Concise Guide for Writers

Punctuation
The punctuation system is presented in six charts. The first deals with sentence punctuation. The next two
describe the punctuation that is used within sentences. The fourth brings together all the punctuation
needed for handling quotations. The fifth is concerned with punctuation that has to do with words rather
than sentences. The sixth lists some subsidiary uses of the punctuation marks. Since punctuation marks
are frequently used in more than one way, some marks appear on more than one chart. Readers who are
interested in the various uses of a particular mark can scan the left column of each chart to locate relevant
sections.
There is a considerable amount of variation in punctuation practices. At one extreme are writers who have
committed themselves to using as little punctuation as possible. At the other extreme are writers who seek
to direct the reader's path through a text in painstaking detail. The principles presented here represent a
middle road.
1. Sentence-Level Punctuation
Sentence punctuation depends upon how writers choose to organize the independent clauses in their texts.
There are four possibilities:
Period
Rule
(1) Ordinarily an independent clause is made into a sentence by beginning it with a capital letter and
ending it with a period.
Example
The forecast promised beautiful weather. It rained every day.
Some of us still support the mayor. Others think he should retire.
There's only one solution. We must reduce next year's budget.
Comma

Rule
(2) Independent clauses may be grouped into sentences by using the words and, but, yet, or, nor, for, and
so. The first clause is usually followed by a comma.
Example
The forecast promised beautiful weather, so it rained every day.
We tried to reason with him, but he had already made up his mind.
Jennifer is finishing high school this year, and Joe is a junior at Yale.
Take six cooking apples and put them into a flameproof dish.
Semicolon

Rule
(3) The writer can indicate that independent clauses are closely connected by joining them with a
semicolon instead of punctuating them as separate sentences.
Example
Some of us still support the mayor; others think he should retire.
Scarcity is a basic principle of economics; we must constantly choose between guns and butter.
Writer's block is a widespread affliction; even well-known and consistently productive writers experience
it from time to time.
Colon

Rule
(4) When one independent clause is followed by another that explains or exemplifies it, they can be
separated by a colon. The second clause may or may not begin with a capital letter.
Example
There's only one solution: we must reduce next year's budget.
The negotiators finally agreed on a basic principle: neither side would seek to resupply its troops during
the cease-fire.
The conference addresses a basic question: How can we take the steps needed to protect the environment
without stalling economic growth?
Question Mark

Rule
Sentences that ask a question should be followed by a question mark.
Example
Are they still planning to move their headquarters to Salt Lake City?
What is the population of Norway?
You can get us in free?
What constitutional principle did John Marshall establish in Marbury v. Madison? in McCullough v.
Maryland? in Fletcher v. Peck?
Exclamation Point
Rule
Sentences that express strong feeling may be followed by an exclamation mark.

Example
Watch out!
That's a stupid thing to say!
Wow! Connie just won the lottery!
End of Sentence Punctuation

Rule
End-of-sentence punctuation is sometimes used after groups of words that are not independent clauses.
This is especially common in advertising and other writing that seeks to reflect the rhythms of speech.
Example
Somerset Estates has all the features you've been looking for. Like state-of-the-art facilities. A friendly
atmosphere. And a very reasonable price. Sound interesting? Phone today. No reasonable offer refused!
2. Separating Clauses
When one of the elements in a clause is compounded, that is, when there are two or more subjects,
predicates, objects, and so forth, internal punctuation is necessary.
Conjunctions
Rule
When two elements are compounded, they are usually joined together with a word like and or or without
any punctuation. Occasionally more than two elements are joined in this way.
Example
Haiti and the Dominican Republic share the island of Hispaniola.
Tuition may be paid by check or charged to a major credit card.
I'm taking history and English and biology this semester.

Commas

Note

Rule
Compounds that contain more than two elements are called series. Commas are used to separate the items
in a series, with a word like and or or usually occurring between the last two items. Many different kinds

of clause elements can be compounded in this way.

