Introduction to Hindu Scriptures

Part 1
Note: It is my humble attempt to introduce the readers to the classification
and outline of the ancient Hindu scriptures through a series of articles.
Readers may please note that no attempt has been made to discuss the
detailed contents of any of the scripture.
The ancient Hindu scriptures are broadly classified into four categories:
1. Shruti (literally meaning "heard")
2. Smriti (literally meaning "remembered")
3. Darshana (the schools of Hindu religious philosophy)
4. Tantras - Agama and Nigama - (another parallel set of discipline in
which God is looked upon as both Male and Female principle, called
Shiva and Shakti)
The "Shruti" Scriptures - Primary Scriptures
These are considered to be of divine origin, revealed to the ancient seers in
their deep meditation. They include the four Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda,
Samaveda, and Atharvaveda) and the Bhagwad Gita. Some scholars do not
consider Atharvaveda as a part of the original vedas. The first three were
considered the principal original division, also called tray, "the triple Vidy",
that is, "the triple sacred science" of reciting hymns (RigVeda), performing
sacrifices (YajurVeda), and chanting (SamaVeda). Thus, the Mantras are
properly of three forms:
1. Ric, which are verses of praise in metre, and intended for loud
recitation
2. Yajus, which are in prose, and intended for recitation in lower voice at
sacrifices
3. Sman, which are in metre, and intended for singing at the Soma
ceremonies

The Sanskrit word vda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid"to know". The Hindu sages considered the truths so sacred that for a long
time they did not put them into writing. They preserved them in their memory
and taught them to deserving students through oral instruction. Because they
were learned by hearing and not by reading, the Truths came to be known as
Shruti, which literally means hearing.
Vedas are the collective wisdom through ages of many seers. They are
revealed Truths, and so do not have any single origin. Various Rishis (sages)
taught these Truths at different times and different places. Hence the
knowledge of Vedas was scattered. In course of time a need was felt to
collect and compile the Vedic Truths. A great sage
named KrishnaDwaipayan Vyasa collected them from different sources and
recorded them in a book called the Vedas. This book had four parts,
Rig,Sama,Yajur, and Atharva. In recognition of his monumental compilation
of the Vedas, Krishna Dwaipayan Vyasa was given the name Veda Vyasa.
Hindus still honor him by celebrating his birthday every year. His birthday is
called Guru Purnima (Purnima=full moon day).
The Vedas contain religion, philosophy, art, medicine, science, technology,
language, music, etc. while the Bhagwad Gita is essentially a summary of the
Upanishads written in a dialogue format between Lord Krishna and warrior
Arjuna.
The most important message of the Vedas is that everything and every being
is divine (Sarvam khalvidam Brahma - All indeed is God). There are four
very important statements in the Vedas, which are called
the Mahavakyas (great sentences). These are:
"Aham Brahmasmi" - I am Brahman (God)
"Tat tvam asi" - You are That (Brahman)
"Ayam atma Brahma" - This inner SELF (soul) is Brahman
"Prajnaanam Brahma" - Supreme Knowledge is Brahman.

However it should be remembered that neither the Vedas nor the Upanishads
propagate a specific ideology or a doctrine. As such they are not
philosophical treatises. Yet one finds ample evidence of subtle philosophical
thoughts from the verses. In the Vedas, several portions are often repeated. A

large number of mantras are found to be repetitious. It may be noted that the
chapters or the mantras are not sequential. The ideas and thoughts in a single
chapter may seem to be illogical or incoherent. There are instances of
unexplainable digressions from a theme within a chapter. Hence one may not
find a systematic, logical development of a doctrine. A great deal of
scholastic ability is required to interpret the Vedas. A single word may have
different meanings in different contexts. Many mantras are cryptic statements
to a layman. Some of them are too enigmatic to be followed. They are
ambiguous or symbolic. This is the reason why a student of Veda is first
required to master the six Vedangas before trying to read and understand
the Vedas. (I will discuss the Vedangas in Part 2 of this series).
Each Veda contains essentially four parts:
1. Samhitas: These are hymns and poetic incantations addressed to the
various deities (often called Gods also). However, these deities / gods
must not be confused with the Supreme Lord, whom the Vedas
recognize as the ONE (Brahman or Paramatama)
2. Brahmanas: These explain the hymns and instruct how and when to
use them.
3. Aranyakas: these are the appendices to the Brahmanas and mark the
transition from ritualistic to philosophical thought.
4. Upanishads: The upanishads are the final culmination (or end, or the
last part) of the Vedas, and are therefore also called "Vedantas" (anta =
last or end. Vedanta = Veda+ anta = the end of veda, or the culmination
of veda). They are the concluding portion of the Vedas and mostly
reveal the deep philosophical knowledge of the Supreme Spirit. The
Upanishads are sometimes also called Veda Sirsha (Sirsha = head),
meaning the top ranking in the Vedic lore. Among the 108 Upanishads
available today, the following are the most popular ones:
Isha, Kena, Katha, Mundaka, Maandukya, Aitareya, Tattirya, Chhandogya,
Prashna, Svetashvatara and Brihadaaranyaka
Part 2
Vedangas

