of students with LD expected to participate in employment after high school, and almost 70%
expected to enroll in a postsecondary institution. This seems to suggest that
students with LD needed employment training and academic preparation
for postschool success. The courses of study rates for this sample included
some general education academics classes (90%), career and technical education (57.9%), and work study participation (30%). Compared to previous studies, the students postschool expectations and courses of study in
this sample reflected the multiple postschool goals across employment and
postsecondary education. Students experiences may be reflecting a new
reality that both employment and college will be required for all students to
achieve their desired lifestyles.
The second goal of this study was to find out how well students secondary programs and transition services predicted their postschool goals
after controlling for student characteristics. After controlling for other variables, the following were significant predictors of students having the goal
of employment only after leaving high school: (a) mainstream academics for
specials and electives only, (b) work study participation, (c) vocational education, and (d) attendance at a vocational school. This correlational finding
aligns with previous research in which work study participation and vocational education were found to be significant factors in the preventing students from dropping out (Karpinski et al., 1992). As in previous studies, the
number of hours students engaged in vocational education programming
was also found to be a significant predictor of employment goals (Benz,
Yovanoff, & Doren, 1997; Doren & Benz, 1998; Harvey, 2002; Schalock et
al., 1992). Colley and Jamison (1998) and Benz et al. (1997) found that students who participated in paid or unpaid work experiences at the secondary
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level had higher rates of employment after graduation. Providing employment experiences during the last two years of secondary education were
shown to positively influence postschool employment outcomes (Baer et
al., 2003; Benz et al., 1997; Doren & Benz, 1998; Fourqurean et al., 1991;
Karpinski et al., 1992; Rabren et al., 2002).
The predictive model for expectations of participating in postsecondary education indicated that students who attended regular high schools and
passed all areas of their proficiency tests were more likely to identify postsecondary education as a postschool goal. This finding confirmed the study by
Vogel and Adelman (2001) who found that completion of regular high school
English courses predicted postsecondary educational success. A study by Harvey (2002) showed that a regular high school diploma was the best predictor
of a students postsecondary education participation and performance.
The variables of gender and ethnicity were not significant predictors
of postsecondary education participation, which may suggest that students
educational and career decisions were primarily based on other factors.
This is interesting because females in regular education have been attending
postsecondary education at higher levels than their male counterparts (SRI,
2005). A study by Coutinho, Oswald, and Best (2006) also found higher
postsecondary education expectations for females with disabilities.
The findings in this study suggest that, for students with LD, postsecondary education goals were highly correlated with participation in mainstream
academics. Skinner and Lindstrom (2003) have suggested that if students
with LD are to have any hope of postsecondary education, schools must
offer rigorous academics. They found that participation in more challenging academic programming was related to passing high school graduation
tests, which, in turn, was a strong predictor for postsecondary education for
students with LD (Skinner & Lindstrom).
Students satisfaction ratings identified activities that were highly valued by students with LD: career and technical education, paid work on their
own, extracurricular activities, college classes, and job shadowing. These
activities have been correlated with positive postschool outcomes (Doren &
Benz, 1998; Eisenman, 2003; Evers, 1996; Kohler, 1994; Lindstrom & Benz,
2002; Rabren et al., 2002) and should be encouraged for students with LD.
Students with LD may also be less likely to be absent or leave school early if
they are engaged in activities that they view as relevant to their future goals.
Student ratings indicated that they were very satisfied with their employment planning and moderately satisfied with planning for postsecondary
education, but a significant percentage of students found their independent
living and community preparation to be unsatisfactory. That suggests a need
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to incorporate independent living skills and community participation activities into the curriculum for students with LD.

Limitations
The first limitation of this study is that it is a correlational study and cannot
determine causality. A second limitation was the self-selection of schools
involved in this study. The findings of this study are currently limited to the
state of Ohio, and the results may not generalize to other states. As the sample size increases in coming years, this data will be compared to other state
and national student outcome data to explore validity of findings across demographic sub-groups. This study was also limited in the analysis of school
settings. Increases in sample sizes for students from rural and urban settings
need to occur before strong statistical comparisons can be drawn. In addition, students who attend vocational schools need to be surveyed at a higher
rate in order to make valid comparisons across school type.
Although teachers were used as interviewers to elicit better responses
and understanding by the students, they may have introduced some bias. In
addition, the survey methodology did not verify the student-reported services, so misrepresentation may have taken place. As a result of surveying only graduating or exiting students with IEPs, this investigation did not
include students who dropped out of high school or those who were not
served under an IEP. This would exclude an estimated 27% of students with
LD who exit secondary education early (Dunn, Chambers, & Rabren, 2004).
These students will need to be included in order to formulate comparisons
to students without disabilities, to gain a better understanding of promising
practices for educating students with LD, and to better prevent students with
LD from exiting school early.

Conclusion
It has been almost two decades since IDEA mandated transition services for
all students with disabilities. Today, the question of how well educators are
providing transition services to students with LD continues to be a critical
concern, especially because students postschool goals are rapidly changing. This study examined the in-school services and postschool expectations of students with LD. Although limited conclusions can be drawn from
this investigation, it appears, after controlling for other variables, that the
postschool goals of students with LD were correlated with their secondary
programs and services. Whether student goals were shaped by their secondary program and transition services or vice-versa could not be determined
by this study.
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The Ohio Longitudinal Transition Study and other investigations of postschool outcomes have identified predictive factors for students postschool
success. Outcome studies indicate that students with LD experience better employment outcomes when they are involved in: career and technical
education, work study opportunities, and paid employment prior to leaving
secondary education. Students with LD frequently have minimal contact
with social and vocational rehabilitative agencies after graduation, so providing these transition activities at the secondary level is critical.
An increasing number of students with LD are expecting to attend postsecondary education. In order to meet this expectation, schools should give
students with LD not only the knowledge and skills needed to pass statewide graduation assessments, but also an academic curriculum that prepares them for postsecondary enrollment.
Finally, although documenting the postschool outcomes experienced
by students with LD remains important, documenting student expectations
prior to graduation is essential. Achieving continuous improvement of individualized education programs requires assessing both students expected
and actual postschool outcomes. Future research should continue to identify school programming and demographic variables that are associated with
postschool goal attainment. This information can then be used by professionals who serve students with LD to design programs and services that
better facilitate the transitions from secondary education to employment
and postsecondary education.

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