Example
England, Scotland, and Wales share the island of Great Britain.
Cabbage is especially good with corned beef, game, or smoked meats.
Environmentally conscious businesses use recycled white paper, photocopy on both sides of a sheet, and
use ceramic cups.
We frequently hear references to government of the people, by the people, for the people.
Note
Some writers omit the final comma when punctuating a series, and newspapers and magazines often
follow this practice. Book publishers and educators, however, usually follow the practice recommended
above.
Semicolons

Rule
When the items in a series are very long or have internal punctuation, separation by commas can be
confusing, and semicolons may be used instead.
Example
In the next year, they plan to open stores in Sewickley, Pennsylvania; Belleville, Illinois; Breckenridge,
Colorado; and Martinez, California.
Academically talented students were selected on the basis of grades; tests of vocabulary, memory,
reading, inductive reasoning, math, and perceptual speed and accuracy; and teacher recommendations.
3. Setting Off Modifiers
Another way that sentences become more complex is through the addition of free modifierselements
that are not part of the basic sentence structure. Free modifiers can ordinarily be omitted without affecting
the meaning or basic structure of the sentence. They may be added at the beginning, somewhere in the
middle, or at the end.

Rule
Words that precede the subject in a sentence are potentially confusing, and they are often set off by a
comma that shows the reader where the main part of the sentence begins.
Example
Born to wealthy parents, he was able to pursue his career without financial worries.
After the first few years of marriage, most couples realize that there are certain matters upon which they
will never agree.

Since the team was in last place, it was not surprising that only fifteen hundred fans showed up for the
final game of the season.
Rule
When the introductory modifier is short, the comma is often omitted.
Example
In this article I will demonstrate that we have chosen the wrong policy.
At the present time the number of cigarette smokers is declining.
Rule
Certain kinds of introductory modifiers are followed by a comma even though they are short.
Example
Madam Chairwoman, I suggest that the matter be put to a vote.
Theoretically, she will have to get the permission of the chairman.
Thoroughly chilled, he decided to set out for home.
Yes, we are prepared for any motion that the prosecution may make.
However, it is important to understand everyone's point of view.
Rule
Free modifiers that occur in the middle of the sentence require two commas to set them off.
Example
It is important, however, to understand everyone's point of view.
Most new employees, after the first month, settle easily into the company's routine.
Our distinguished colleague, the president of the guild, will be the keynote speaker.
We can, I hope, agree on a budget for next year.
Rule
If the sentence can be read without pauses before and after the modifier, the commas may be omitted.
Example
We can therefore conclude that the defendant is innocent of the charges.
The applicant must understand before sending in the forms that the deposit fee is not refundable.
Rule
It is important to distinguish between free modifiers and other modifiers that may look very much the
same but are part of the basic sentence. The latter should not be set off by commas.

Example
This woman, who started out on the assembly line more than thirty years ago, became president of the
company this week.
An employee who started out on the assembly line more than thirty years ago became president of the
company this week.
The rock star, well known from recordings, has made a substantial contribution to the college's
endowment.
The rock star who recorded last year's hit has made a substantial contribution to the college's endowment.
Rule
When dates and addresses are used in sentences, each part except the first is treated as a free modifier and
set off by commas. When only the month and year are given, the comma is usually omitted.
Example
All contributions should be sent to the recording secretary at 4232 Grand Boulevard, Silver Spring, MD
70042, as soon as possible.
She was born on Tuesday, December 20, 1901, in a log cabin near Casey Creek, Kentucky.
We took our first trip to Alaska in August 1988.
Comma Preceding
Rule
When free modifiers occur at the end of a sentence, they should be preceded by a comma.
Example
It is important to understand everyone's point of view, however.
She was much influenced by the Elizabethan composers, especially Byrd, Gibbons, and Dowland.
Congress passed the bill in spite of the president's objections, hoping that a veto would provide an
effective issue for the campaign.
Rule
There is a distinction between free modifiers at the end of a sentence and other modifiers that, if omitted,
would change the meaning of the sentence. The latter should not be preceded by a comma.
Example
We congratulate the Senate whip, who organized the filibuster.
We congratulate the senator who organized the filibuster.
The shortstop couldn't play, since he had a broken ankle.
The shortstop hasn't played since he broke his ankle.
Melanie insisted on gambling, even though she couldn't afford to lose.
Don't gamble if you can't afford to lose.