In addition to the four parts of the Vedas (see Part 1 of this series), there are
six "Vedangas". The word "anga" in Sanskrit means limb. Thus the Vedas
are imagined to possess six limbs in the form of the six Vedangas as
mentioned in the following Sanskrit verse:
"Siksha Kalpo Vyakaranam Niruktam Chandasam Chayah
Jyotishamayanam chaiva vedangani shadeva tu"
These Vedangas are considered "limbs" of the Vedas. For example,
"Jyotisha" (literally meaning light, deals with astronomy and astrology) is
considered to be the "eyes" of the Vedas and "Chanda" (the science of rhyme
and meter in poetry) is visualized as the feet of Vedas. Just like the limbs of
the body, they perform various supportive and augmenting functions in the
study, preservation and protection of the Vedas and the Vedic traditions. A
student wanting to understand and realize the inner meaning of the Vedas is
required to first master these six Vedangas before attempting to study the
actual Vedas. The six Vedangas are:
Siksha: deals with the study of sounds and pronunciation associated with
each syllable. The vibrations generated by sounds are considered to possess
immense power in Hindu mysticism ("Akshara Brahma" - Sound is the
Supreme Spirit). Sikhsa trains the students in the art and science of
articulation of words and syllables so that they can chant the vedic hymns
perfectly, so that these chants produce the desired sound vibrations. The
teachings of the Siksha are contained in the ancient texts known as
Pratisakhyas, each attached to a particular Samhita, providing instructions for
the recitation of the hymns contained in it.
Chhanda: deals with the analysis of the types of meter used in the
construction of various Vedic hymns. In Sanskrit, the word "pada" is used as
the metrical unit. The measurement is made depending on the nunber of
syllables used. Gayatri, Tristubh and Jagati are the most common meters used
in the poetic compositions. Chhandashastra of Pingalanaga is considered to
be the oldest text available on the subject.

Vyakarana: deals with Sanskrit grammar or the analysis and decomposition

of words, word formation, root words and complex sentence structures. Thus
Vyakarana provides useful insights into the usage of words and sentences
leading to the mastery of the language. The most authoritative work on the
subject is considered to be the Ashtadhyayi of sage Panini. Ashtadhyayi is
divided into four parts:

Siva Sutras: These deal with phonetics of the word and letter sounds.

Ashtadhyayi: deal with the structure of words and sentences and their
construction.

Dhatupata: In Sanskrit, there are "root words" and "derived words".

Dhatupata deals with list of root words.

Ganapatha: deals with nouns or noun phrases.

Nirukta: deals with the explanations of obscure words especially those

found in the Vedas. The Vedas are replete with mysterious symbolism not
usually understood by all. Nirukta helps in the analysis and interpretation of
these symbolisms. The most authoritative exponent of this branch of study is
Yaksha, a Sanskrit grammarian and master of Sanskrit etymology. He is
remembered for his monumental work called Nirukta, which is an excellent
commentary of the obscure words found in the Nighantu (dictionary) of his
time.
Jyotisha: deals with the astronomical and astrological aspects of fixing
auspicious date and time to perform various Vedic rites and rituals including
the sacraments or rites of passage. There are two versions - the Aarca Jyotish
and the Yajus Jyotish. One belongs to Rigveda and the other to Yajurveda.
According to tradition, sage Bhrigu is said to be the first person who
perfected the knowledge of Jyotisha and built a record of the natal charts of
every human being who was to be born on earth.
Kalpa: deals with the practical, ceremonial, sacrificial and ritual aspect of
the Vedas. Technically it is the applied science of the Vedas. The method and
the manner in which the sacrificial ceremonies and daily household rituals
have to be performed are established in a compendium of sutras or aphorisms

