Seismic Wave Theory

A time-dependent perturbation of an elastic medium (e.g. a rupture,

an earthquake, a meteorite impact, a nuclear explosion etc.)
generates elastic waves emanating from the source region. These
disturbances produce local changes in stress and strain.
To understand the propagation of elastic waves we need to describe
kinematically the deformation of our medium and the resulting forces
(stress). The relation between deformation and stress is governed by
elastic constants.
The time-dependence of these disturbances will lead us to the elastic
wave equation as a consequence of conservation of energy and
momentum.

 Stress-strain
Hooke Law
Elastic constants
Seismic Wave

Force, Pressure and Stress

Force is any influence which tends to change the motion of an object. In
other words, a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity.
Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the ratio of force to the area over which that
force is distributed.

Stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that

neighboring particles of a continuous material exert on each other.

Stress V

Force
Area

F
A

.. Unit is Pascal (Pa) or N / m 2

( Simbol Sigma)

Note: Most of engineering fields used kPa, MPa, GPa.

Stress and Pressure

Pressure is defined as force per unit area applied to an object in a direction
perpendicular to the surface. And naturally pressure can cause stress inside an
object. Whereas stress is the property of the body under load and is related to
the internal forces. It is defined as a reaction produced by the molecules of the
body under some action which may produce some deformation. The intensity of
these additional forces produced per unit area is known as stress

What does Pressure matter?

V
When a force is applied to an elastic body, the body deforms. The
way in which the body deforms depends upon the type of force
applied to it.

Compression force makes the body shorter.

A tensile force makes the body longer

Stress

Force
Area

F
A

.. Unit is Pascal (Pa) or N / m 2

( Simbol Sigma)

Note: Most of engineering fields used kPa, MPa, GPa.

Normal Strain

In each case, a force F produces a deformation x. In engineering, we

usually change this force into stress and the deformation into strain
and we define these as follows:
Strain is the deformation per unit of the original length.

Strain

x
L

The symbol

called Epsilon

Strain has no units since it is a ratio of length to length. Most

engineering materials do not stretch very mush before they become
damages, so strain values are very small figures. It is quite normal to
change small numbers in to the exponent for 10-6( micro strain).

W
Shear force is a force applied sideways on the material (transversely
loaded).
Shear stress is the force per unit area carrying the load. This means
the cross sectional area of the material being cut, the beam and pin.
The sign convention for shear force and stress is based on how it
shears the materials as shown below.

Shear stress,

F
A

and symbol is called Tau

J
The force causes the material to deform as shown. The shear strain is
defined as the ratio of the distance deformed to the height

x
L
.

Since this is a very small angle ,

Shear strain

x
L

( symbol called Gamma)

we can say that :

If you take an infinitesmall volume element you can show all of

the stress components

The first subscript

indicates the plane
perpendicular to the axis
and the second subscript
indicates the direction of
the stress component.

Research for a reason.

Stress Tensor

Shear stress equilibrium

Consider a two- dimensional
state of shear stress, as
illustrated. Note that the two
horizontal stress
components would tend to
cause a clockwise moment.
The two vertical components
are necessary to supply
anticlockwise moment.
But there is no rotation of
the element.

In tensorial notation the stress components are assembled in a

matrix.
For equilibrium it can be
shown that :

ij = ji for i j
S=

xy = yx
xz = zx

yz = zy
This symmetry reduces the shear stress components to three.

 Stress-strain
Hooke Law
Elastic constants
Seismic Wave

 Hooke's law is a principle of physics that states that the

force needed to extend or compress a spring by some
distance is proportional to that distance.
A property of an ideal spring of spring constant k is that
it takes twice as much force to stretch the spring twice as
far. That is, if it is stretched a distance x, the restoring
force is given by F = - kx. The spring is then said to obey
F = - kx
An elastic medium is one in which a disturbance can be
analyzed in terms of Hookes Law forces.
Consider the propagation of a mechanical wave
(disturbance) in a solid.

A Prototype Hookes Law System

A Mass-Spring System
in which a mass m is
attached to an ideal
spring of spring constant
k.

Stretch the spring a distance A & release it:

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

In the absence of friction, the oscillations go on

forever.
The Newtons 2nd Law equation of motion is:
F = ma = m(d2x/dt2) = -kx
A standard 2nd order time dependent differential equation!