Rule
When two or more free modifiers occur at the end of a sentence, each should be preceded by a comma.
Example
Ralph sat motionless on a thin cushion, his legs folded into the lotus position, his eyes turned up so that
only the whites were showing, his breathing almost imperceptible.
Dashes
Rule
When a free modifier has internal punctuation or produces a very emphatic break in the sentence, commas
may not seem strong enough, and dashes can be used instead.
Example
The difficulties of marriagesexual, financial, emotionalseem to be getting more formidable.
My brother gave me a CDa compact disc, not a certificate of depositfor my birthday.
Rule
A dash can also be used to set off a free modifier that comes at the end of a sentence.
Example
Only one employee in ten stays long enough to reach the senior levela process that takes from ten to
twelve years.
These families had a median income of $35,000$24,000 earned by the husband and $11,000 by the
wife.
Parentheses
Rule
Parentheses provide still another method for setting off extra elements from the rest of the sentence. They
are used in a variety of ways.
Example
There are three types of mergers: (1) horizontal (between companies); (2) vertical (between a supplier and
a customer); and (3) conglomerate (between unrelated companies).
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has issued regulations on the advertising of many products (see
Appendix B for examples).
The community didn't feel (and why should they?) that there was adequate police protection.
4. Quotations

Quotation Marks
Ellipses
Brackets
Commas
Colons
Single Quotation Marks
Final Quotation Marks
Quotations are a significant feature of many texts, and a variety of ways have been developed for making
clear to a reader which words are the writer's and which have been borrowed from someone else.
Quotation Marks
Rule
When writers include the exact words of someone else, they must use quotation marks to set them off
from the rest of the text.
Example
In 1841, Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote, "I hate quotations. Tell me what you know." A quarter of a century
later, he observed, "By necessity, by proclivity, and by delight, we all quote." This change of heart calls to
mind another of his beliefs: "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."
Rule
Indirect quotationsin which writers report what someone else said without using the exact words
should not be set off by quotation marks.
Example
Emerson said that he hated quotations and that writers should instead tell the reader what they themselves
know.
Rule
When quotations are longer than two or three lines, they are often placed on separate lines. Sometimes a
shorter line length and/or smaller type is also used. When this is done, quotation marks are not used.
Example
In his essay "Notes on Punctuation," Lewis Thomas* gives the following advice to writers using
quotations:
If something is to be quoted, the exact words must be used. If part of it must be left out because
of space limitations, it is good manners to insert three dots to indicate the omission, but it is
unethical to do this if it means connecting two thoughts which the original author did not intend
to have tied together.
*New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 296, pp. 110305 (May 12, 1977). Quoted by permission.

Ellipses

Rule
It is sometimes convenient to omit part of a quotation. When this is done, the omission must be marked
with points of ellipsis, usually with spaces between them. When the omission comes in the middle of a
sentence, three points are used. When the omission includes the end of one or more sentences, four points
are used.
Example
Lewis Thomas offers the following advice:
If something is to be quoted, the exact words must be used. If part of it must be left out . . . insert
three dots to indicate the omission, but it is unethical to do this if it means connecting two
thoughts which the original author did not intend to have tied together.

