Objectives:

To determine the enthalpy of reaction

To understand endothermic and exothermic processes

To apply Hesss Law using experimental data and Internet data

Introduction:
Thermochemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the heat of reactions. In an
introductory chemistry course, thermochemistry will focus mainly on the heat evolved or absorbed
in chemical reactions. A student may be asked to calculate the amount of heat evolved when two
elements form a covalent bond. They may be asked to determine the specific heat capacity of a
metal using information from a calorimeter or they may be asked to use Hess Law to determine the
overall heat of a reaction. In order to learn these concepts, the student must have a basic
understanding of enthalpy, and that is where I would like to begin.
For the beginning chemist, the change in energy of a system can be approximated as the change in
enthalpy. The change in enthalpy can be measured as either the heat gained or heat lost in a
system. Enthalpy or (H) is measured in Calories or Joules. For most of my problems, we will be
using kJ (kiloJoules) or J (Joules).
During chemical reactions bonds are broken and/or made. When this occurs we can gain or lose
chemical potential energy. If we lose chemical potential energy then it must go somewhere because
energy is never created or destroyed, it just changes form. In the case of chemical potential energy
it transforms into heat energy. The chemical potential energy of a chemical can also be called
Enthalpy. The enthalpy of a chemical is measured in kilojoules per mole (kJmol-1).Atoms have the
highest enthalpy. When bonds form the atom loses enthalpy (chemical potential energy).
Heat capacity
(Usually denoted by a capital C, often with subscripts), or thermal capacity, is the measurable
physical quantity that characterizes the amount of heat required to change a substance's temperature
by a given amount. In the International System of Units (SI), heat capacity is expressed in units of
joules (J) per kelvin (K). An object's heat capacity is defined as the ratio of heat energy transferred
to an object to the resulting increase in temperature of the object. Heat capacity is an extensive
property, meaning it is a physical property that scales with the size of a physical system. A sample

containing twice the amount of substance as another sample requires the transfer of twice the
amount of heat (Q) to achieve the same change in temperature (T).

Specific heat capacity

Derived quantities that specify heat capacity as an intensive property (i.e., independent of the size
of a sample) are the molar heat capacity, which is the heat capacity per mole of a pure substance,
and the specific heat capacity, often simply called specific heat, which is the heat capacity per unit
mass of a material ([c]=J/(kg*K)). Occasionally, in engineering contexts, a volumetric heat
capacity is used. Because heat capacities of materials tend to mirror the number of atoms or
particles they contain, when intensive heat capacities of various substances are expressed directly
or indirectly per particle number, they tend to vary within a much more narrow range.

The amount of heat energy gained by the water will be calculated in the following manner:
1. heat gained (water) = specific heat (water) X mass (water) X T (water)
2. heat lost (metal) = specific heat (metal) X mass (metal) X T (metal)
3. Because the heat gained must equal the heat lost: specific heat (water) X mass (water) X T
(water) = specific heat (metal) X mass (metal) X T (metal)

Procedure:
I

Specific heat of a metal

1. An unknown metal shot was obtained from instructor. 30g of the metal was weighed out
to at least the nearest 0.01g and was transferred to a clean, dry test tube.
2. The test tube containing the metal shot was put into the boiling water bath. A thermometer
was also put into the test tube containing the metal shot to measure the temperature of the
metal. The metal shot was heated until the temperature is consistent and then part II was
proceeded while waiting for the heating.
3. 25.00 mL of water was put into a polystyrene cup using a buret when the temperature of the
metal shot was consistent. A thermometer was inserted and read every 0.25 minutes (15sec)
for 1.75 minutes. In the same time, the temperature of the metal shot was recorded down
just before proceeding to step 4.
4. At precisely the 2 minute mark, the heated metal was quickly transferred to the cup, making
sure to stir immediately after transferring. Starting at the 2.25 minute mark, the thermometer
reading was recorded every 0.25 minutes (15 sec) for about three minutes. A second run
was performed, where time was available. The metal ball was ensured dry and heated for
the second run.
5. A graph was plotted with temperature on the vertical axis and the time on the horizontal
axis. The data prior to mixing and subsequent to mixing was extrapolated using straight
lines to the time of mixing. The temperature difference between the extrapolated lines at the
time of mixing was the temperature change.
6. The specific heat of the metal was calculated. The sum of the energy changes for the
process must be zero or the energy gained by the water plus the energy lost by the heat
metal must equal zero.

mw Cw tw + mu Cu tu = 0
Cu = - mw Cwtw

/ mu tu

Mw = mass of water
Cw = specific heat of water
tw = change of temperature of water
Mu = mass of unknown metal

Cu = specific heat of unknown metal

tu = change of temperature of unknown metal

II

Enthalpy of neutralization
1. For run 1, a clean and dry polystyrene cup was weighed to at least the nearest 0.01g.