 An Elastic Medium is defined to be one in

which a disturbance from equilibrium
obeys Hookes Law so that a local
deformation is proportional to an applied
force.
If the applied force gets too large, Hookes
Law no longer holds. If that happens the
medium is no longer elastic. This is called
the Elastic Limit.
The Elastic Limit is the point at which
permanent deformation occurs, that is, if
the force is taken off the medium, it will not
return to its original size and shape.

 Stress-strain
Hooke Law
Elastic moduli
Youngs modulus
Shear modulus
Bulk modulus
Poisson's ratio

Seismic Wave

E
A stress in the x direction, x , will result in a
strain in the same direction given by:

Where E is the elastic constant called Young's

Modulus. This is just a simple form of Hooke's
law.

Shear modulus

G ()

We need another elastic constant to tell us how easily

a body will change its shape or suffer a shear strain (J)
under shear stress (Vs). The shear modulus, or
rigidity modulus, Gdoes this:

Vs

GJ

The rigidity of fluids and gasses is 0

Bulk modulus .
What if the VOLUME of the material changes when
pressure is applied?
WHAT IS PRESSURE?: equal stresses in all directions.
In this case the change in volume is related to the change in
pressure by the bulk modulus, .

Poissons ratio

Q= - transverse strain / longitudinal strain

If Q=0, then the other dimensions do not change in
response to stress, and volume change is maximum.
If Q = 0.5, then the volume does not change at all.
For fluids, Q | 0.5, while for slinky Q | 0. For most
solid rocks, Q= 0.1-0.25.

 Stress-strain
Elastic constant

Differential Forces

 Stress = Force/Area
Stress is a vector and for an horizontal plane can be resolved into its
components in (x,y,z) directions
For an inclined plane there are normal and tangential components

normal
component

tangential component

Note: There can

be two tangential
components
thus we generally
have three
components of
stress

or

 Consider a spring that is stretched a certain

distance by an applied force such as a weight.
The distance stretched is related to the applied
force by:
F = kX
where X is the displacement, F is the applied
force, and k is the spring constant.
thus, stress is proportional to strain. Explain.

Isotropic

Bulk Modulus (K): incompressibility

Resistance to volumetric compression
Shear Modulus (P): rigidity
Resistance to shear deformation.
Both quantities are always greater than or equal to zero.

Almandine
Magnetite
Halite
Pyrite
Spinel
Apatite
Biotite
Muscovite
Calcite
Dolomite
Quartz
Hematite
Anhydrite
Barite
Olivine
Augite
Diopside
Hornblende
Feldspars

Significant conclusions?

.28
.28
.26
.16
.27
.26
.27
.25
.31
.29
.08
.14
.27
.32
.24
.25
.26
.29
.28-.29

Elastic moduli
relate P and S
wave velocities to
density, U.
P= modulus
of rigidity
O = N - (2/3)P,
where N is the
bulk modulus.

Yilmaz, 2001

Stress-strain
Hooke Law
Elastic constants
Seismic Wave
Wave types
Wave equation
Wave velocity
Wave mode
Snells law
Reflection and transmission coefficient
Fresnel Zone
Huygens principle

 Body waves
Travel through the earth's interior

Surface Waves
Travel along the earth's surface - similar to ocean waves

Body waves

Surface Waves
Love

Ground Roll Rayleigh

The first kind of body wave is the P wave.

This is the fastest kind of seismic wave.
The P wave can move through solid rock
and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of
the earth.
It pushes and pulls the rock it moves
through just like sound waves push and pull
the air.

Particle motion consists of alternating compression and dilation. Particle

motion is parallel to the direction of propagation (longitudinal). Material
returns to its original shape after wave passes.

 The second type of body wave is the S-wave,

which is the second wave you feel in an
earthquake.
An S wave is slower than a P wave and can
only move through solid rock, NOT in Fluid.
This wave moves rock up and down, or sideto-side.

Particle motion consists of alternating transverse motion. Particle motion is

perpendicular to the direction of propagation (transverse). Transverse
particle motion shown here is vertical but can be in any direction. Material
returns to its original shape after wave passes.