Brackets
Rule
When writers insert something within a quoted passage, the insertion should be set off with brackets.
Insertions are sometimes used to supply words that make a quotation easier to understand.
Example
Lewis Thomas warns that it is "unethical to [omit words in a quotation] . . . if it means connecting two
thoughts which the original author did not intend to have tied together."
Rule
Writers can make clear that a mistake in the quotation has been carried over from the original by using the
word sic, meaning "thus."
Example
As Senator Claghorne wrote to his constituents, "My fundamental political principals [sic] make it
impossible for me to support the bill in its present form."
Commas
Rule
Text that reports the source of quoted material is usually separated from it by a comma.
Example
Marcus said, "I've decided not to apply to law school until next year."
"Well," said Jennifer, "I was hoping that you would help me with my algebra tonight."

"I think we should encourage young people to vote," said the mayor.
Rule
When quoted words are woven into a text so that they perform a basic grammatical function in the
sentence, no punctuation is used.
Example
According to Thoreau, most of us "lead lives of quiet desperation."
Colons
Rule
Words that introduce a quotation formally, especially a quotation that is fairly long, are often followed by
a colon.
Example
Such demagogues should remember the words of John Stuart Mill: "We can never be sure that the opinion
we are endeavoring to stifle is a false opinion; and if we were sure, stifling it would be an evil still."
Single Quotation Marks
Rule
Quotations that are included within other quotations are set off by single quotation marks. (In British
usage, single quotation marks are often used for regular quotations, and double quotation marks for
included quotations.)
Example
The witness made the same damaging statement under cross-examination: "As I entered the room, I heard
him say, 'I'm determined to get even.' "
British usage: "As I entered the room, I heard him say, "I'm determined to get even." '
Final Quotation Marks
Rule
Final quotation marks follow other punctuation marks, except for semicolons and colons.
Example
After dinner Ed began looking up all the unfamiliar allusions in Milton's "L'Allegro"; then, shortly after
midnight, he turned to "Il Penseroso."

Rule
Question marks and exclamation marks precede final quotation marks when they refer to the quoted
words. They follow when they refer to the sentence as a whole.
Example
Once more she asked, "What do you think we should do about this?"
What do you suppose Carla meant when she said, "I'm going to do something about this"?
"Be off with you!" he yelled.
5. Word-Level Punctuation

Apostrophe
Period
Hyphen
The punctuation covered so far is used to clarify the structure of sentences. There are also punctuation
marks that are used with words.
Apostrophe
Rule
The apostrophe is used with nouns to show possession:
Example
The company's management resisted the union's demands.
She found it impossible to decipher the students' handwriting.
Rule
(1) An apostrophe plus s is added to all wordssingular or pluralthat do not end in -s.
Example
the little boy's hat
the front office's ideas
children's literature
a week's vacation
somebody else's fault
the mice's tails
Rule
(2) Just an apostrophe is added at the end of plural words that end in -s.

Example
the little boys' hats
the farmers' demands
the Joneses' yard
two weeks' vacation
the oil companies' profits
for old times' sake
Rule
(3) There is no agreement on how to treat singular nouns that end in -s. Perhaps the best practice is to
follow one's own pronunciation. If the possessive form has an extra syllable, then add an apostrophe and
s; otherwise, just add an apostrophe.
Example
Tess's bad luck
Socrates' worldview
for goodness' sake
Williams's poems
Charles Dickens' novels the class's attitude
Rule
An apostrophe is used in contractions to show where letters or numerals have been omitted.
Example
I'm
he's
didn't
won't
let's
Ma'am
four o'clock
readin', 'ritin', an' 'rithmetic
the class of '55
the Panic of '93
Rule
An apostrophe is sometimes used when making letters or numbers plural.
Example
This handwriting is very hard to read: the o's and a's look alike.
The number of Ph.D.'s awarded to U.S. citizens declined in the 1980's.