known as Kalpa Sutras. Many mathematical developments are recorded in the

works known as Sulava Sutras, which are the supplements of the Kalpa. A
wealth of geometrical and arithmetical results is recorded in Sulava Sutras.
These subjects were an integral and essential part of ancient Vedic education
system, aimed to promote an all round development of the students with a
better understanding of the Vedas and Vedic practices.
Upvedas
There are five "Upavedas" which expound profound
sciences. Arthaveda discusses statecraft; Ayurveda (derived from the Rig
Veda) is a storehouse of medicine and health; Dhanurveda (derived from
Yajurveda) discusses military science;Gandharvaveda (derived from the
Samaveda) is on music and the arts and the Science of mechanics and
architecture is explained in the Sthapatyaveda, which is derived from the
Atharvaveda.
Part 3
Smritis
Recap:
The ancient Hindu scriptures are broadly classified into four categories:
1. Shruti (literally meaning "heard")
2. Smriti (literally meaning "remembered")
3. Darshana (the schools of Hindu religious philosophy)
4. Tantras- Agama and Nigama - (another parallel set of discipline in
which God is looked upon as both Male and Female principle, called
Shiva and Shakti
(Shruti has been discussed in Part 1 and Part 2 of this series).
All Hindu scriptures, except the Darshanas and the Tantras, can be placed
within two categories: the Vedas and the Smritis. As mentioned in part 1 of

this series, the Vedas are the primary scriptures. The scriptures belonging to
the smriti category have secondary authority only.
Broadly, the Smritis can be subdivided into three sub-categories:
1. Law Books
2. Puranas
3. Epics (called Itihasas)
The Law Books include the law codes of Hinduism, both secular and
religious (since both were very much inseparable). They deal with three main
subjects: codes of conduct, civil and criminal law, and punishment and
atonement. The most important Law Book is Manu Smriti written by Manu,
the first lawgiver. The word "man" is said to be derived from Manu. There
are fourteen Manus during each creation of the world. Other ancient
lawgivers include Yagyavalka, Baudhayana, Apastamba, Vasishtha and
Gautama.
The deeper truths of the scriptures of Hinduism are quite difficult and
abstruse. Thus, they are difficult to understand by the common man. The
sages created a special type of religious literature, called the Puranas, in
order to present them in an interesting and easily understandable manner. In
the Puranas, the scriptural teachings are presented through stories and
parables. They have five characteristics (Pancha Lakshana), viz., history,
cosmology (with various symbolical illustrations of philosophical principles),
secondary creation, genealogy of kings, and of Manvantaras.
According to Hindu Scriptures, one cosmic day of the creator Brahma is
divided into 14 sub periods (One day of Brahma =4,320,000,000 human
years). Each period is called a Manvantara (notice that it is Brahma, a God
who creates, not Brahman - the Supreme Spirit). Each period is named after
One Ruler who is appointed to rule the entire earthly world during that
period. The generic name for such a ruler is Manu. Each manvantara is of
duration 306,720,000 human years. Acording to the scriptures, six such
periods are already over. We are now in the seventh Manvantara. The name
of the present Manu is Vaivasvata, the son of the Sun-God.