 The first kind of surface wave is called a Love

wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the mathematical
model for this kind of wave in 1911.
Book A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory
of Elasticity
It's the fastest surface wave and moves the
ground from side-to-side.

Particle motion consists of alternating transverse motions. Particle motion is

horizontal and perpendicular to the direction of propagation (transverse).
Particle motion is purely horizontal, focus on the Y axis (black lines) as the
wave propagates through it. Amplitude decreases with depth (yellow lines).
Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.

 The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for
John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted
the existence of this kind of wave in 1885.
A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across
a lake or an ocean.
Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side
in the same direction that the wave is moving.

Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh

wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.

Particle motion consists of elliptical motions (generally retrograde elliptical) in

the vertical plane and parallel to the direction of propagation. Amplitude
decreases with depth. Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.

Wave Equation

Stress-strain
Hooke Law
Elastic constants
Seismic Wave
Wave types
Wave equation
Wave velocity
Wave mode
Snells law
Reflection and transmission coefficient
Fresnel Zone
Huygens principle

Particle motion consists of alternating compression and dilation. Particle

motion is parallel to the direction of propagation (longitudinal). Material
returns to its original shape after wave passes.

Wave Equation
So, consider seismic waves propagating in a solid, when
their wavelength is very long, so that the solid may be
treated as a continous medium. Such waves are referred
to as elastic waves.
Consider P-Wave Propagation in a Solid Bar
At the point x the elastic
displacement (or change in
length) is U(x) & the strain
e is defined as the change
in length per unit length.

$

x x+dx

Wave Equation
In general, a Stress S at a
point in space is defined as
the force per unit area at
that point.

$

x x+dx

Hookes Law tells us that, at point x & time t in the

bar, the stress S produced by an elastic wave propagation
is proportional to the strain e. That is:

C { Youngs Modulus

Wave Equation
To analyze the dynamics of the
bar, choose an arbitrary
segment of length dx as shown
above. Use Newtons 2nd Law
to write for the motion of this
segment,

$

x x+dx

C { Youngs Modulus

w 2u
( U Adx) 2
wt

> S ( x  dx)  S ( x)@ A

Mass u Acceleration = Net Force resulting from stress

Wave Equation
w 2u
( U Adx) 2
wt

> S ( x  dx)  S ( x)@ A

S
wS
dx
wx

> S ( x  dx)  S ( x)@

So, this becomes:

w 2u
( U Adx) 2
wt

w 2u
C 2 Adx
wx

du
dx

C.e

wu
S C.
wx
wS
w 2u
C. 2
wx
wx

Cancelling common terms in Adx gives:

w 2u
U 2
wt

w 2u
C 2
wx

Plane wave solution:

k

This is the wave equation a plane

wave solution which gives the
P-wave velocity vp:

i ( kx Zt )

Ae

= wave number = (2/), = frequency, A = amplitude

Wave Equation
3D

4
K P
3

Vp

Vs

P
U

Plane wave solution

u ( x, t )

Ae

r i ( kx rZt )

Stress-strain
Hooke Law
Elastic constants
Seismic Wave
Wave types
Wave equation
Wave velocity
Wave mode
Snells law
Reflection and transmission coefficient
Fresnel Zone
Huygens principle

Received seismograms are time series

+
Peak

Zero cross
Trough

Period: T (second), is the duration of one cycle

Wavelength: ( meter), is the spatial period of the wave
Velocity: V (meter/s), is the speed of wave propagation

Inverse of period is frequency f

Inverse of wavelength is wavenumber k

Period
(T, s)

Period
(T, s)
Frequency
(f, Hz)
Angular
frequency
(, rad/s)
Wave
length
(, m)
Velocity
(V, m/s)
Wave
number
(k, 1/m)

Frequency
(f, Hz)

f=1/T

Angular
frequency
(, rad/s)

=2/T
=2f

Wave
Length
(,m)

Velocity
(V, m/s)

Wave
number
(k, 1/m)

=VT

V=/T

k=T/V

=V/f

V=f

k=f/V

=V/2

V=/2 k=/2V
V=f

k=1/

k=f/V

Wave Velocity
Material

P wave Velocity (m/s)

S wave Velocity (m/s)