Period
Rule
A period is used to mark shortened forms like abbreviations and initials.
Example
Prof. M. L. Smith
14 ft. and 9 in.
4:00 p.m.
John Q. Public, Jr.
U.S.S.R. or USSR
Hyphen

Rule
A hyphen is used at the end of a line of text when part of a word must be carried over to the next line.
Example
. . .instability
Rule
Hyphens are sometimes used to form compound words.
Example
twenty-five
mother-in-law
self-confidence
three-fourths
president-elect
ex-wife
forty-one sixty-fourths
double-breasted
hands-on
Rule
In certain situations, hyphens are used between prefixes and root words.
Example

catlike but bull-like

recover vs. re-cover
antibiotic but anti-intellectual
coop vs. co-op
preschool but pre-Columbian
recreation vs. re-creeation
Rule
Hyphens are often used to indicate that a group of words is to be understood as a unit.
Example
hand-to-hand combat
a three-hour lunch
a well-dressed woman
problem-solving strategies
high-level talks
a scholar-athlete
Rule
When two modifiers containing hyphens are joined together, common elements are often not repeated.
Example
This textbook covers both macro- and microeconomics.
The study included fourth-, eighth-, and twelfth-grade students.
Note
It is important not to confuse the hyphen (-) with the dash (), which is more than twice as long. The
hyphen is used to group words and parts of words together, while the dash is used to clarify sentence
structure. With a typewriter, a dash is formed by typing two successive hyphens (--)
6. Other Uses of Punctuation Marks
Commas
Quotation Marks
Colons
Dashes
Hyphens
In addition to their main uses, punctuation marks are employed for a variety of special purposes.
Commas
Rule
Commas are used to indicate that a word or words used elsewhere in the sentence have been omitted.

Example
Our company has found it difficult to find and keep skilled workers: the supply is limited; the demand,
heavy; the turnover, high.
Rule
A comma is used after the complimentary close in a letter. In a personal letter, a comma is also used after
the salutation.
Example
Very truly yours,
Dear Aunt Sally,
Cordially,
Dear Dad,
Love,
Dear Josie,
Rule
In numbers used primarily to express quantity, commas are used to divide the digits into groups of three.
Commas are not ordinarily used in numbers that are used for identification.
Example
The attendance at this year's convention was 12,347.
Grain production in 1987, a drought year, was less than 90,000 tons.
Norma lived at 18325 Sunset Boulevard.
If you must write to us about this appliance, please mention the following serial number: AJ-3657294.
Quotation Marks
Rule
Quotation marks are used occasionally to indicate that a word or phrase is used in a special way. For other
special uses of quotation marks, see the Italics section below.
Example
Some anthropologists have attempted to prove "scientifically" that women are "biologically" passive and
dependent.
People still speak of "typing," even when they are seated in front of a computer screen.
Colons
Rule

A colon can be used generally to call attention to what follows. It should not, however, be used between
verbs or prepositions and their objects.
Example
There were originally five Marx brothers: Groucho, Chico, Harpo, Zeppo, and Gummo.
In 1988, Brooks published Gilded Twilight: The Later Years of Melville and Twain.
The senior citizens demanded the following: better police protection, more convenient medical facilities,
and a new recreational center.
The senior citizens' demands included better police protection, more convenient medical facilities, and a
new recreational center.
Rule
A colon is used after the salutation in a business letter.
Example
Dear Mr. Czerny:
Dear Valued Customer:
Dear Ms. McFadden:
Dear Frank:
Dashes
Rule
The dash can be used to indicate hesitations in speech.
Example
"WelluhI'd like to try againif you'll let me," he offered.
Rule
When a list precedes a general statement about the items listed, it is followed by a dash.
Example
Strength, endurance, flexibilitythese three goals should guide each individual's quest for overall
physical fitness.
Hyphens
Rule
The hyphen can be used as a substitute for to, with the meaning "up to and including." It should not,
however, be used in conjunction with from.

