CONTENTS

COVER
PREFACE

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CONTENTS

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CHAPTER I

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A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Cement ...........................................................................................................
Chemical Composition of Cement...................................................................
The Cement Manufacturing Process................................................................
Types of Cements ...........................................................................................
The Physical Properties of Cement .................................................................

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4
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7
10

SOURCES ........................................................................................................................... 12

CHAPTER I
THEORY
A. Cement
A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens as the cement dries and also
reacts with carbon dioxide in the air dependently, and can bind other materials together.
The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term opus caementicium to
describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt
lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives that were added to the burnt
lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cment,
and cement.
Function of cement :

To bind the sand and coarse aggregate together

To fill voids in between sand and coarse aggregate particle
To form a compact mass

Types of cement normally used in building industry are as follows:

a) Hydraulic Cement
Hydraulic Cement sets and hardens by action of water. Such as Portland Cement. In
other words it means that hydraulic cement are any cements that turns into a solid
product in the presence of water (as well as air) resulting in a material that does not
disintegrate in water. Most common Hydraulic Cement is Portland Cement.
b) Nonhydraulic Cement
Nonhydraulic cement are any cements that does not require water to transform it
into a solid product. Two common Nonhydraulic Cement are :
a) Lime
- derived from limestone / chalk
b) Gypsum

B. Chemical Composition of Cement

Ingredient
Lime (CaO)
Sillica (SiO2)

%age
60-65
20-25

Alumina (Al2 O3)

4-8

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Effect
Controls strength and soundness
Gives strength, excess quantity causes slow
setting
Quick setting, excess lowers strength

Iron Oxide (Fe2 O3)

Magnesium Oxide
(MgO)
Na2 O
Sulphur Trioxide
(SO3)

2-4
1-3

Imparts color, helps in fusion of ingredients

Color and hardness, excess causes cracking

0.1-0.5
1-2

Controls residues, excess causes cracking

Makes cement sound

Raw materials for cement manufacture

The first step in the manufacture of portland cement is to combine a variety of raw
ingredients so that the resulting cement will have the desired chemical composition. These
ingredients are ground into small particles to make them more reactive, blended together,
and then the resulting raw mix is fed into a cement kiln which heats them to extremely high
temperatures.
Since the final composition and properties of portland cement are specified within rather
strict bounds, it might be supposed that the requirements for the raw mix would be similarly
strict. As it turns out, this is not the case. While it is important to have the correct
proportions of calcium, silicon, aluminum, and iron, the overall chemical composition and
structure of the individual raw ingredients can vary considerably. The reason for this is that
at the very high temperatures in the kiln, many chemical components in the raw ingredients
are burned off and replaced with oxygen from the air. Table 3.3 lists just some of the many
possible raw ingredients that can be used to provide each of the main cement elements.
Table 3.3: Examples of raw materials for portland cement manufacture (adapted from ref.,
Table 2.1).
Calcium
Limestone
Marl
Calcite
Aragonite

Silicon
Clay
Marl
Sand
Shale

Shale
Sea Shells
Cement kiln dust

Fly ash
Rice hull ash
Slag

Aluminum
Clay
Shale
Fly ash
Aluminum ore
refuse

Iron
Clay
Iron ore
Mill scale
Shale
Blast furnace dust

The ingredients listed above include both naturally occurring materials such as limestone
and clay, and industrial byproduct materials such as slag and fly ash. From Table 3.3 it may
seem as if just about any material that contains one of the main cement elements can be
tossed into the kiln, but this is not quite true. Materials that contain more than minor (or in
some cases trace) amounts of metallic elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium,
strontium, and various heavy metals cannot be used, as these will not burn off in the kiln
and will negatively affect the cement. Another consideration is the reactivity, which is a
function of both the chemical structure and the fineness. Clays are ideal because they are
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made of fine particles already and thus need little processing prior to use, and are the most
common source of silica and alumina. Calcium is most often obtained from quarried rock,
particularly limestone (calcium carbonate) which must be crushed and ground before
entering the kiln. The most readily abundant source of silica is quartz, but pure quartz is
very unreactive even at the maximum kiln temperature and cannot be used.
Grinding and blending prior to entering the kiln can be performed with the raw
ingredients in the form of a slurry (the wet process) or in dry form (the dry process). The
addition of water facilitates grinding. However, the water must then be removed by
evaporation as the first step in the burning process, which requires additional energy. The
wet process, which was once standard, has now been rendered obsolete by the
development of efficient dry grinding equipment, and all modern cement plants use the dry
process. When it is ready to enter the kiln, the dry raw mix has 85% of the particles less than
90 gm in size.