50.0

mL of 2.00 M HCL was added to the cup with a graduated cylinder.

2. 50.0 mL of 2.02 M NAOH was added to another beaker.
3. A thermometer was inserted into the first reagent and its temperature was read every 0.50
minutes for 2.5 minutes.
4. At exactly the 3 minutes mark, the second reagent was poured into the first reagent and
stirred vigorously with the thermometer. Temperature was taken at 0.50 minutes intervals
at the 3.5 minute mark until a trend is established (about 5 minutes). The cup and the
contents was weighed to figure out the mass of the content.
5. The above procedure was repeated for runs 2, 3 and 4 substituting the appropriate solutions
as indicated in the chart below :
Run

First reagent (50mL)

Second Reagent (50mL)

2.00 M HCL

2.02 M NAOH

2.02 M NAOH

2.00 M HCL

2.00 M HNO3

2.02 M NAOH

6. Temperature was plotted as a function of time. The data prior to mixing and subsequent to
mixing are extrapolated using straight lines. The temperature difference between the
extrapolated lines at the time of mixing is the temperature change.
7. The heat of neutralization and the molar heat of neutralization was calculated with the
following equation:

Hn + ms Cs t = 0
Hn = - ms Cs t
Hn = Hn / a
Hn = heat of neutralization
Hn = molar heat of neutralization

t = temperature change of solution

ms = mass of final solution
Cs = specific heat of final solution
a = number of moles

Safety measure:

NaOH and HCL were handled with extreme care as it is regarded as hazardous.

Goggles were worn at all times since NaOH is severe danger to the eyes.

Any spilled solutions were rinsed off with water or neutralizer.

Hands were washed thoroughly before leaving the lab.

Gloves, lab coat and covered shoes were worn at all times to protect any exposed skin.

Results and Data analysis:

Specific heat of metal

Specific heat of a metal

35

y = 0.0267x + 24.429
R = 0.6398

Temperature (C)

30
25
20
15

Series1

10

Linear (Series1)

5
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

Time (s)

Diagram 1: Temperature vs. Time

300

350

Part A
25.15
y = 0.0021x + 24.85
R = 0.7386

Temperature (C)

25.1
25.05
25
24.95

Series1

24.9

Linear (Series1)

24.85
24.8
24.75
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time (s)

Diagram 2: Part A (The data prior to mixing)

Temperature(C)

Part B
32.5
32
31.5
31
30.5
30
29.5

Series1

50

100

150

200

250

y = -0.0097x + 33.156
R = 0.8517
300
350

Time (s)

Diagram 3: Part B (The data subsequent to mixing)

Linear (Series1)

Data Table

Item

Mass of object

Mass of cup

Value

28.90g

2.33g

Mass of cup plus water

27.33g

Mass of water

25.00g

Initial Temperature of Metal

70 C

Initial Temperature of Water

25C

Final Temperature of Water

30C

Calculations

Calculate the specific heat of the unknown metal. The specific heat of water, cwater is 4186
J/kgC. Remember that the final temperature of the waterthe equilibrium temperatureis also
the final temperature of the metal object. Assume that the initial temperature of the metal object
is 70C.

qmetal = qwater
By substitution, we have (metal values on the left, water values on the right):
(mass) (t) (Cm) = (mass) (t) (Cw)
(28.9g) (40C) (x) = (25.0g)(5C)(4.184 J g1 C1)
X = 0.4524 J g1 C1

Using Dulong and Petit method,

(atomic mass)(specific heat ) = 25 J/mol K

(atomic mass) = 25 / 0.4524
= 55.2608 g
According to the periodic table, the closest match with 55.2608 g is IRON.

Solve for the specific heat of the object, cobject.

Item

Value

Specific Heat of Metal

II

0.4524 J/gC

Enthalpy of neutralization

Run 1
Temperature (C)

40
y = 0.0252x + 24.357
R = 0.6184

30
20

Series1

10

Linear (Series1)

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Time (s)

Temperature(C)

Run 2
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

y = 0.0261x + 24.596
R = 0.6595

Series1
Linear (Series1)

100

200

300
Time (s)

400

500

600

Run 3
Temperature (C)

50
y = 0.0273x + 25.711
R = 0.6307

40
30
20

Series1

10

Linear (Series1)

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Time (s)

Temperature (C)

Run 4
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

y = 0.0145x + 24.909
R = 0.6034
Series1
Linear (Series1)

100

200

300

400

500

Time (s)

Diagram 4: Run 1-4

Calculations for heat of neutralization and the molar heat of neutralization:
Run 1:

Hn = - ms Cs t
= - (106.93g)(4.184 J C-1 g-1)(9C)
= - 4026.56 J

Hn = Hn / a
= 4026.56 J / 0.101 mol
= 39 866.93 Jmol-

600

Run 2:

Hn = - ms Cs t
= - (106.93g)(4.184 J C-1 g-1)(9.5C)
= - 4250.25 J

Hn = Hn / a
= 4250.25 J / 0.1 mol
= 42 502.5 Jmol-
Run 3:

Hn = - ms Cs t
= - (106.93g)(4.184 J C-1 g-1)(10C)
= -4473.95 J

Hn = Hn / a
= 4473.95 J / 0.101 mol
= 44 296.5 Jmol-
Run 4 :

Hn = - ms Cs t
= - (160.93g)(4.184 J C-1 g-1)(5C)
= -3366.66 J

Hn = Hn / a
= 3366.66 J / 0.101 mol
= 33 333.27 Jmol-

Net Ionic equation for the reaction 1-4:

Run 1: H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

H2O (l)

Run 2 : H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

H2O (l)

Run 3 : H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

H2O(l)

Run 4 : H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

H2O (l)

III

Hesss Law Calculations

1. Write the reactions for the combustion of hydrogen, methane , ethane , propane and
2,2,4-trimethylpentane
a. 2H2(g) + O2(g)

2H2O (g)

b. CH4(g) + O2(g)

CO2 (g) + H2O (g)

c. C2H6(g) + 4O2(g)

2CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

d. C3H8(g) + O2(g)

CO2(g) + H2O(g)

e. 2C8H18 (g) + 25 O2(g)

16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g

2. Table of data and Hesss Law calculations results

Carbon Dioxide

Hf gas
(kJ/mol)
-393.52

Hf liquid
(kJ/mol)
na

Hc (from NIST)
(kJ/mol)
na

Water

-241.83

-285.830

na

Methane

-74.87

na

-890.7

Ethane

-84

na

-1560.7

Propane

-104.7

na

-2219.2

2,2,4trimethylpentane

-224.1

-259.3

-107

Substance

3. Which of the potential fuels, hydrogen, methane, ethane, propane, 2,2,4trimethylpentane is the most efficient? Explain.
Hydrogen certainly has the highest heat of combustion in MJ/kg, but is expensive to
isolate. It also has a very high "octane rating" in the sense of pressure it can withstand
before detonating.

4. From the values for the heats of formation of liquid and gas phase water, calculate the
heat for the phase change of liquid water to gas?
q = Hvap (mass/molar mass)
Heat of Vaporization = 2.26 MJ/kg
2.26MJ/kg 0 .018kg (molar mass) = 40.7kJ/mol

Discussion:
The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one
degree Celsius. The relationship between heat and temperature change is usually expressed in
the form shown below where c is the specific heat. The relationship does not apply if a phase
change is encountered, because the heat added or removed during a phase change does not
change the temperature.
According to the first Procedure which is finding the specific heat of an unknown metal, we
are able to find and calculate the specific heat of the metal. In addition, with the specific heat
of the unknown metal obtained, we can calculate the atomic mass and identify the unknown
metal. The unknown metal found here is IRON. With the specific heat of this metal found
earlier which is 0.4524 J/gC, we can able to calculate the atomic mass of iron which is
55.85. Three graphs were plotted to show the temperature and time plus the data prior to
mixing and subsequent to mixing (diagram 1, 2 &3). A line of best fit and the line equation
was gained to aid the calculation and the pattern of the graph.
Besides that, in procedure 2 which is enthalpy of neutralization, the heat of neutralization and
the molar heat of neutralization was attained and graphs were drawn for each run attempted.
The heat of neutralization was obtained using Hn = - ms Cs t and the molar heat of
neutralization was obtained using Hn = Hn / a. The order of mixing does play a role in run
1 and run 2. The values differ in both runs whereby the molar heat of neutralization and heat
of neutralization in run 2 is slightly higher than run 1 despite the fact that the reagents used
are the identical . Comparing run 1 and 3, the nature of acid do play a role too in the effect of
enthalpy change. The enthalphy change/ value is higher in run 3 than in run 1, because the
acid used in run 3(HNO3) is less strong than in run 1(HCl). Both are considered strong acids
but HCl is stronger than HNO3 as it is more dissociative in water and HCl is a stronger acid,

as it has a lower pKa value. For run 4, the molarity plays a role, where a lesser molarity of
acid is used. The value of molar heat of neutralization and heat of neutralization of run 4 is
the lowest compared to all the run, thus confirming that molarity takes part in enthalpy
change. Hess's Law of Constant Heat Summation (or just Hess's Law) states that regardless of
the multiple stages or steps of a reaction, the total enthalpy change for the reaction is the sum
of all changes. This law is a manifestation that enthalpy is a state function.

Conclusion:
The unknown metal is identified as Iron metal which atomic mass of 55.85. The heat content
of a chemical system is called the enthalpy (symbol: H)
The enthalpy change (H) is the amount of heat released or absorbed when a chemical
reaction occurs at constant pressure.
H = H(products) - H(reactants)
H is specified per mole of substance as in the balanced chemical equation for the reaction

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