Example
The text of the Constitution can be found on pages 67987.
The period 18901914 was a particularly tranquil time in Europe.
The Civil War lasted from 1861 to 1865. (not from 18611865)
The San FranciscoVancouver flight has been discontinued.
Italics
Note

Rule
Titles of newspapers, magazines, and books should be put in italics. Articles, essays, stories, chapters, and
poems should be enclosed in quotation marks.
Example
Her job requires her to keep up with the New York Times, the Wall Street Journal, and the Washington
Post every day.
"Song of Myself" is the first poem in Whitman's Leaves of Grass.
Every year Consumer Reports runs "Best Buy Gifts" in the November issue.
Rule
Titles of plays and movies should be put in italics. Television and radio programs should be enclosed in
quotation marks.
Example
Shakespeare's Hamlet
The Playboy of the Western World
the movie High Noon
Huston's The Maltese Falcon
"Sesame Street"
"60 Minutes"
Rule
Titles of works of art and long musical works should be put in italics. Shorter works such as songs should
be enclosed in quotation marks. When the form of a musical work is used as its title, neither italics nor
quotation marks are used.
Example
Grant Wood's American Gothic
Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper
Handel's Messiah
Don Giovanni by Mozart

Porgy and Bess

"Summertime"
Beethoven's Ninth Symphony
Piano Sonata No. 2 in A major
Rule
The names of ships and airplanes should be put in italics.
Example
the aircraft carrier Intrepid
Lindbergh's The Spirit of St. Louis
Rule
Words and phrases from a foreign language should be put in italics. Accompanying translations are often
enclosed in quotation marks. Words of foreign origin that have become familiar in an English context
should not be italicized.
Example
As a group, these artists appear to be in the avant-garde. They are not, however, to be thought of as
enfants terribles, or "terrible children," people whose work is so outrageous as to shock or embarrass.
Rule
Words used as words, and letters used as letters, should be put in italics.
Example
I can never remember how to spell broccoli.
Be sure to pronounce the final e in Nike.
Rule
Italics are sometimes used to indicate that a word or words should be pronounced with extra emphasis.
Example
The boss is very hard to get along with today.
John loaned the tape to Robert, and he gave it to Sally.
Note
When a typewriter is used, italics are indicated by underlining. The advent of the word processor has
made this substitution unnecessary. If you are preparing a manuscript for publication, however, editors
and typesetters will find it easier to work with if you use underlining instead of italics.

Capitalization
Rule
The important words in titles are capitalized. This includes the first and last words and all other words
except articles, prepositions, and coordinating conjunctions, such as and, but, and or.
Example
Gone with the Wind
The Brain: A User's Manual
With Malice toward None
A World to Lose
The Universe Within
The Great War, 19141918
Sports-related Injuries
Twentieth-Century Views
Rule
Proper nounsnames of specific people, places, organizations, groups, events, etc.are capitalized, as
are the proper adjectives derived from them.
Example
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Jeremy
Spanish Civil War
United States Coast Guard
Canada
Canadian
New Orleans
Latinos
Jeffersonian
Rule
When proper nouns and adjectives have taken on a specialized meaning, they are often no longer
capitalized.
Example
My brother ordered a bologna sandwich with french dressing.
The shop specializes in china and plaster of paris ornaments.
The address was written in india ink on a manila envelope.
Rule
Titles of people are capitalized when they precede the name, but usually not when they follow or when
they are used alone.

Example
Queen Victoria
Victoria, queen of England
the queen of England
the queen
the president's office
John Dall, president of Rynex, Inc.
Mr. Dall
the president of the corporation
Rule
Kinship terms are capitalized when they are used before a name or alone in place of a name. They are not
capitalized when they are preceded by modifiers.
Example
I'm expecting Aunt Alice to drop by this weekend.
I forgot to call Mother on her birthday
I forgot to call my mother on her birthday.
Rule
Geographical features are capitalized when they are part of the official name. In the plural, they are
capitalized when they precede names, but not when they follow.
Example
The Sonoran Desert is in southern Arizona.
The Arizona desert is beautiful in the spring.
In recent years, Lakes Erie and Ontario have been cleaned up.
The Hudson and Mohawk rivers are both in New York State.
Rule
Points of the compass are capitalized only when they are used as the name of a section of the country.
Example
We've been driving east for over two hours.
We visited the South last summer and the Southwest the year before.
He was born in southwestern Nebraska.

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