C. The Cement Manufacturing Process

Portland cement is the basic ingredient of concrete. Concrete is formed with
portland cement creates a paste with water that binds with sand and rock to harden. Cement
is manufactured through a closely controlled chemical combination of calcium, silicon,
aluminum, iron and other ingredients. Common materials used to manufacture cement
include limestone, shells, and chalk or marl combined with shale, clay, slate, blast furnace
slag, silica sand, and iron ore. These ingredients, when heated at high temperatures form a
rock-like substance that is ground into the fine powder that we commonly think of as cement.
Bricklayer Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England first made portland cement early in the
19th century by burning powdered limestone and clay in his kitchen stove. With this crude
method, he laid the foundation for an industry that annually processes literally mountains of
limestone, clay, cement rock, and other materials into a powder so fine it will pass through a
sieve capable of holding water.
Cement plant laboratories check each step in the manufacture of portland cement
by frequent chemical and physical tests. The labs also analyze and test the finished product to
ensure that it complies with all industry specifications.
The most common way to manufacture portland cement is through a dry method.
The first step is to quarry the principal raw materials, mainly limestone, clay, and other
materials. After quarrying the rock is crushed. This involves several stages. The first crushing
reduces the rock to a maximum size of about six inches. The rock then goes to secondary
crushers or hammer mills for reduction to about three inches or smaller.

The crushed rock is combined with other ingredients such as iron ore or fly
ash and ground, mixed, and fed to a cement kiln.
The cement kiln heats all the ingredients to about 2,700 degrees Fahrenheit
in huge cylindrical steel rotary kilns lined with special firebrick. Kilns are
frequently as much as 12 feet in diameterlarge enough to accommodate an
automobile and longer in many instances than the height of a 40-story
building. The large kilns are mounted with the axis inclined slightly from the
horizontal.

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The finely ground raw material or the slurry is fed into the higher end. At the
lower end is a roaring blast of flame, produced by precisely controlled
burning of powdered coal, oil, alternative fuels, or gas under forced draft.
As the material moves through the kiln, certain elements are driven off in the
form of gases. The remaining elements unite to form a new substance called
clinker. Clinker comes out of the kiln as grey balls, about the size of marbles.
Clinker is discharged red-hot from the lower end of the kiln and generally is
brought down to handling temperature in various types of coolers. The
heated air from the coolers is returned to the kilns, a process that saves fuel
and increases burning efficiency.
After the clinker is cooled, cement plants grind it and mix it with small
amounts of gypsum and limestone. Cement is so fine that one pound of
cement contains 150 billion grains. The cement is now ready for transport to
ready-mix concrete companies to be used in a variety of construction
projects.

Although the dry process is the most modern and popular way to manufacture
cement, some kilns in the United States use a wet process. The two processes are essentially
alike except in the wet process, the raw materials, are grounded with water before being
fed into the kiln.

D. Type of Cements
Type of cements divided into five kinds. There are portland cement, water proofed
cement, white cement, high alumina cement, and blended cement.
1.

Portland cement
The ASTM has designated five types of portland cement, designated Types I-V.
Physically and chemically, these cement types differ primarily in their content of C3A and in
their fineness. In terms of performance, they differ primarily in the rate of early hydration
and in their ability to resist sulfate attack. The general characteristics of these types are
listed in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7. General features of the main types of portland cement.

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Classification
Type I
(Ordinary Portland Cement)
Type II
(Moderate sulfate resistance)
Type III
( High early strength)
Type IV
( Low heat of hydration)
Type V
( High sulfate resistance)

Characteristic
Fairly high C3S content for good
early strength development.

