Forage/Pasture Production and Management

Definition of Terms
Annual A plant that completes its life cycle within a year.
By-pass protein Dietary protein which has passed the rumen undegraded.
Concentrate Grains or feeds that are low (below 18%) in crude fiber, but high in digestible nutrient
content.
Fodder Feed materials for domesticated animals, ei9ther fresh or dried, but usually coarse.
Forage Anything suitable as feed for herbivores, usually with lower nutritive value and digestibility
than concentrates.
Forage corn Corn plant harvested 75-85 days after planting and utilized as ruminant feed, either as
soilage or as silage.
Grasslands Tracts of lands or areas where grasses are the natural domi9nant species; legumes, shrubs,
bushes and trees also form a part of vegetation; also called ranges, grazing lands or pasture
lands.
Green forage Generally referred to as legumes.
Herbage Grass and other herbaceous vegetables for animal feeding.
Pastures Communities of plants used as feeds for ruminants by grazing or cutting.
Perennial A plant that is unable to complete its life cycle within a year and usually lives for several
years and flower each year.
Rhizobia The organisms forming root-nodules in legumes.
Roughage Feed which contains at least 18% crude fiber and low in digestible nutrients.
Silage Any fermented feed material stored in a silo.
Silvipasture The practice of growing forage crops along with forest crops.
Soilage Forage cut and fed fresh to the animals; also called green chop, soiling, or cut-and-carry.

Forage/Pasture Production and Management

One of the major constraints in increasing ruminant productivity is the lack of good quality
animal feed on a year-round basis. To improve animal performance, it is imperative to produce good
quality forage and pasture crops, and utilize crop residues more efficiently. This becomes a practical
option since these natural feed resources will continue to be the most readily available and cheapest
sources of feeds for ruminants even in the distant future.
The Philippine animal industry is characterized by well-developed poultry and swine industries
and a less developed ruminant (cattle, carabao, goat) industry. However, ruminant production is far
more susceptible than those of poultry and swine because it is not import-dependent on its inputs,
particularly feeds. To accelerate the development of ruminant industry, it is imperative to produce good
quality pasture and forage crops and utilize crop residues more efficiently.
Recommended Forage and Pasture Crop Species
The recommended forage and pasture crop species (grasses and legumes) are selected based
on ease of propagation, wide adaptability, and their suitability for different uses in existing livestock
production systems.
1. Select forages that fit the production system or use.
Each forage species has its own peculiar characteristics, eg., erect and tall, creeping,
twining and hairy. If forages, for instance, are intended for cut-and-carry or zero grazing production
system, then choose a species that is erect and tall for ease in cutting (eg,, Napier), has fast regrowth
ability, and has the ability to withstand regular cutting. Forages intended for grazing should ideally be
low growing and have a stoloniferous growth habit (e.g., Humidicola). There are also dual purpose
species, i.e., can be used for both grazing and cut-and-carry (e.g., Centro), particularly when grown with
tall grasses such as Napier.
For livestock production system based on fibrous crop residues like rice straw, legumes are the
best options. Legumes enhance ruminal digestion and some are good sources of by-pass proteins
necessary for increased animal performance. Species such as Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala),
Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium), Stylo (Stylosanthes guianenses), Desmanthus (Desmanthus virgatus),
Rensonii (Desmodium rensonii now D. cinerea) and Sesbania (Sesbania sesban) can easily be planted in
the farmers backyard or along farm boundaries and serve as fodder milk bank.
Certain forage species will grow as well in lightly to moderately shaded areas, e.g., under
coconut trees, as they do in open areas. Humidicola (Brachiara humidicola), Brizantha (B. brizantha),
Signal grass(B. decumbens), Paspalum (Paspalum atratum), Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), Setaria
(Sateria sphacelata), Arachis (Arachis pintoi), Centro (Centrosema pubescens), Cinerea (Desmodium
cinerea), and Macrocarpum (C. marcrocarpum) are some of these species.
Some forage are multipurpose. It is important for farmers to select species which can be used in
different ways in the farm. Leucaena or Ipil-Ipil is the best example of this. It is not only a protein-rich
feed that can be used for both ruminants and non-ruminants (as leaf meal), but has other significant
uses in the farm such as green manure, fuel wood, live posts, shade, and wind break. Gliciridia or
kakawate is the second most important multipurpose tree legume after the versatile Ipil-ipil. It is used
for animal fodder, living fences, fuel wood, green manure, soil stabilization, and as shade for plantation
crops (cacao and coffee) and trellis for black pepper.

2. Choose forages that are adapted to the local condition.

Soils and climate in a particular location should be considered in choosing which forage species
to use. The length of dry season, temperature, soil fertility, soil pH, and drainage are the most important
climatic and soil factors that affect forage adaptation. Forages can survive everywhere, but may not
always grow well. Some grasses, e.g, Andropogon and Signal, and most legumes, Leucaena,
Desmanthus, Stylo, and others are able to maintain green leaf and remain productive throughout a long
dry season. Legume species, in particular, have deep-root systems that enable them to reach moisture
deep in the soil. Among the Brachiaria species, it is only B. mutica (Paragrass) that can thrive well in
waterlogged areas. Not all forage species can survive and persist on infertile, acid soils. Leucaena
cannot tolerate acid soil, but Stylo, Flemingia, and Humidicola show good performance in acid, infertile
soil.
3. Choose forages that are suitable feeds to the animals being raised.
Not all forages species are suitable feeds to all livestock species. Brachiaria brizantha, B.
decumbens , B. humidicola, and B. ruziziensis if fed alone or in large amounts to sheep, goats, and young
cattle can cause photosensitization, which often results in death.
Leucaena (Ipil-Ipil) can be fed in large amounts to ruminants such as cattle, goats, and carabaos,
but may be toxic to monograstic animals, since it contains the chemical compound mimosine.
Ruminants are able to breakdown mimosine in the rumen because of the presence of rumen bug.

Management of Native Pastures

A native pastures is a portion of grasslands, that is suitable for ruminant production because of
its topography and dominant vegetation. The topography is from undulating to hilly (18- 50% slope) and
the ground cover is mostly composed of grasses with few scattered shrubs and trees. Accessible and
continuous water supply is also one of the important resources of a grazing area. Managing such area
refers to adoption of practices primarily aimed to improve its productivity in a sustainable way.
Area
There are approximately 5-10 M ha of grasslands in the country. Around 1.5 M ha are classified
as native pastures. These areas are, by and large, part of the public domain under the administration of
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). As of CY 1994, a total of 252,000 ha of
native pastures are under lease agreements issued by the DENR to 715 private individuals and
corporations (Malvas, 1996). There are laso grazing areas which are privately owned.
Soil and Vegetation
Strongly acid soils (Ultisols and Oxisols) predominate in native pasture, with about 66% having
pH values below 5.0. The thin top soils of about 10-15 cm are often deficient in nitrogen and
phosphorus. Other elements found lacking in varying degrees include sulfur, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, molybdenum, etc.
Cogon (Imperata cylindrical) and bagokbok (Themeda triandra) are the two most dominant
vegetation communities. Imperata pasture higher species diversity than Themeda as reflected in the
greater number of species associated with the former. Other less extensive vegetation community types
present in native pastures are the Misamis grass (Capillipedium parviflorum), amorseco (Chrysopogon
aciculatus), talahib (Saccharum spontaneum), and malatanglad (Themeda arundinancea). The
dominance of a particular plant community over the other is dictated by site conditions and grazing
intensity. Overgrazed and infertile areas are often dominated by amorseco; the more productive areas