Air

332

Water

1400-1500

Petroleum

1300-1400

Steel

6100

3500

Concrete

3600

2000

Granite

5500-5900

2800-3000

Basalt

6400

3200

Sandstone

1400-4300

700-2800

Limestone

5900-6100

2800-3000

Sand (Unsaturated)

200-1000

80-400

Sand (Saturated)

800-2200

320-880

Clay

1000-2500

400-1000

Glacial Till (Saturated)

1500-2500

600-1000

P-Wave Velocity Distributions

Gardener
equation

=0.23V0.25

Velocity

F = ma

Vp = K + 4/3P
U

V s= P

Moduli: U,P,N
Lithology

Age/Depth of Burial

Anisotropy

Rock/Fluid Material

Porosity ( I)
Effective Pressure
Pore Pressure

Mixed Lithologies

Overburden Pressure
Shale/Clay Content

Temperature

Closing/Opening
of microcracks

Distribution

Cementation

Pore
Characteristics

Size

Grain
Cha racteristics

Rock Frame

Shape ( D)

Degree of
Lithification

Sorting

Shape

Fluid
Saturation

Size

Dolotomization
Fluid Type

Rock Structure
Viscosity
Temperat ure

Degree of
Saturation
Chemical Effects

Stress-strain
Hooke Law
Elastic constants
Seismic Wave
Wave types
Wave equation
Wave velocity
Wave mode
Snells law
Reflection and transmission coefficient
Fresnel Zone
Huygens principle

Wave Mode
So, at any interface, some energy is reflected (at the angle of
incidence) and some is refracted (according to Snells Law).
Lets look at a simple model and just watch what happens to the
P-wave energy...

Wave Mode

Wave Mode

Wave Mode

Wave Mode

Even for models with no noise, identifying phases may be

challenging. However, you can train your eye/brain to learn
how to do this.

For a two-layer model with a flat interface, the three main P-wave
arrivals are:
(1) Direct Wave,
(2) Refracted Wave (Head Wave), and
(3) Reflected Wave.

Even for models with no noise, identifying phases may be

challenging. However, you can train your eye/brain to learn
how to do this.

Wave Mode
Well now look specifically at refractions and discuss interpretation.
First, lets look at something beyond the two-layer case.

Multilayer Model

Multilayer Model

Multilayer Model

Multilayer Model
Distance

Time

Multilayer Model


Distance
Direct Wave

Time

1st Layer Refraction

2nd Refraction

1st Reflection

2nd Reflection

Stress-strain
Hooke Law
Elastic constants
Seismic Wave
Wave types
Wave equation
Wave velocity
Wave mode
Snells law
Reflection and transmission coefficient
Fresnel Zone
Huygens principle

What happens at a (flat) material discontinuity?

Medium 1: v1

Medium 2: v2

sin i1
sin i2

i1

v1
v2

i2

But how much is reflected, how much transmitted?

Willebrord Snellius
(1580-1626)

 If V2>V1, then as i increases, r increases faster

r approaches 90o as i increases

Stress-strain
Hooke Law
Elastic constants
Seismic Wave
Wave types
Wave equation
Wave velocity
Wave mode
Snells law
Reflection and transmission coefficient
Fresnel Zone
Huygens principle

A
Medium 1: r1,v1

Medium 2: r2,v2
T

R
A

T
A

U 2D 2  U1D1
U 2D 2  U1D1

2 U1D1
U 2D 2  U1D1

At oblique angles conversions from S-P, P-S have to be

considered.

Zoeppritz equations:

1881-1908

Aki&Richard

Shuey

Fatti

A P wave is incident at the free surface ...

SV

The reflected amplitudes can be described by the

scattering matrix S

SVr P
r

Pt

At a solid-fluid interface there is no conversion to SV in

the lower medium.

Critical angle: The angle of incidence when i2=90.

sin i1

v1
v2

i1

V2>V1

V1

i1

v1
a arcsin( )
v2

V2

i2=90

Limit of seismic resolution usually makes us wonder, how thin a bed can we see?
Yet seismic data is subject to a horizontal as well as a vertical dimension of
resolution. The horizontal dimension of seismic resolution is described by the
Fresnel Zone.

Every point on a wavefront can be regarded as the

source of a subsequent wave.

Christiaan Huygens
(1629-1695)

Wave Equation

h0