Applications
General construction (most
buildings, bridges, pavements,
precast units, etc)

Low C3A content (<8%)

Structures exposed to soil or

water containing sulfate ions
Rapid construction, cold weather
concreting.
Massive structures such as dams

Ground more finely, may have

slightly more C3S.
Low content of C3S (<50%) and
C3A.
Very low C3A content (<5%)

Structures likely to be damaged by

severe alkaline conditions like
bridges, culverts, canal lining,
siphons, etc

Type One is suitable for most basic construction uses.

Type Two is best for structures built in hot environments, or in soil or water high in
sulfate. Percentage of tri-calcium Aluminate (C3A) is kept below 5% resulting in increase
in resisting power against sulphates. Heat developed is almost same as Low Heat
Cement. Theoretically ideal cement. Costly manufacturing because of stringent
composition requirements. Used for structures likely to be damaged by severe alkaline
conditions like bridges, culverts, canal lining, siphons, etc.
For projects requiring strength at an early stage, Type Three is ideal because it provides
more strength within one week than the other types. Gains strength faster than OPC. In
3 days develops 7 days strength of OPC with same water cement ratio.
After 24 hours not less than 160 kg/cm2
After 72 hours not less than 275 kg/cm2
Initial and final setting times are same as OPC. Contains more tri-calcium silicate (C3S)
and finely ground. Emits more heat during setting, therefore unsuitable for mass
concreting. Lighter and costlier than OPC. Short curing period makes it economical.
Used for structures where immediate loading is required e.g. repair works.

Type Four is useful in limiting heat caused by hydration and is therefore used in massive
concrete undertakings, such as dams. Low percentage (5%) of tri-calcium aluminates
(C3A) and silicate (C3S) and high (46%) of di-calcium silicate (C2S) to keep heat
generation low. It has low lime content and less compressive strength. Initial and final
setting times nearly same as OPC. Very slow rate of developing strength. Not suitable
for ordinary structures. Shuttering required for long duration so cost will increase.
Prolonged curing is required.
When soil or water is high in chemicals, Type Five should be used because it is
manufactured to resist chemical erosion. Percentage of tri-calcium Aluminate (C3A) is
kept below 5% resulting in increase in resisting power against sulphates. Heat
developed is almost same as Low Heat Cement. Theoretically ideal cement. Costly
manufacturing because of stringent composition requirements.Used for structures
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likely to be damaged by severe alkaline conditions like bridges, culverts, canal lining,
siphons, etc.
2.

Water proofed cement

It is prepared by mixing ordinary or rapid hardening cement and some percentage of
some metal stearate ( Ca, Al etc). It is resistant to water and oil penetration. It is also
resistant to acids, alkaline and salt discharged by industrial water. It is used for water
retaining structure like tanks, reservoir, retaining walls, pool, dam etc

3.

White cement
White portland cement is readily available throughout North America. It has
essentially the same properties as gray cement, except for color, which is a very
important quality control issue in the industry.The color of white cement depends on
raw materials and the manufacturing process. It is the metal oxides (primarily iron and
manganese) that influence the whiteness and undertone of the material. White cement
is manufactured to conform to ASTM C 150, Specification for Portland Cement.
Although Types I, II, III, and V white cements are produced, Types I and III are the most
common.White cements produce clean, bright colors, especially for light pastels. Many
different colors can be created by adding pigments to concrete made with white
portland cement. Two or more pigments can be combined to achieve a wide range of
colors. White cement (or a mixture of white and gray cement) can be specified to
provide a consistent color of choice. An even greater variety of decorative looks can be
achieved by using colored aggregates and varying the surface finish treatment or
texture.

4.

High alumina cement

Black chocolate color cement produced by fusing bauxite and limestone in correct
proportion, at high temperature. Resists attack of chemicals, Sulphates, seawater, frost
action and also fire. Useful in chemical plants and furnaces. Ultimate strength is much
higher than OPC. Initial setting time is 2 hours, followed soon by final setting. Most of
the heat is emitted in first 10 hrs. Good for freezing temperatures in cold regions (below
18C). Develops strength rapidly, useful during wartime emergency. Unsuitable for
mass concrete as it emits large heat on setting.

5.

Blended cement
Pozollan Portland Cement (PPC)
OPC clinker and Pozzolana (Calcined Clay, Surkhi and Fly ash) ground together.
Properties same as OPC. Produces less heat of hydration and offers great resistance
to attacks of Sulphates and acidic waters. Used in marine works and mass
concreting. Ultimate strength is more than OPC but setting timings are same as OPC.