by talahib. In general, there is an increasing amount in soil nitrogen, phosphorus, and magnesium in
sites dominated by (in this order) amorseco, cogon, and talahib.
Potential and Limitation
Native pasture is an important feed resource that has to be tapped to the fullest to improve the
livestock industry. The characteristics of its soils may not be good enough, but cogon and bagokbok
could tolerate such conditions to produce reasonable amount of herbage. In fact, cogon is the feed base
of commercial cattle production. Moreover, native pasture soil conditions being acidic are mere
generalization. This could also hold true regarding steepness of slope and poor phosphorus content.
Recent soil and vegetation studies in native pastures of northern Luzon revealed wide variation in soil
pH ranging from 3.80 to 6.80 ( Castillo and Siapano, 1996). A soil pH of 6.0 is very ideal for cropping
purposes. In the same study, phosphorus content ranged from very low (0.23-3.88 mg/kg) to very high
(31.0-85.0 mg/kg), meaning there were portions of native pastures that could be developed even for
sown grass species. It is possible to raise the stocking rate in native pastures from 0.5 to 1.0 a.u/ha and
the average daily gain (ADG) from 100 to 300 g/day by using simple management tools and appropriate
technologies. Wherever it is economically possible, selected portions of grazing properties should be
replaced with sown pasture species, or should have additional species grown with these. This is being
practiced by some progressive ranchers in Bukidnon and Davao provinces. It is also recognized that a
large portion is best retained as it is ,i.e., cogonal. Some sites are too steep, soil is too poor or unsuited
in other ways for cultivation, and intensive grasslands improvement is not worthwhile. However, when
pastures are dominated by noxious shrubs such as hagonoy (Chromolaena odorata) or lantana (lantana
camara), replacing these with more edible and nutritious plants become more advantageous.
Native grasses have a shorter growing season than that of improved species grown the same
area. The main bulk of feed on native pasture is produced in the first 2 months of the wet season. The
nutritive value of native pastures is generally low. This is especially true in the high rainfall areas of the
country where rates of growth and of lignification are high. In Bohol province for example, 45-day old
regrowth of native (cogonal) pasture was found to contain only 4% crude protein (CP). On the other
hand, when the same pasture type was combined with adaptive legumes such as Centro or Stylo, CP
content went up to 8%. How then the native pastures for livestock production should be managed?

Stocking Control
Native pastures are either overgrazed or under grazed. Both ways result in significant loss of
available feed resources. Overgrazing leads to weediness and to some extent, soil degradation. On the
other hand, underutilized pastures lead to accumulation of fuel load and are, therefore, fire hazards.
Controlling or regulating the number of stocks is a tool that can be used to economically and effectively
manage native pastures. Variables that a farm manager can effectively employ as a part of controlling
stocks include use of appropriate stocking rate and animal distribution.
Stocking Rate
Stocking rate (SR) is the major factor that influences the productivity of grazing lands. It is
defined as the number of animal grazing a unit area of a particular property. It is commonly expressed in
animals unit (a.u.) per hectare. In the humid tropics, 1.0 a.u. is more or less equivalent to 300 kg
liveweigth.
The recommended SR for native pastures is 0.5 a.u./ha. This means that one would need 2.0 ha
grazing area to meet the year-round feed requirement of 1.0 head of cattle weighing approximately
300kg. This recommendation is based on the pioneering works of Magadan (1974) and Siota et al.
(1977). This coincides with the fact that grasslands areas in the Philippines are generally on undulating

to steep slopes and are characterized by rainfall patterns of 3-6 months. Moreover, in these areas,
seasonal fluctuation in pasture yield and quality is high and a further increase of SR, say to a level of 1.0
a.u./ha, would lead to pasture deterioration with a subsequent negative effect on animal performance.
There are, however, isolated cases wherein native pasture could be stock at 1.0 a.u./ha with no
significant detrimental effects on botanical composition and animal production. In the cogonal areas of
Bohol Province for example, caraheifers with an average initial weight of 295 kg produced 0.22 kg ADG
within the 12-month measurement period (Castillo et al., 1988). The same study reported that the SR of
1.0 a.u/ha favors the increase in the population of the other economical species, e.g., Sorghum nitidum
and Ophiurus exaltatus, which are more palatable and nutritious as compared with cogon. The results,
however, should be viewed with caution because of relatively short observation period.
Animal Distribution
It is common knowledge that overgrazing occurs in areas near watering points, shades, and
fence lines. Therefore, in establishing a paddock, consider the location of these favored spots to
overcome this problem. Locate strategically the watering point, salt licks, and feed supplement boxes,
and/or animal shed, preferably at the middle area of the paddock, to encourage animals to spread out
their grazing more evenly. Another practical way to relieve pressure on the favored spots is by herding
the animals to the less accessible areas to even out grazing.

Burning
The role of fire as a dominant ecological force that maintains the existence and dominance of
grasses in grazing areas is widely recognized. Cogon and bagokbok can tolerate annual burning. This is
attributed to their underground rhizomes and/ or resistant tillers that serve as effective regenerating
organs after being burned. Without the regular incidence of fire and mans intervention, natural
grasslands will be gradually reverted to their original state, that is, the forest.
Native pastures in the country are usually burned annually to encourage regrowth of desirable
grasses and, at the same time, to control pasture weeds and some cattle parasites such as ticks, and/or
for upland cropping purposes. Numerous studies, however, indicated the negative effects of
uncontrolled burning on the soils physical and chemical properties. Some of the bad effects are: (a)
increased surface runoff; (b) decreased soil porosity; and (c) decreased soil organic matter content.
Improper use fire on native pastures, therefore, contributes to soil degradation.
When done judiciously, prescribed burning is still the cheapest and the most practical method of
clearing the area of matured and or/ unwanted vegetation. It encourages regrowth of more succulent
and palatable grasses for grazing animals. The formation of ashy seedbed after burning can also provide
a suitable environment for the rapid establishment of the introduced pasture legumes as proven in
Masbate (Castillo et al., 1997b).
To realize the advantages of burning, the following points have to be observed:

Practice with caution and well- trained people;

Use only with clear objectives in mind;
Establish adequate control measures such as firebreaks prior to ignition to reduce rate of fire
spread;
Utilize roads, creeks, and other natural firebreaks to advantage;
Note wind direction; and observe proper timing. For example, fire ignited just before the onset
of the rainy season (Late April or early May) can be disastrous in the sense that by the time the
heavy rain comes, the ground will still be bare and highly prone to erosion. Burning should,

therefore, be done in the early dry season to have sufficient ground cover by the time the rainy
months begin.