The Hindu concept of time and creation is worth mentioning at this point.
According to Hindu religion and cosmology the flow of Time is eternal.
Creation and Dissolution are only two events in a long cyclic succession of
Cosmic events. There is no beginning in the past and there is no end to the
future. Creation is a manifestation in concrete terms of the Absolute.
Dissolution is when all the created universe merges in the Absolute. And that
is when the period of non-manifestation begins. The periods of manifestation
and of non-manifestation alternate. These are the days and nights of Brahmathe God of creation. Thus, according to Hindu scriptures, the cycle of
creation and dissolution alternates every 4,320,000,000 human years.
There are eighteen main Puranas and an equal number of subsidiary
Puranas or Upa-Puranas. The main Puranas are:Vishnu Purana, Naradiya
Purana, Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Garuda (Suparna) Purana, Padma
Purana, Varaha Purana, Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma
Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana,
Matsya Purana, Kurma Purana, Linga Purana, Siva Purana, Skanda Purana
and Agni Purana. Of these, six are Sattvic Puranas and glorify Vishnu; six
are Rajasic and glorify Brahma; six are Tamasic and they glorify Siva. The
most popular is the Srimad Bhagavata Purana. Next comes Vishnu
Purana. A portion of the Markandeya Purana is well known to all Hindus
as Chandi, or Devimahatmya. Worship of God as the Divine Mother is its
theme. The Hindus read Chandi widely on sacred days and Navaratri (Durga
Puja) days.
Itihasas include the two great epics, The Ramayana and The Mahabharata,
which were composed by the sages Valmiki and Vyasa respectively. These
two epics contain many scriptural teachings side by side with the stories of
the various Aryan clans and dynasties.
Valmiki Ramayana contains 24,000 verses, which have been grouped into
500 Chapters and that again into sevenKandas or sections, viz., Bala,
Ayodhya, Aranya, Kishkindha, Sundara, Yuddha and the Uttara Kandas.

Mahabharata contains eighteen Parvas or sections viz., Adi Parva, Sabha

Parva, Vana Parva, Virata Parva, Udyoga Parva, Bhishma Parva, Drona
Parva, Karna Parva, Shalya Parva, Sauptika Parva, Stree Parva, Shanti
Parva, Anushasana Parva, Asvamedha Parva, Ashramavasika Parva,
Mausala Parva, Mahaprasthanika Parva and Swargarohanika Parva. Each
Parva contains many sub-Parvas or subsections.
Part 4
Darshana - the schools of Hindu religious philosophy
Recap:
The ancient Hindu scriptures are broadly classified into four categories:
1. Shruti (literally meaning "heard")
2. Smriti (literally meaning "remembered")
3. Darshana (the schools of Hindu religious philosophy)
4. Tantras- Agama and Nigama - (another parallel set of discipline in
which God is looked upon as both Male and Female principle, called
Shiva and Shakti
(Shruti has been discussed in Part 1 and Part 2 of this series
and Smriti in Part 3).
Hindu sages developed six different systems of philosophy, called Darshanas,
at different periods of time. They are religious philosophical systems because
their foundation is in the Vedas. All the six systems are written in aphorisms
(sutras). The sutras, being very brief and terse, needed explanatory notes,
which were written later by other scholars. For example, Shankaracharya, the
famous scholar wrote explanatory commentaries on Vyasas work (known as
Vedanta Darshan or Brahmasutra). These six systems of philosophy are:
The Sankhya School
Sage Kapila founded this school. This is the oldest system and finds a
mention in the Bhagwad Gita. It starts with the proposition that the world is
full of three kinds of miseries: Adhyatmic due to one's self, Adhibhotic due to

the products of elements and Adhidaevic due to supernatural causes. The

complete cessation of pain of theses three kinds is the ultimate goal of man. It
is worth noting that this doctrine of Sankhya is similar to the tenets held by
the Buddhists whose main doctrine is that the world is full of miseries.
The Yoga School
Sage Patanjali founded this school. The doctrines of this school resemble
those of the Sankhya School. The Sankhya School believes in twenty-five
principles, which are also accepted by the Yoga School. However, the
twenty-sixth principle, that of God, is rejected by the Sankhya School, but is
accorded great importance in the Yoga School. The science of Yoga is
closely associated with the science of vital energies (prana). The vital
energies are directly connected to the science of Yoga through pranayama.
The Nyaya School
This school was founded by sage Gautama (not same as Gautama Buddha).
Nyaya is defined as examining the Absolute principle using various proofs
(Vatsyayan Nyayabhashya 1.1.1). This school has acquired the name of
Nyaya Darshan because it contains the description of the form of proofs and
the general nature of examination of the proofs and is similar to the Greek
philosophy of Aristotle. This school has been called the Analytic or Logical
School; nevertheless the title of the school would rather mean synthesizing by
way of analogy, and hence it could equally well be called the synthetic or
constructive method of reasoning.
The Vaisheshika School
Sage Kanada founded this school. Vaiseshika philosophy believes that the
world is created from the atoms of earth, water, fire and air. Because of its
emphasizing of the atomic structure of the universe, it is called the Atomistic
School or sometimes the Discriminating school, because it divides matter into
eternally distinct elements, atoms, or infinitesimal parts. It teaches the
existence of a universe of atoms of a transient character, an endless number