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Portland Slug Cement

Produced by mixing Portland cement clinker, gypsum and granulated blast furnace
slag. Cheaper than OPC, blackish grey in color. Lesser heat of hydration. Initial setting
in 1 hr and final setting 10 hrs. Better resistance to soil agents, sulphates of alkali
metals, alumina, iron and acidic waters. Suitable for marine works, mass concreting.

Masonry Cement
Unlike ordinary cement, it is more plastic. Made by mixing hydrated lime, crushed
stone, granulated slag or highly colloidal clays are mixed with it. Addition of above
mentioned materials reduces the strength of cement.

E. The Physical Properties of Cement

Portland cements are commonly characterized by their physical properties for
quality control purposes. Their physical properties can be used to classify and compare
Portland cements. The challenge in physical property characterization is to develop physical
tests that can satisfactorily characterize key parameters.
The physical properties of cement are
Setting Time
Soundness
Fineness
Strength
a.

Setting Time
Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including: cement
fineness, water-cement ratio, chemical content (especially gypsum content)
and admixtures. Setting tests are used to characterize how a particular cement
paste sets. For construction purposes, the initial set must not be too soon and
the final set not be too late. Normally, two setting times are defined:
Initial set. Occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably.
Final set. Occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at
which it can sustain some load.
Setting is mainly caused by C A and C S and results in temperature rise in
the cement paste. False set :No heat is evolved in a false set and
the concrete can be re-mixed adding water.
Occures due to the conversion of unhydreous/semihydrous gypsum
to hydrous gypsum(CaSO .2H O)
Flash Set: is due to absence of Gypsum. Specifically used for under water
repair.

Setting Time Test

The setting time test is conducted by using the sameVicat apparatus, except that a
1mm diameter needle is used for penetration. The test is started about 15 minutes
after placing the cement paste (which has consistency) into the mold. Trials for
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penetration of the needle are made. The final setting time is defined as the length of time
between the penetration of the paste and the time when the needle(with annular ring) no
longer sinks visibly into the paste. The initial setting time is defined as the length of time
between the penetration of the paste and the time when the needle penetrates 25mm into
the cement paste.
b. Soundness
Soundness refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste to retain its volume after
setting without delayed expansion. This is caused by excessive amounts of free lime
(CaO) or magnesia (MgO). Most Portland cement specifications limit magnesia
content and expansion. The cement paste should not undergo large changes in
volume after it has set. However, when excessive amounts of free CaO or MgO are
present in the cement, these oxides can slowly hydrate and cause expansion of
the hardened cement paste. Soundness is defined as the volume stability of the cement
paste.
c. Fineness
Fineness, or particle size of Portland cement affects Hydration rate and thus the rate of
strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area-to-volume ratio,
and thus, the more area available for water-cement interaction per unit volume.
The effects of greater fineness on strength are generally seen during the first seven
days. When the cement particles are coarser, hydration starts on the surface of the. So the
coarser particles may not be completely hydrated.This causes low strength and low
durability. For a rapid development of strength a high fineness is necessary.
d. Strength
Cement paste strength is typically defined in three ways: compressive, tensile and These
strengths can be affected by a number of items including: water- cement ratio, cementfine aggregate ratio, type and grading of fine aggregate, curing conditions, size and
shape of specimen, loading conditions and age.
Duration of Testing
Typically, Durations of testing are:
1 day (for high early strength cement)
3 days, 7 days, 28 days and 90 days (for monitoring strength progress)
28 days strength is recognised as a basis for control in most codes.
When considering cement paste strength tests, there are two items to consider:
Cement mortar strength is not directly related to concrete strength. Strength tests
are done on cement mortars (cement + water + sand) and not on cement pastes.

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SOURCES
www.wikipedia.org/wiki/cement
http://cescientist.com/types-of-cement/
http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement/monograph/Monograph3_8.html
https://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070530094241AAuoIRw
elearning.vtu.ac.in/16/.../Unit1-L3-RVR.pdf
manufacturing_of_portland_cement.pdf
www.lafarge.com/09102004-cement-cement_manufacturing_process-uk

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