Legume Overseeding on Native Pasture

Overseeding or oversowing, the concept of adding legumes to native pastures has the twin
objectives of providing feed with higher nutritive value to grazing animals and of increasing nitrogen
turnover in pasture systems chronically short of nitrogen. The concept founded on legumes being largely
not dependent on soil nitrogen by the virtue of legume-rhizobium symbiosis. Because of this biological
nitrogen fixation, the protein content of the legume is usually higher than that of the associated grasses
at similar ages or growth stages. This is important in native pasture where the protein content of the
dominant grasses declines more rapidly with increasing maturity.
Deficiencies of dietary protein depress intake of dry matter. Thus, the legume in the pasture
makes an important contribution in maintaining adequate protein levels in the feed on offer and allows
increased intake of associated grasses. This explains the consistent higher performance of animals on
legume-seed cogonal pastures than those on pastures without legumes.
However, the successful introduction of legumes into native pastures usually requires certain
soil amendments such as the application of phosphorus fertilizer, liming, and inoculation with
appropriate bacteria. Moreover, the legumes will start from seed, while the native vegetation is already
established. Thus, steps must be taken to slow down the growth of native grass by various land
preparation and by grazing methods.
Adapted Legumes
Legumes have to be hardy to compete with the native vegetation. They have to be adapted to
acidic and infertile soils. Fortunately, there are a number of tropical legumes which can adapt
themselves to this kind of environment. Legumes such as Stylo, Centro, Sirato, and Greenleaf
desmodium could adapt in varying degrees to acidic, infertile soils. So far, the Stylos are the hardiest and
the best adapted among all legumes.
Establisment
The establishment phase is the most critical stage in introducing legumes into native pastures.
Some inherent characteristics of legume seeds, e.g., hard seededness, long dormancy period, and plant
competition often limit the success of their establishment.
To give the legume a headstart, scarify the seeds before sowing. It is also advisable to disturb
the native pasture by cultivation, overgrazing, burning, or any combination of these practices. In some
countries, herbicides are used.
Recent work (Castillo et al.,1997b) revealed that the effects of burning and/or cultivation on
seed germination, seedling growth, and survival also varied with legume species.
Light disking is the most effective method of establishing the legumes. Disking allows the seed
to come in contact with the soil, and at the same time, sets back the native vegetation.
Burning and hard grazing may be adapted. Due to the heavy competition by native grasses, the
legumes take longer time to get fully established. Heavier seeding rates are also necessary to attain the
same effects as cultivation.
During the wet season when the native vegetation will not burn, animal trampling will do the
job. Broadcast the seed by hand into the native pasture and then put a big herd on the pasture for a few
days. The herd will graze off the native grasses and their trampling will bury the seeds into the ground.

One traditional method used by some farmers to introduce legumes is by allowing the animals
to graze on a mature legumes stand, then allowing them to graze in the pasture area where legumes are
to be introduced.
Legume seeds are sown any time during the wet season. Normally, however, sowing is done at
the start of the rainy season, though it may also be done before the end of the rainy season. The growth
of the legume seedlings will always be much slower than that of native vegetation. After 2-3 months,
the native grasses will begin to shade out the legume seedlings.
Phosphorus Fertilization
Almost always, legumes establish quicker when fertilized with phosphorus. In many trials, the
Stylo gets established with or without phosphate, but its growth is more profuse with phosphate. Siratro
and Centro, on the other hand, usually respond better if phosphate is applied.
The usual phosphate fertilizer requirement is about 30-60 kg P2O5/ha per year. Since phosphate
is not easily lost like nitrogen and it builds up in the soil, a higher application rate during the first few
years is recommended.
Liming
For as long as the soil pH is over 5.0, liming is not absolutely necessary. One should distinguish
between the need to correct soil acidity and calcium deficiency. In case of calcium deficiency, lime is
applied in lesser amounts than if it is applied to raise the soil pH.
If and when possible, soil analysis should be the basis for lime and fertilizer application.
Grazing Management
Graze the newly sown pasture lightly (approximately 25 cm from the ground level) to check the
grass growth. Animals normally prefer the grasses and leave the legume seedlings undisturbed. Repeat
this as often as necessary to keep the grass under control.
If the seedbed is plowed or disked, competition from the native grasses is light. If the native
pasture is only burned or grazed hard, competition is heavy and controlled grazing is very critical.
After the legumes are established, these should be grazed lightly to encourage branching. During the
first year, the concern is to make sure that the legume will produce a good crop of flowers and pods.
Most legumes start flowering in December. Hence, between May and December, legumes must have
adequate vegetative growth for optimum seed production.
Pods usually mature from February to April. Seeds will drop to the ground and will constitute a
reservoir of seedlings for the succeeding years. The legume stand will thicken up as new seedlings get
established.
As soon as legumes are oversown into the native pasture, burning is no longer recommended
since fire will kill these legumes. Therefore, it is necessary for legumes to produce a good crop of seeds
during first year. If and when the pasture is accidentally burned during the succeeding years, seeds on
the ground will guarantee re-establishment when the rains come.
Even if a Stylo/Cogon pasture may look discouraging during the dry season, animals can obtain
very good feed from the dried materials on the ground. Animals will lick the hay off the ground and in
fact gain well in weight.

Grazing trials on semi-improved pastures conducted in several locations all over the country
show that 1.0 a.u. could easily be supported by a hectare of cogon overseeded with a legume, and make
an average liveweigth gain of at least 120 kg/year.

Establishing and Managing Sown Forages

Improved pastures are a major farm investment. To profit from the investment, pastures have
to be managed and utilized properly. The establishment cost is depreciated over the pastures
productive years. Thus, a pasture that lasts for only three years is three times as expensive as one that
remains productive for nine years.
Well- managed pastures can remain productive for many years. At ANSA farms in South
Cotabato, properly stocked and adequately fertilized Napier/Centro pastures remained in excellent
condition for more than 10 years. In coastal Queenslands, Australia, reports show that Guinea
grass/Centro pastures continued to be productive for 16 years. It is difficult to tell how long improved
pastures can really last, but if pastures can be made productive for at least eight years, these are doing
well.
Sown pastures may be grass alone, mixed grass and legume, or pure legume. In temperate
countries, pure legumes pastures are not recommended because animals grazing on high legume diets
tend to suffer from bloat. The bloat problem, however, is not usually encountered with high legume
pastures in the tropics. Unlike the legumes species used in temperate regions, the tropical legumes do
not usually induce bloat. A pure legume pasture is very rich in protein, calcium, phosphorus, and other
nutrients. However, the tonnage and, therefore, the energy yield of a pure legume pasture is usually less
than that of a grass legume mixture.
A pure grass pasture is usually preferred in situations where land is limited and/or very valuable,
as in dairy farms and feedlots near urban areas. Tremendous herbage yields are obtained from pure
grass pastures heavily fertilized with nitrogen, irrigated, and cut. In ranches, there are also pasture areas
which can be irrigated. These grass pastures become strategic sources of green feed during the dry
season.
Considering the scarcity and high cost of nitrogen fertilizers, mixed grass/ legume pastures are
more desirable. The legume plant in association with the right kind of nitrogen fixed from the air range
from 50 to 600 kg/ha per year. A good stand of Centro can easily fix 200-250 kg nitrogen/ha per year.
This is equivalent to 20-25 bags of ammonium sulfate based on 10 kg N/50 kg bag. Thus, an adapted
legume can easily provide the nitrogen requirements of the pasture.

Establishment, Seeding, Vegetative Propagation

Establishment is usually a crucial phase in forage crop development. If establishment is poor, the
pasture will take a longer time to be productive, while in extreme cases, it may be necessary to resow or
replant. The establishment period is the time when forage plants are most vulnerable to stresses.
Hence, every effort needs to be made to provide optimum condition for the newly planted seeds or
cuttings.
Land Preparation
Clear the land first of unwanted vegetation. In the presence of persistent weeds such as Cogon
(Imperata cylindrica), burning can be resorted to 1-2 weeks before the rainy season so that the ash
mulch can be incorporated prior to pasture seed planting. After clearing, plow the area to break and

