Speciation

-Getting new species

-Anagenesis: Organism that gets replaced by another over time (one form replaces another)
-Cladogenesis (branching): New Morphologies in a species that split off from original, branching into a
new species

Species Concepts
-Subspecies: Part of a species that is starting to diverge from main species (isolated from main species)
-Are still able to interbreed
-Ex: Rape seed -> breeding out the toxins -> Becomes the subspecies of rape seed (because rape
seed contains toxin) Canola due to lack of toxin
-Biological: Group of interbreeding populations, swapping alleles, reproductively unified, no
reproductive isolation (Ernst Mayer)
-Ex: Canus Famillaris and Canus Lupus (house dog and wolf) are able to interbreed, therefore are
not reproductively isolated and shouldnt be considered as a different species.
-House dog was now renamed Canus Lupus Familliaris (subspecies of wolf)
-Cannot use for prokaryotes (dont reproduce sexually but through binary fission)
-Ecological: Using habitat to define species (each species lives in their own niche)
-Things can adapt and mess with their species definition
-Morphospecies: Organism can be defined morphologically and have different appearances (meaning
different species)
-Ex: Warblers different populations with 2 different colours.
-Species are still able to cross mate (normally just isolated from one another)
-Doesnt distinguish 2 species that look similar from one and another
-Ex: Woodland and Grassland elephants (only protected the Grassland Elephants
because we thought they were the same specices)
-Ring Species (Parapatric Species): Places where different species mix (interbreed)
-Ex: Salamanders developing unique characteristics (adapting to their own
environements)
-Hybridization: Mating of 2 different species
-In the case of the salamanders, when they hybridize their offspring get shit camo for
their environement

-Second Contact Hybriziation Outcomes

-Reinforcement: Species stay isolated and keep fortifying their
characteristics
-Fusion of populations: Interbreeding
-Hybrid zone: Each species get their own zone. In the center it is
uniquely one species but near the border of their territory they are able to
mate
-Extinction: One species completely destroys another
-Creation of a new species: Basic adaptations that differ from whats
existing now
-Allopatric Speciation:
-Vicariance: Some kind of geological event and populations are separated from each
other
-Due to the genetic isolation, they start to evolve into a new species (may have
the same problems but can adapt differently)
-Ex: Continental Drift (Pangea)
-Dispersal: Part of a species that just dips to another place and adapts and over time
becomes its own species
-Ex: Ice cricket -> Dipped to cold environments -> Adapted to the cold -> Became
its new species
-Sympatric Speciation: In the same time and place
-Ex: A bug that specialised into eating big seeds, and a new crop with smaller seeds is
introduced
-Samller vesions of that bug are able to better feed (eating all the smaller seeds) and
eventually the 2 sized bugs drift to become separate species.

-Reproductive Isolation (primarily associated with animals)

-Animals usually have a built in NOPE mechanism
-Prezygotic Isolation: Keep egg and sperm away from each other of species
-Ecological: Places certain species are associated with (Ie: Tree frogs, Frogs in ponds)
-Temporal: Animals reach maturity at different times in the year (Ie: Different mating
times)
-Behaviour: Different mating rituals (Ie: Frog singing mating calls)

-Ex: Fireflies (different illumination patterns that are specie specific)

-Mechanical: Doesnt fit (Lock and Key type situation)
-Plants become dependent on a specific species of insects (co-adapted) for
pollination (insect has the perfect tongue to feed off plant and plant but pollens on insect)
-Ex: Darwins Comet Orchid and a certain moth
-Gemetic: Shed reproductive organs (sperm and eggs) into the ocean hoping it spreads
-Very 1st form of reproduction
-Early in embryology and animal development, the egg surface develops
recognition proteins to identify their own species sperm
-Plants also recognize pollen of the same species (developed later in
evolutionary history)
-Postzygotic Isolation: If they do mate, their off spring is unable to breed/are not viable
-Hybrid viability: Cells die during division of zygote
-Genetic process is too strict, and the chromosome do not complement each
other therefore the cells die
-Hybrid Sterility: Infertile and cannot pass their wack genes
-People are cross ecologically isolated animals and crossing them, but the
offspring are fertile (ie: Zebra and Ponies, Lion and Tigers)
-Must be of the same family
-Ex: Hybridizing of Polar Bears and Grizzly Bears are forming viable, fertile young
-Hybrid Breakdown:
-Offspring (Hybrid) is not optimal for the environment (vulnerable)
-Ex: The Newts whom had crappy camo

Types of Taxonomy
-Hennig bring a new taxonomy
-Most made by taxonomic comparisons
-Debate about what characteristics branched from which, which characteristics were the original
characteristics
-Evolutionary trees were based on the bias of the researchers
-Henning creates Cladistics in an attempt to remove bias

-Classification that divides the world by grouping organisms with similar traits
-Cladograms: Only 1 branch at a time
-Groups start from general and specifies over a series of traits
-When you organise the organisms in order of who has the most changes, you get the
evolutionary lineage (more characteristics = higher up on tree)
-Works with gene sequences, morphology etc.

Cladistics
Apomorphies: Derived characters within a group (score of 1)
Plesiomorphies: Primitive charaters within a group (score of 0)
Synapomorphie: Derived characters shared between groups (change everyone inherits, trait
descendants have)
-More synapomorphies mean further down tree you are
Symplesiomorphies: Shared primitive characters that are shared between groups (ancient
characteristics)
Autapomorphy: Unique characteristic that a species

Cladogram Construction
-Build of 0s and 1s (apomorpies and plesiomorphies)
-Assumes characteristics arrive only once
-Parsimony (Auchoms Razor): KISS Principle (keep it simple stupid)
-Take the path of most simplicity (least amount of changes)
-Doesnt mean path with more changes Is wrong
Ex: Camera Eye
-All Octopus and Vertebrates have pinhole camera, therefore have a common decendant
-Every other branch, we say this trait was lost
-This theory involves 6 events in order to explain the origin of the pinhole eye
OR
-Pinhole eye was caused by convergence
-The eye appeared (evolved) twice

-This is the Cladistics view (least amount of steps)

-The two eyes are built differently which proves that it evolved twice

Anatomy of a Cladogram
-Trying to create evolutionary trees where it shows descendants and common ancestors
-Monophyletic: -Simple branching patterns breaking whole evolutionary sequence up
-What we want
-Polyphyletic: -Arent sure of a common ancestors (characteristics)
-Ex: Arthropods containing 3 main groups (Lobsters, Spiders/Ticks, Insects)
-Completely physically different from each other (intennas)
-Completely different feeding structures
-Werent able to specify to one common ancestor
-Same Homeotic gene was found in all anthropods
-Paraphyletic: -Have common ancestor and some of the descendants
-Ex: Everyone thought birds were a distinct group
-Because of flying their anatomy changed (teeth, metabolism etc)
-When looking at molecular work, they are similar to reptiles but can fly
-Mistakenly excluded a species from the tree (fixed by putting species back into
appropriate group)
*Polyphyletic and paraphyletic are resolved to become monophyletic through additional research

-Biological Species: -Good for concepts of isolation and reproduction, problems in fossils and
prokaryotes
-Ecological species:-Good for ecological isolation, but role of hybrids are fairly unknown
-Morphospecies: -Things look different therefore separate species
-Phylogenetic Species: - If you have a set of derived characters, and see the exact same characteristics in
a species, it must be the same species