of souls and a fixed number of material principles, by the correlation and

interaction of which periodical cosmic evolutions take place without any
directing Force, except a kind of mechanical law inherent in the atoms. Thus,
the Vaiseshika School is a very materialistic school.
The Mimansas
The Mimansas are defined as the decision of principles after
contemplation. Mimansas are thus those texts that decide the meaning of
Vedic mantras by surpassing the contradictions from among mutually
contradictory Vedic mantras. The great scholar Kumarilbhatt says
Discussion of the topic of Righteousness (Dharma) is the very purpose of
the Mimansas.

The Purva Mimansa School

Sage Jaimini founded this school. The Purva Mimansa philosophy deals with
the Samhitas and Brahmanas. The Shrutis are divided into two categories the stage of ritualistic worship (karmakand) and the stage of spiritual
knowledge (Gyanakand). Since ritualistic worship is the first part of the
Vedas it is called the Purva (pre) Mimansa.
The Uttar Mimansa or the Vedanta School
This school was founded by sage Vyasa. The Sanskrit word Uttar means
post. Since the stage of spiritual knowledge is the final stage of the Vedas,
the Vedanta it is known as the Uttar (post) Mimansa. This school envisages
the ultimate culmination of the Darshanik school of thought and philosophy.
However, the philosophical system called Vedanta should not be confused
with the other meaning of the word, the Upanishads because the Upanishads
themselves were called the Vedanta. According to Nyayakosh The
concluding part of the Vedas and the holy text in the form of the Upanishads
which describes Brahman is known as the Vedanta as given in the follwing
Sanskrit Verse:

However there is a difference in opinion of scholars regarding which

Darshans are to be incorporated in these shadadarshans. It is not definite that
the number of the Darshans is six. It is seen that one who felt attracted
towards a particular philosophy considered it to be a Darshan.
Madhavacharya in His holy text the Sarvadarshansangraha places the number
of Darshan holy texts at sixteen. For example during the post-Vedic period
the Darshans opposing the Vedas such as the Charvak, Jain and Buddhist
Darshans came to be written.
Part 5
The Tantras
Note: This is the final part of the five part series on Introduction to Hindu
Scriptures.
Side by side the Vedic discipline, Hinduism has another parallel set of
disciplines called the Tantras. The word "tantra" is derived from the
combination of two words "tattva" and "mantra". "Tattva" means the science
of cosmic principles, while "mantra" refers to the science of mystic sound
and vibrations. Tantra therefore is the application of cosmic sciences with a
view to attain spiritual ascendancy. In another sense, tantra also means the
scripture by which the light of knowledge is spread: Tanyate, vistaryate
janam anena, iti Tantram.
There is a common misconception that Tantra is the name only of the
Scripture of the worshippers of Shakti (the Shaktas). Actually each of the
Hindu religious groups has its own tradition of sacred literature, and based on
it, the Tantras are divided into three classes, namely: Shaiva

Agamas (worshippers of Shiva), Shakta Tantras (worshippers of Shakti),

and Vaishnava Agams (worshippers of Vishnu).
Although we find separate sects depending on the worship of Shiva or
Vishnu, the scriptures point out that Mahavishnu and Sadashiva are one.
In the Sammohana Tantra (Ch. VIII) we find these words: Without Prakriti
the Samsara (World) cannot be. Without Purusha true knowledge cannot be
attained. Therefore both should be worshipped
with Mahakali and Mahakala. Some speak of Shiva, some of Shakti, some
of Narayana (Vishnu). But the supreme Narayana (Adinarayana) is supreme
Shiva (Parashambhu), the Nirguna Brahman, pure as crystal. The two
aspects of the Supreme reflect the one in the other.
Agama and Nigama Texts
The scriptural texts of Tantra are usually in the form of dialogues between
Shiva and Shakti (Parvati). The Dialogues where Shiva is the speaker giving
spiritual teachings and Parvati (Shakti) is the listener are called Agama texts.
On the other hand, where Parvati plays the role of teacher and Shiva the
listener, the texts are called Nigama. Thus Agamas are those, which are
revelations advocating the paths of spiritual practice while Nigama are the
traditions describing the forms of actions (karma), spiritual practice and
knowledge.
The Agamas are divided into three main groups depending on whether the
Ishtadevata (the form of the God) worshipped is Shakti, Shiva or Vishnu.
The first is the Shakta Agama, the second the Shaivagama, and the third the
Vaishnava Agama or Pancharatra.
The Agamas are not themselves treatises on Philosophy, though they
impliedly contain a particular theory of life. They are what are
called Sadhana Shastras (practical Scriptures) prescribing the means by
which happiness may be attained. Since lasting happiness is God, they teach