loosen the soil. One to two weeks after plowing, harrow the soil to further destroy emerging weeds and
provide a finer seedbed. On sloping land, furrows should be made across the slope to lessen soil erosion.
However, any form of soil disturbance will help improve contact between the planted seed and the soil.
Planting
If necessary, incorporate lime into the soil 1 month before planting time, and phosphorus, at
planting time. The normal planting time is at the start of the rainy season. When vegetative materials
are used, it is safer to wait until the rains come regularly. If irrigation is available, planting, may be done
any time of the year.
Vegetative Propagation
Many tropical grasses are commercially propagated by stem cutting, rootstocks, rhizomes, or
stolons. This is primarily because of poor seed production or viability. Moreover, earlier establishment is
attained when tropical grasses are grown from vegetative parts. Methods of planting perennial grasses
vary with the type of planting material used.
Canes or stem cuttings. Canes or stem cuttings such as those of Napier may be planted by
sticking them into the ground as in planting sugarcane. Planting along furrows will facilitate post
emergence cultivation to control weeds. Space furrows about 75 cm apart. Plant canes with 2 or 3
nodes, 40-50 cm apart within the row. Where planting material is not a problem, lay whole stems along
the furrows and lightly cover with soil.
Tufts or rootstocks. Dig out clumps and separate into tufts of 3-4 tillers, and plant them by hand
40-50 cm apart. Bunchy or stool forming species which possess short rhizomes should be propagated in
this manner.
Rhizome or stolons. Most tropical grasses possess short rhizomes or underground stems and
are better established from rootstocks. On the other hand, many tropical grass species such as the
Brachiarias have stolons or creeping above ground stems. Distribute rhizomes or stolons along furrows
and cover them with soil. Rhizomes and stolons can also be planted conveniently by broadcasting them
over the area and then disking them under. This provides proper contact between the planting material
and the soil.
Seeding Legumes and Grasses
Tropical legumes, unlike many tropical grasses, are easily established from seeds. Many are
prolific seeders. There are grass species, however, which can be established from seed besides
propagating these vegetative. Many legume seed need pre sowing treatment to ensure germination.
Seed Treatment. Many legume seeds have tough seed coats and are not able to germinate even
when these are provided with sufficient moisture (dormant).Their seed coats have to be broken
(scarified) by mechanical, chemical, or other means of seed treatment. The appropriate seed treatment
differs among species. With Ipil-ipil , immersion of seed in boiling water for 3 seconds is enough to break
dormancy. However, for maximum germination, it is recommended that time intervals of immersion in
boiling water need to be calibrated for each individual seedlot within a variety. For most species, it is
necessary to fabricate a mechanical scarifier. This is a rotating drum lined with sandpaper or emery
cloth. The drum is fitted with a stirrer inside that rubs the seeds against the abrasive. Such a mechanical
scarifier is preferred because it keeps the seeds dry.
For legumes, inoculating the seeds with the right kind of bacteria is desirable to ensure proper
nodulation. This is especially necessary for legumes with specific bacterial requirements and for areas
where these legumes have not been planted previously.

Seeding Rate. Seeding or sowing rate depends upon seed quality and size and seeding methods
used. In sowing seeds, pure live seeds (PLS) are essential. Most small seeded species of grasses and
legumes are sown at 3-5 kg PLS/ha; large seeded grasses are sown at 6-10 kg PLS/ha.
Seeding depth. Seeding depth is determined by seed size, texture, and soil moisture conditions.
Bigger seeds are sown deeper than small seeds. Sandy or dry soils require greater seeding depth. Most
grasses and small seeded legumes are sown 0.6 cm deep. Others are sown 1.2-2.5 cm deep.
Seeding method. Seeding method is one of the limiting factors to a good stand. Seeds may be
drilled along furrows and covered with a thin layer of soil. They are broadcast by hand on loose seedbed.
For large areas, seeding is done more efficiently with machine drawn implements.

Broadcasting Seeds are broadcast by hand or by using a fertilizer spreader. Depth control is
zero, and so some seeds are buried too deeply, while some remain on the surface. Firming of
the soil is not assured.
Seed drilling Seeds are distributed by band. The seed drill has a disc opener with a depth
band, followed by a press wheel which assures firming of the soil.

Seeding time . If the area is irrigated, a good stand is attained during the dry season. However,
under irrigated conditions, seeding is better done at the onset of the rainy season. Proper drainage and
a thoroughly prepared seedbed are necessary.

Establishing a Grass-Legume Mixture

There are different ways of establishing mixed grass legume pastures. If both are planted from
seeds:

Broadcast these together in the area

Seed these in separate rows; or
Seed these in alternate rows

If the grass component is propagated vegetative and the legume by seed, one can:

Seed the legume in the same row with the grass

Seed the legume in between rows of the grass species.

Normally, both the grass and the legume are established at the same. To encourage early
establishment of the legume, apply phosphorus fertilizer at planting.

Pasture Fertilization
In the establishment of improved pastures, apply fertilizer to increase yield. To be able to
fertilize the pasture successfully, one should know:
1. What the soil can supply
2. What the crops remove; and
3. The difference so as to apply the proper amount of fertilizer.
Specific answers for individual farms can be obtained by:
1. Soil testing (soil analysis)
2. Conducting a field trial with forage species in question
3. Doing plant analysis.

Nutrient Requirements
The nutrient requirements of pasture crops are not different from those of grain crops. The only
different is that withdrawal rate of these nutrients by pasture crops is heavier if forage is cut and carried
away from the pasture. A hectare of Para grass with a dry matter yield of 27 t/ha per year will withdraw
from the soil 344 kg nitrogen (N), 48 kg phosphorus (P), 429 kg potassium (K), 129 kg calcium (Ca), and
888 kg magnesium (Mg)/ha per year.
Using commercial fertilizers as examples of nutrient sources to be used to replace the annual
depleted nutrients in a 1 ha Napier grass production area, it would need 704 kg urea, 245 kg single
superphosphate , and 288 kg of muriate of potash to restore the nutrient depleted by the cut and carry
system. This replacement scheme is not viable for backyard livestock production. The only practical
alternative is to return the urine and manure back into the forage production area. This can be made
less laborious by planting the forages below the livestock pen where manure and urine can be swept
and shoveled back into the cut and carry area.
Requirements of intensive pastures for N-P-K are substantial and very few soils can sustain such
nutrient demands for long periods without fertilizer application. The manure and urine returned to the
pasture by the animals reduce the chemical fertilizer requirement.
The need for nitrogen and phosphorus is universal in tropical pastures. Whether the pastures is
provided with nitrogen by applying chemical fertilizer or by overseeding with legumes is a matter of
farm decision. Phosphorus, however, has to be supplied through chemical fertilizer. Response of
pastures to potassium is minimal in our soils.
Fertilizer Kinds and Rates
The kinds of fertilizer and the rates at which they are applied depend on the pasture species,
manner of utilization, and nutrient-supplying capacity of the soil. Grazed pastures require less fertilizer
than those which are chopped or cut. Pure grass pastures require high levels of nitrogen fertilizer to
attain high yields. Usually, nitrogen need not be applied on well-established and balanced grass/ legume
pastures. Phosphorus is usually needed to encourage growth of legumes.
The actual fertilizer recommendations for any particular pasture are determined with
appropriate soil test and practical experience as bases. However, the following tips will be useful:

With the amount of rainfall in the Philippines, tropical grasses respond well to nitrogen
up to about 400 kg N/ha per year, beyond which the increase in herbage yield per unit
of additional nitrogen starts to decline.
Phosphorus is usually needed in degraded soils to encourage legume growth. Phosphate
application rates are in the order of 30-60 kg P2O5/ha per year.

Fertilization Timing
In areas where there are distinct dry and wet seasons, apply one half of the annual nitrogen
fertilizer requirement after the early rainy season on flush of growth and the other half at the end of the
rainy season. In areas characterized by even rainfall distribution throughout the year, apply nitrogen
fertilizer in three or more split applications in a year. Apply phosphorus fertilizer at the onset of the
rainy season.

Fertilizer Placement
For newly planted pastures, apply fertilizers in bands along the furrows if row planting is
employed. This promotes better fertilizer utilization by plants. For established pastures, broadcast or
top-dress fertilizer over the area.
Fertilizer Materials
Ammonium sulfate and urea are the common nitrogen fertilizers. Phosphorus is supplied as
ordinary superphosphate, triple superphosphate, ammonium phosphate, or rock phosphate. If rock
phosphate is used, the rate is 2-3 times the rate of ordinary superphosphate.
If the pH of the soil is below 5.0 apply lime to raise the pH to at least 5.3. Do this first before
attempting to apply phosphorus fertilizer unavailable for plant use. Apply 2-4 of lime/ha to raise the soil
pH from 5.0 to 5.5.
Lime can be conveniently applied as ground limestone with the use of a fertilizer spreader.
Fertilizing a Grass- Legume Mixture
When grasses and legumes are grown together, higher levels of phosphorus and lower levels of
nitrogen are necessary so that the grasses will not outgrow the legumes. Nitrogen is usually applied only
during early pasture establishment. Once the mixture is established, apply phosphorus alone. As a rule,
fertilizer according to the legume requirement and the grass will take care of itself. If high rates of
nitrogen are applied regularly to a grass/ legume mixture, the legume will disappear.

Grazing/Cutting Management
The amount of the harvestable forage any pasture will produce is related, to a large extent, to
the manner it is utilized. There are three general grazing/cutting principles which influence productivity:

An extensive root system must be maintained for good top growth. Removing the top growth
depresses root growth. A depression in the extensiveness of the root system will ultimately
reduce forage production. The production of top root growth is nearly proportional to root
growth.
Plants must maintain sufficient food reserves for rapid recovery after grazing and for stand
maintenance.
Adequate leaf area must be maintained if plants are to grow well. For a plant to grow and
produce harvestable forages, more plant food must be manufactured than what the plant uses
for maintenance. Since plants manufacture food primarily in their leaves, the amount of the leaf
area determines how much plant food can be produced for maintenance, storage, and
regrowth.
On the other hand, if leaves are not removed and too much top growth or leaf area is
maintained, plants lose efficiency because of shading of the lower leaves. The lower do not
receive enough sunlight. So instead of contributing to growth, the lower leaves become
parasites. As a result, plants become less efficient in producing utilizable forage.
In harvesting forage (by grazing or cutting), consider quantity of herbage, as well as,
longevity of the stand. A higher herbage production is attained if the forage is harvested at near
or full maturity, but protein and digestible dry matter will be low. On the other hand, forage can
attain a higher nutritive value if it is harvested at a younger stage, but this will result in lower dry
matter production.

A long grazing interval causes the plant to become stemmy and therefore, percentage
utilization is less. Animals normally choose only the succulent tops and the subsequent
regrowths from the upper nodes. In stoloniferous species such as Para, the pasture can be
renovated by disking. In stool forming tall grass species like Napier, clipping close to the ground
or at the 15 cm level will restore the plants to more productive state.
While pasture should not be allowed to grow to the point of decreased efficiency and
over maturity, neither should these be overtulized or be left with insufficient leaf area and food
reserves. In both cases, animal performance is impaired because of reduced forage
consumption. When overutilization is practiced, the quantity of forage available limits animals
performance. When the pasture is left ungrazed to over mature, forage palatability and quality
are reduced which result in lower animal gains.
Pasture Utilization Systems
In the Philippines, there are at least three common types of pasture utilization:

Continuous stocks remain in the pasture area for a prolonged period;

Rotational grazing area is divided into a number of paddocks and the animals are
moved systemically from one to another in rotation;
Soiling herbage is cut carried to the animals.

Continuous grazing is usually employed on native or range pasture, where stocking rate is low
and fencing is often economically impractical. Based on the principles described previously, it is virtually
impossible to get a good forage yield without controlling the grazing animal. Continuous grazing does
not provide this control.
Rotational grazing is practiced on improved pastures. Stocking rate of each paddock is high in a
rotation grazing system. Thus, the pasture is more uniformly utilized. Animals are allowed to graze
heavily for 3-7 days in each paddock. Then the pasture is spelled or rested for 20-60 days, depending
upon the species and prevailing growing conditions.
Soiling can support more animals per hectare. More herbage is available since there is no loss
from fouling and trampling. However, this method requires machinery and the utilization of more labor.
It is good for supplementary pastures.
The following grazing/cutting management practices are observed:

Heavy quick grazing followed by sufficient rest periods will keep the pastures in good
vigor. Maintain an interval of 20-60 days depending on the pasture species and the
prevailing growing conditions.
Allow pastures to maintain sufficient leaf area to keep the plants productive. Livestock
should be rotated to the next pasture when approximately 50-65% of the herbage has
been grazed. For most pasture species, leave stubble of 20-25 cm.
In harvesting forage by cutting or chopping, allow sufficient intervals between cutting or
chopping. Also, leave adequate leaf area to facilitate recovery. The cutting interval
should also range from 20 to 45 days depending on season and plant growth.
Pasture Renovation

Excessive stocking, grazing of the pasture when the plants are most susceptible to damage and
decline in soil fertility will weaken the desirable sown species and make them less competitive.
Unwanted plants (weeds) come in and replace the sown species. Since most of these weeds are not
eaten by the stock and may even be poisonous, the amount of feed available is considerably reduced.

Reduced availability of feed results in overstocking of the remaining pastures and encourages further
weeds invasion. This is a vicious cycle.
In time, pastures deteriorate in productivity and have to be renovated. The most common ways
of renovating run down pastures are:

Mowing or clipping. Mowing controls broad leafed weeds and promotes uniform
grazing. Mowing gets rid of old forage grown as a result of patchy grazing. Where plants
are allowed to become stemmy, mowing 5-10 cm close to the ground promotes growth
of vigorous tillers.
Disking or plowing. Disking controls weeds and facilitates formation of new tillers of
stoloniferous species. When species such as Para grass become stemmy because of
prolonged grazing intervals, productiveness is best restored by disking or plowing.
Chemical weed control. This is done where broad leafed weeds are the common
invaders and when these are so dense. Spot spraying of herbicides and then resting the
pasture for some time will restore its productivity.
Fertilization and liming. After mowing/ disking or controlling weeds, apply fertilizer to
encourage growth of originally planted species. Sufficient nitrogen fertilizer should be
applied on grasses; phosphorus on legumes or grass/legume mixture. Liming is
necessary if the soil has become acidic.
Weeds and their Control

Weeds control is essential for successful crop production. Forage crops, like all other crops,
must compete with weeds. Moreover, some weeds are even toxic to animals, while others are
unpalatable or injurious to grazing livestock because of thorns, spines, or certain distasteful chemical
constituents.
The first step in avoiding the growth of weeds is not to plant them. Weed seeds are sometimes
mixed with forage seeds. For, example there has been reports that giant Mimosa appeared in pastures
after Centro seeds from Davao were sown. The pasture seeds bought must be free from noxious weeds.
Some noxious weeds in tropical pastures are: Chromolaena odorata (hagonoy); Lantana camara
(lantana); Mimosa invisa (giant mimosa); Solanum ferox (wild eggplant); and Pteridum aquilinum
(bracken fern).
Weed Control Methods
The basic principle of weed control in the pasture is competition. Allow the forage to grow
vigorously and form dense stands so that weeds will not have a chance to establish themselves.
Furthermore, maintain cutting or grazing schedules that permit eradication or weed control. Weeds are
easier to control when these are still young and immature. Do not allow weeds to establish and produce
seeds.
There are four ways of controlling weed growth.
Cultivation. Most annual weeds are killed by shallow cultivation.
Mowing or cutting. Most broad leafed weeds are more readily controlled by mowing than
grasses..
Digging. Many anxious weeds such as Lantana and Chromolaena are very difficult to control by
mowing or cultivation once these are fully established in the pasture. The only effective means of
control is digging up and removing the whole plant.