how humanity may attain a divine experience by worship and by practice of

the disciplines prescribed.
Vedas of Brahmanic schools were prohibited reading and hearing in the olden
days for non-Brahmins and women; but Agamas had no restrictions: they
were available for servants, maids, women, Sudras (the lowest in the caste
system) and anyone who wanted to hear or read. There are 28 Agamas and
108 Upagamas (minor). The Saktas have 77 Saktagamas. They are called
Sadhana Shastras: anyone can seek happiness (Bliss) by following Agamic
prescriptions. The Tantra Sastra have three parts: Sadhana, Siddhi and
Darshana. There are no hypotheticals, arguments, vacillations and conflicts.
The seven characteristics of the Agama texts
The seven characteristics of the Agama texts, according to the Varahi
Tantra are:
Creation, dissolution, offering made unto deities, all spiritual practices,
recitation of mantras (purashcharan), the spiritual practice of six actions
(shatakarma) and the Path of Meditation (Dhyanyoga).
The Atharva Veda is considered to be one of the prime Tantrik scriptures.
There are three distinct tantrik traditions Dakshina, Vama and
Madhyama. They represent the three "shaktis" or powers of Shiva and are
characterized by the three qualities ("gunas") - "sattva", "rajas" and "tamas".
The four sects namely Pashupat, Shaiva, Kalamukh and Kapalik are known
as Maheshvar. Their original religious and theoretical texts of doctrines are
called the Shaiva agams. All the three schools of thought - duality (dvait),
non-duality (advait) and duality-non-duality (dvaitadvait) are found in the
Shaiva agams. According to Vayu Samhita, Ch. I. 28 Shaiva agams are of
two kinds, Shrauta and Ashrauta. Shrauta is Shrautisaramaya and have two
kinds, Svatantra and Itara. Again, Svatantra is first divided into ten kinds and
then Siddhanta of eighteen kinds. This is the Shaivasiddhanta Agama with

28 Mula Agamas and 207 Upagamas. On the other hand Itara is Shrutisara
with numerous varieties.
The Pancharatra Agama is considered as the representative of all the
other Vaishnav Agams. This Agam lays emphasis on the principle of
surrender. It advocates knowledge of five things - the supreme principle,
worldly experiences, the Final Liberation, yoga and the material world. The
number of scriptural texts pertaining to these Samhitas is 250; of them
Brihad-Brahma, Ishvara and Gyanamritasara Samhitas are particularly
noteworthy.
Tantras delve into such subjects as:
1. The Supreme Spirit
2. Creation
3. Maintenance and dissolution of the universe
4. Origin of gods and their worship, of men and beings
5. The other worlds including heaven and hells
6. The seven centers in the body
7. The four stages of man (ashrama)
8. Laws and dharma
9. Sacraments
10. Mantra, Yantra, Mudra, and Sadhana
11. External and internal purification, worship of Devatas, panchattatvas
12. Consecration of temples, lakes, wells, houses etc
13. Temple rites and rituals
14. Glorification of Tirthas (holy sites)
15. Duties and privileges of kings
16. Japam, Vratam, magic, meditation and yoga
17. Law, medicine, and science.
Thus, Tantra is an all-inclusive religious system, which is capable of helping
man at all levels of spiritual growth. It has spiritual disciplines suitable for
people from the highest cultural level to the lowest.

The Tantra literature is vast. Among the 64 prominent texts, we can

mention Mahanirvana, Kulasara, Prapanchasara, Kularnava, Rudra
Yamala, Vishnu Yamala, Brahma Yamala, and Tantraraja.