Chemical use. This involves the use of appropriate herbicides to kill or inhibit weed growth.
Aside from the cost factor, herbicides have not been used as much on forage as on gain crop because:

The legumes in mixed grass legume pastures are usually susceptible to herbicide
damage;
Of residue problem; sprayed plants parts are directly consumed by animal;
Pasture crops when properly managed can compete with weeds

Some herbicides commonly used to control weeds in pasture are:

2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T these phenoxy compounds are effective in the control of broad
leafed weeds; 2,4,5-T is particularly effective against woody species.
Dicamba controls both broad leafed and grass weeds. It is especially effective against
woody plants when mixed with 2, 4-D.
Picloram effective in controlling woody species, and perennial broad leafed plants,
however, its residue stays long.
Trifluralin (treflan) used for preemergences control of annual grasses and some annual
broad leaves;legumes tolerate treflan.
Dalapon control grass weeds. Residue, however, stays up to 11 months.

Apply herbicides with care.

Some important points to consider in herbicide application are stated below:

Use the right kind of chemical

Put in exact amount of chemical and mix with sufficient water to ensue coverage.
Calibrate sprayer and apply evenly.
Apply herbicide at the right time
Follow the manufactures direction strictly.

Legume Inoculation
The nitrogen fertilizer requirement of grass/legume and pure legume pastures may be
substantially reduced by utilizing the nitrogen fixing ability of legumes. Legumes, in association with the
root nodule bacteria belonging to the genus Rhizobium, can fix atmospheric nitrogen. While these
bacteria are present in moist soils, these vary in effectiveness and competitiveness. Even if some are
active nitrogen fixers and others are poor fixers, still the nitrogen fixing efficiency of others falls
between these two extremes. Some rhizobia may cause nodulation in their host plant, but the symbiosis
does not result in nitrogen fixation. This type of association is referred to as ineffective. In soils where
effective strains of rhizobia are either absent or lacking, the introduction of a superior strain through
inoculation is necessary.
Rhizobium Needs of Pasture Legumes
Pasture legumes may be classified according to their ability to form effective association with
rhizobia. The first group consists of pasture legumes that nodulate effectively with a wide range of
strains of the cowpea-type rhizobia. This group includes Calopogonium, Crotolaria, Dolichos, Glycine,
Macroptilium, and some species of Styosanthes. The second group consists of legumes that nodulate
with a range of strain in this, but often ineffectively. Thus, inoculation is often unsuccessful because of
the inability of the inoculum strain to compete with the native rhizobia. In this group are, among others,
centrosema, (2 subgroups), desmodium (2 subgroups), Stylosanthes, and Sesbania.

The third group includes legume that nodulate effectively with specific strains only. Leucaena,
Lotononis, and certain species of Stylosanthes belong to this group. These legumes generally respond to
inoculation in areas where they have not been grown before.
In general, inoculation is needed under the following conditions:

In the absence of the specific legume or related host plant in the area.
When nodulation by the host plant is poor.
When the legume is planted after a non-legume or when the legume is being introduced
into a new areas
When legumes are planted in reclaimed areas.

Inoculant Application
Seed inoculation. Seed inoculation involves coating the seeds with a sufficient amount of
inoculant. Add water to the inoculant to form slurry that is mixed thoroughly with the seeds. To increase
the amount of inoculant adhering to the seed, use adhesive-like gum Arabic or methy ethyl cellulose in
place of water. Seeds may also be inoculated by mixing the inoculant with moistened seeds.
Seed pelleting. Seed pelleting was developed in Australia to overcome problems in establishing
subterranean clover in marginal, acid low calcium soils because of nodulation failure. Pelleting involves
coating the seeds with a solid based inoculant containing an adhesive, and then coating the moist
inoculated seeds with finely ground CaCO3 or a special grade of rock phosphate or dolomite. At the
University of the Philippines Los Banos (UPLB), pelleting with phosphate and lime is done following the
steps enumerated below:,
1. Place seeds in a container or plastic bag. (For large quantities a clean cement mixer or
any similar device may be used).
2. Prepare an inoculum slurry using 40-45% aqueous solution of gum Arabic or 5% of
methyl ethyl cellulose.
3. Mix slurry with the seeds thoroughly. While seeds are still moist, add all at once the
pelleting material (a 1:1 mixture by weight of superphosphate and lime) and mix rapidly
by swirling until the seeds are evenly coated and separated. Well pelleted seeds should
have no seed surface exposed. With Ipil-ipil and Centro seeds, a 1:1 ratio by weight of
seed to pelleting material is sufficient.
Soil Inoculation. When seeds are treated with pesticides toxic to rhizobia, the inoculants may be
applied to the soil directly as a water suspension. To derive maximum benefits from inoculation, the
following should be considered:

Use inoculants properly and for specific legumes only

Do not expose inoculant and inoculated seeds to high temperature or direct sunlight
Sow inoculated seeds immediately after inoculation
Avoid direct contact of inoculated seeds with fertilizer or pesticide
Use inoculant before the expiration date indicated in the packet.

Legume Response to Inoculation

Experiments show that the of yield of Ipil-ipil, Centro, Siratro, and Desmodium grown in acidic,
phosphorus deficient grasslands soils increased by inoculation.

Phosphate pelleting of inoculated Centro seeds increased the total dry matter yield, nodulation,
and amount of nitrogen fixed. Pelting and Centro with superphosphate plus lime produced results
similar to soil application of the fertilizer. Seed inoculation without the addition of phosphorus and lime
did not improve yield.

Pastures under Coconuts

Coconut (cocos nucifera) is the principal plantation crop in the Philippines occupying about 3 M
ha of land. A lot of native vegetation, e.g., Carabao grass grows between coconut trees. With its wide
spacing, peculiar morphological features and root system, and substantial amount of sunlight that
penetrates the ground, especially in the young (1-3 years) and old (over 40 years) plantations, coconut is
suited for integration with livestock production.
To enhance the benefits from coconut livestock integration, incorporate forage/pasture
production in the system. The practice offers several advantages such as:

Maintenance of productive plantations due to improvement in the soil condition

Maximum utilization of available farm resources such as the open space between
coconuts and family labor
Increase in the supply of meat, and milk/milk products
Increase in the income of the coconut framers due to increased coconut yield and
reduced weeding cost.

To fully attain the benefits of integration, it is important that the farmers have knowledge on
proper cattle, pasture, and coconut plantation management. Below are the important guides to
consider:
1. Choose suitable pasture/forage species
2. Use good quality animals
3. Manage livestock and crop properly
4. Maintain a low stocking rate to sustain the dominance of favorable species
The choice of suitable pasture species is critical in the integration as this requires some
investments in the establishment phase. Of the various species evaluated for grazing under 30 year old
coconuts, Brachiaria decumbens cv Basilik (Signal grass) had the highest dry matter (DM) yield (5.0 t/ha).
For cut and carry system, Napier consistently had high DM yield (11 t/ha), especially when fertilized.
Among the Napier cultivars, Capricorn was the most adapted to cut and carry system as compared with
the other cultivars tested such as King Grass and dwarf Napier. Moreover, the species vary in their
feeding value.
A study in Bicol showed varied performance of cattle grazing on different pastures under
coconut. Likewise, the return from cattle coconut production is dependent on the type of pasture used.

Silvipasture
Livestock grazing can be used as a silvicultural tool for tree plantation management by way of
controlling competing vegetation in between forest trees. Cattle may also be used to trample
undesirable vegetation before out planting of reforestation species. This will save the forest manager

considerable land preparation time and money during the forest establishment process. Other
advantage of integrating livestock production with forestry includes the following:

Adds value to the forest enterprise by converting available forage in between forest
trees and other vacant spaces in the plantation into red meat. Without livestock such
forage will only go to waste.
Transforms idle labor into productive time in the forest plantation. This is another value
added to the overall forest business. Once idle time is eliminated, peace and order in far
flung areas is promoted
Enhances livestock production and helps minimize, if not totally eliminates, protein
starvation in the countryside.

To be able to realize the full benefits of the practice, the following conditions should be
provided:

Stable supply of good quality fodder

Adequate clean drinking water for the animals
Secured area
Reliable and dependable market

Basic Consideration
There are no fixed rules in running a smallholder silvipasture business. However, in the
establishment phase, the following should be considered:

Secure quality stocks

Thin out forest stand by removing useless growth to allow desirable pasture in the
forest floor. Cut harvestable timber and consequently market these at this point.
Feed edible thinned out forest growth to the livestock.
Protect desirable tree from grazing animals
If necessary, cut and carry forage from nearby patchy pasture areas

Economic Potentials
The 1998 Philippine forestry statistics released by the DENR Forest Management Bureau shows
that as of 1998, there were 81 agroforestry farms in the country with a total area of 94,000 ha.
Assuming that 1.0 a.u. is tended in every 5 ha of these farms yearly, and then this translates to 11,880
a.u./year. Assuming further a daily liveweigth gain of 0.2 kg and P50 per kg liveweigth, then a gross
annual income of P6,580,000 is possible using silvipasture in these agroforestry farms. This is very
conservative estimate considering that a daily liveweight gain of 0.5 kg is possible in an agro forestry
environment because of cool weather and nutritious fodder under agroforestry. A gross annual income
of P16,450,000 is possible through silvipasture.
The economic potential of silvipasture can be projected in other way. Knowing that there are
approximately 20 M upland inhabitants and that the average family size is five, then this translates
approximately to 4 M families. If each of these families will raise 1.0 a.u the silvipasture way, then this
will in turn translate to 4 M a.u. this is approximately double the current cattle population increase will,
therefore, be enormous.

Crop Residues, Agro-Industrial By Products, Weeds, and Fodder Crops

This section is primarily intended to guide farmers who want to raise livestock in the backyard.
The forage available in small farms further increases the small hold farmers chances to expand their
livestock holdings. Available forage can easily support twice the present backyard livestock population.
It should be recognized that livestock is only a secondary source of income a small hold farmers
are primarily crop farmers. Livestock are raised mainly for farm tillage and transport although more and
more farmers are raising livestock for meat and milk. Therefore, livestock rising is viewed as
complementary to crop production.
Livestock raising efficiently converts digestible, but inedible and nonmarketable products in the
farm into valuable animal products. Added benefit is manure which can be dried and used as a fuel,
fertilizer, or component in the preparation of compost in the farm.
Care and feeding of livestock make full use of available surplus farm labor, which in many
instances has little opportunity for utilization.
In small farm, the common feed sources for ruminants are: (a) crop residues and by product; (b)
weeds; and (c) fodder crops.
Crop Residues and Agro- Industrial by Products
Crop residues are collective terms for straws, vines, stalks, peelings, stovers, cobs, pods,
undesirable fruits for consumption, and the like. The amount of residues varies with of the kind crop,
the harvesting and in some instances, processing methods employed, and post-harvest handling.
Large quantities of crop residues are available for livestock feeding. Rice straw and corn stovers
are abundant in small farms they have low feeding value, but are good roughages to maintain mature
animals during the lean months. Legume hay, empty pods, green corn, sweet potato vines, and cassava
leaves, which have better feeding values, are also available although in smaller quantities.
In some areas of Batangas where sugarcane is the principal crop, the majority of the small hold
farmers feed the animals with cane tops in fresh or dried form during the entire harvest season from
November to May. In Negros Occidental, it is customary to find commercial sugar plantations maintain
feedlot cattle by the hundreds or thousands, entirely fattened on cane top based ratios with urea
molasses and other concentrates. Furthermore, the digestibility of sugarcane tops can be highly
improved by making it into good quality silage.
In Laguna, Cavite, and the Bicol region, cattle and carabao are fed fresh pineapple leaves and
shoots after harvest. While in Bukidnon and South Cotabato, rejects, overripe, peelings, and pulps from
the cannery are fed to cattle and swine. Plantation operators, likewise, fattened thousands of beef cattle
with fresh or silage pineapple pulp plus concentrate. The ADG ranges from 1.0 to 1.5 kg. It takes 120-150
days to produce high quality beef.
Among small pineapple growers, pineapple leaves and shoots are a part of their strategic
feeding program for their feedlot fattening. During the rainy season, while the crops are growing,
grasses which are in abundance serves as the main feed. During the dry season when grasses are scarce,
pineapple fruits are harvested manually in time for their animals to have an ample feed supply.
In Panay Island, banana trunks are chopped and offered with inuyat toppings to cattle and
carabao during the dry season. Fresh banana trunks contain large amount of water, while inuyat
contains sugar to supply the needed energy by the animals. Among goat vendors in Metro Manila,
banana (saba) peelings from banana cue making serve as the main source of feeds for their goats.

Fodder Crops
Crop residues and weeds should be utilized whenever possible. However, planting fodder crops
is still necessary to complement the poorly digestible and low protein feed obtained from crop residues
and to maintain a stable source of feed, particularly during periods of scarcity.
High yielding grasses such as Napier, Guinea, and Andropogon can be planted in small
permanent plots as regular sources of fodder. These may be fertilized heavily with manure, irrigated,
and cut to obtain maximum yields of green fodder.
Perennial tree legumes such as Ipil ipil may be planted as hedges along fences or in small blocks
as sources of highly nutritious legume fodder and later as source of firewood. Research show that
maintaining Peruvian Ipil ipil as a hedge planted in rows 4 m apart and harvested every 12 weeks when
these were 1.5 m tall yielded 55 t fresh fodder/ha per year. The highest fodder yield of 62 t/ha per year
was from hedges 30 m tall. This yield is equivalent to 18.7 t DM, 3,730 kg protein, and 500 kg nitrogen
fixed from the air.
Feeding trials in Batangas show that 120 mature Ipil-ipil trees planted 1 m apart could easily
support mature cattle, and at 70% feed mixture, could result in 0.5-1.0 kg ADG depending upon the
animal blood composition. This same quantity of feed could easily support about 10 head of goats year
round.
Kakawate or madre de cacao (Gliricidria sepium) is another important fodder tree that can be
found in all regions of the country. In Davao, feeding of kakawate is a common practice, especially for
milking goats. As livestock feed, no known toxicity is reported. The recommended level ranges from 10
to 30 % of the diet on fresh basis and can be mixed with fresh grasses, crop residues, and other forages
to increase animal intake.
To accustom the animals to eat kakawate, sprinkle salt or dilute molasses on the leaves. In
Davao, leaves are wilted for a day before feeding goats. Other fast growing annual fodder legumes may
be planted between the first and second main crops or after the second main crop. Kadios (Cajanus
cajan) at a population of 500,000 plants/ha can produce 21 fresh fodder in 90 days and 10 t, 60 days
after sowing .
In Batangas, some farmers deliberately use high seeding rates in sowing their corn crops. As the
season progresses, farmers thin out the excess corn plants. Together with other weeds, these are fed to
livestock. An excess population of 60,000 plants/ha fertilized with 90kg N/ha, may give a fodder yield of
2.4 t DM/ha. Delayed thinning reduces corn yields.
The use of forage corn, either as soilage or as silage, in feedlot fattening is now being practiced
in Southern Mindanao. Feeding 60:40 chopped corn concentrate mixed feeds to feeder to stock results
in ADG of at least 1.0kg.
Weeds
Weeds abound in small farms. These are found growing with crops, under orchards and
plantation, on irrigation ditches, farm borders and fences, roadsides, and other areas that are not
utilized.
During the first 21 days after a rice crop is transplanted, 1 ha of rice area can yield as much as
0.4 t dry weeds.
Year Round Feeding System
After analyzing the details of each possible feed source, the task is to put together these
different options into an economic year round feeding system. The availability of the different sources

of feed should be programmed in such a way that feed is available throughout the year with minimum
of conservation. However, since feedstuffs come in cycles and animal requirements are more or less
constant, some forms of feed conservation are still necessary.
In addition, a program for year round feeding will depend on the dominant cropping pattern. A
whole set of practices will have to be worked out each for lowland rice, upland crops, coconut and
sugarcane dominated cropping system shows a cropping pattern and feed resources flow model in rain
fed lowland farms in Pangasinan.
Seed Production
Pasture development in the country depends upon the adequate supply of reliable seeds. It is
more convenient and cheaper to establish by seeds than by vegetative planting materials. However,
vegetative propagation is being practiced when there is no seed set or when production is low.
To date, much of the seeds utilized for pasture establishment are imported from Australia. This
can be attributed to the fact that nobody has invested on seed production of pasture grasses and
legumes in the country because of the following reasons: (a) Commercial seed production requires a
substantial amount of investment from crop establishment to seed processing. Seed volumes have to be
big enough to pay for the investments, specifically on equipment; and (b) The demand for pasture seed
is very unpredictable making the seed industry very risky. Only big farmers/ranches are willing to
invest on pasture improvement.
BAI has successfully produced seeds of grasses, as well as legumes in large quantities. However,
much of the seeds produced are distributed for free to the farmers for pasture development. Seed
production seeds from the pasture under local conditions. Table 15 shows the comparison of seed yield,
price, and return from corn and seven pasture seed crops. Data show that pasture seed crops are
comparable with or even better than the corn crop in terms of returns. However, unlike corn where the
demand is very predictable and there are organized seed growers, the demand for pasture seeds is
unpredictable and there is not even one private pasture legume seeds are collected from volunteers
along the roads, under coconuts, and other plantations crops. Thus, seeds quality is very low.
Land Preparation and Management
Areas for seeds production should be chosen carefully. These should be in climatic zones where
a pronounced dry season coincides with seeding ripening. Heavy rainfall and high humidity at harvesting
make production far more difficult. Area should have well drained soil of moderate fertility, since high
fertility soils often provide excessive weed problems, particularly with legumes.
Thorough seedbed preparation to kill existing vegetation is essential.
Sowing
Sow seeds in rows approximately 0.74-1.0 m apart, although broadcast sowing can be
successful. The sowing rate depends on the species seed size. Use pure live seeds (PLS). for small seeded
species of grasses and legumes, sow at 3-5 kg PLS/ha, while large seeded species at 6-10 kg PLS/ha.
Preemergence herbicidal sprays can provide a valuable aid to the establishment of seed crops.
Fertilizer Requirement
Fertilizer requirement of seed crops will depend upon the soils nutrient status.
For grasses, nitrogen (N) fertilizer is almost always necessary to obtain high seed yield. Apply n
at 50 kg/ha on each crop. At higher N rates, the grass becomes over vegetative and lodges, especially
during the rainy season. Do basal application of phosphorus as required. Newly, established grass plots

usually do not respond to potassium (K) fertilizer. However, additional K may be necessary for grass
plots which has been cut and carried for several years.
For legume seed crops, incorporate into the soil 30-60 kg P2O5/ha. If needed, incorporate lime
into the soil during land preparation.
Weed Control
After establishment of the seed crop, maintenance of a weed free condition will greatly
facilitate harvesting and subsequent seed cleaning. There is often little need for weed control after the
first season with adapted grass sown at close row spacing. One to two hand weeding are needed during
the first 60 days after sowing for legumes. Usually after 60 days, the legumes close in and weeds no
longer pose a problem. Only some spot weeding is necessary with preemergence herbicide.
Many legume seed crops have to be treated as annuals until efficient selective herbicides are
developed or else be grown for seed production for over two years at most. Grass seed crops can be
grown for several years; hence, selective herbicides can be used to control weeds.
Insect and Disease Control
Legumes are more prone to insect and disease problems than grasses. Insects attacking the
flowers and pods can completely destroyed legume seed crops. Control insects by the judicious use of
insecticide and by crop hygiene. Remove crop residues from seed production areas to maintain crop
hygiene and stimulate a more uniform growth of pasture for subsequent harvests.
Management of Seed Production Areas before Harvest
The objective in managing a seed production area for high harvestable seed yield is to
synchronize the development of a large number of seed heads and to ensure high quality seeds.
Stimulation of dense tillering by early mowing or grazing and judicious use of N fertilizer will reduce the
possibility of late development of reproductive shoots and will remove the early seed heads, thus,
reducing the period of peak flowering in grasses. Cutting back a month before the onset of flowering can
be done with Stylo to ensure that all the buds that will come out are reproductive. Sparse stands of both
legumes and grasses invariably result in a prolonged sequence of flowering.
Late grazing or mowing of seed production areas can, however, reduce seed yields of
subsequent crop. The severity of the effect depends upon the length of time between grazing and the
time peak seed head production, and the proximity of grazing to the end of the growing season.
Harvesting
Generally, all the species are harvested during the dry months when humidity and moisture are
relatively low. All seed crops are harvested manually; however, mechanical harvesting can also be done
depending on how much investment a seed grower is willing to put in. Threshing method will on the
species concern. In the case of Centro, Siratro, Leucaena, and Gliricidia, place pods in net bags and allow
drying under the sun. Then beat the bags to allow the bags to shatter and seeds to separate. On the
other hand, keep the cut materials of Stylo under the sun and allow the seeds or pods to fall. Beating
can be done to facilitate seed separation. With grasses, tie seed heads in sheaves. Then, stack with the
head ends of the sheaves turned inwards and cover with plastic for three days to allow seeds to
separate.
Cleaning is done by winnowing or by using wire mesh screen to separate seeds from debris.
Remove damaged seeds manually.
Drying of legume seeds is usually done under the sun. it will take at least 2-3 days to dry seeds.
With grasses, drying must be gradual under the shade to avoid death of the embryos.

Pack the seeds in air tight moisture proof containers. These could either be polyethylene bags or
jute sacks lined with plastic. Store the seeds in a cool dry place.
Seed Storage
The secrets to successful storage of seeds are low moisture and low temperature. Two very
useful rules of thumb regarding storage of most kinds of seeds are:

For each 1% reduction in moisture content, the storage life of the seed is doubled
For every 5 C lower storage temperature, storage life of the seed is doubled.

At the seed moisture content of above 18-20%, the seeds respire at a high rate, causing excessive
heating of the seeds. Moreover, many kinds of microorganisms multiply rapidly on the seeds. At 12-20%
moisture content, fungi and other microorganisms attack and injure the seeds. At moisture content
below 12%, little or no growth of microorganisms is possible on the seed.
At the seed moisture contents below 9%, seed storage insects cannot reproduce. Seeds at 6%
moisture can be stored even at warm temperature up to 30C for three or more years without
germination loss.
With pasture seeds, it is advisable to dry the seeds to at least 12% moisture content before
storage. During the dry season, when most pasture seed harvesting is done, these moisture contents
can be attained by drying the seed on a concrete floor under the sun for several days.