ABSTRACT

This experiment is carried out to investigate the validity of Bernoullis theorem when applied
to the steady flow of water in tapered duct to measure the flow rates and both static and the
total pressure heads in a rigid tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates. The
Bernoullis theorem relates the pressure, velocity and elevation in a moving fluid (liquid or
gas). The compressibility and viscosity of which are negligible and the flow of which is
steady and laminar. In order to demonstrate the Bernoullis theorem, the model FM 24 is
placed on top of model FM 110 whereby it is a Bernoullis Apparatus Test Equipment are
used in this experiment.
INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.1: APPARATUS USED TO INVESTIGATE THE VALIDITY OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

Figure above show the apparatus used in this experiment when applied to the steady flow of
water in a tapered duct. The apparatus consists of a clear acrylic duct of varying circular cross
section known as Venturi. The duct has a series of wall tapping that allows measurement of
the static pressure distribution along the converging duct, while the total head tube is
provided to traverse along the centre line of the test section. These tapping are connected to a
manometer bank incorporating a manifold with air bleed valve. Pressurisation of the
manometer is facilitated by a hand pump.

The unit is connected to the hydraulic bench using flexible hoses. The hoses and the
connections are equipped with rapid action couplings. The flexible hose attached to the outlet
pipe which should be directed to the volumetric measuring tank on the hydraulics bench. A
flow control valve is incorporated downstream of the test section. Flow rate and pressure in
the apparatus may be varied independently by adjustment of the flow control valve and the
bench supply control valve. The unit consists of the followings:
1) Venturi
The venture meter is made of transparent acrylic with the following specifications:
Throat diameter

: 16mm

Upstream diameter

: 26mm

Designed flow rate

: 20LPM

2) Manometer
There are eight manometer tubes: each length 320mm for static pressure and total
head measuring along the venture meter.
The manometer tubes are connected to an air bleed screw for air release as well as
tubes pressurization
3) Baseboard
The baseboard is epoxy coated and designed with four height adjustable stands to
level the venture meter
4) Discharge valve
One discharge vave is installed at the venture discharge section for flow rate control
5) Connections
Hose connections are installed at both inlet and outlet
6) Hydraulic Bench
Sump tank

: 120 litres

Volumetric tank

: 100 litres

Centrifugal pump

: 0.37 kW, 50 LPM

AIMS / OBJECTIVES
1) To investigate the validity of the Bernoullis equation when applied to the steady flow
of the water in a tapered duct.
2) To measure flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid
convergent/divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates.

THEORY

Figure1.2: PIPE OF VARYING CROSS SECTION

(Giles R.V 1994) Bernoullis law indicates that, if an inviscid fluid is flowing along a pipe of
varying cross section, then the pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher,
and higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnates. The well-known Bernoullis
equation is derived under the following assumptions:
1) The fluid is incompressible (density constant)
2) The flow is steady;
3) The flow is frictionless
4) Flow along a streamline

Then, it is expressed with the following equation:

Where (in SI units):

P = fluid static pressure at the cross section in N/m2
= density of the flowing fluid in kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (its value is 9.81 m/s2)
v = mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section in m/s
z = elevation head of the center of the cross section with respect to a datum
h = total head (stagnation) in m
The terms on the left-hand side of the above equation represent the pressure head (h),
velocity head (hv) and elevation head (z) respectively. The sum of these terms is known as
the total head (h*). According to the Bernoullis Theorem of fluid flow through a pipe, the
total head (h*) at any cross section is constant. In a real flow results will deviate from the
theoretical ones.
In our experimental setup, the centreline of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the
same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum, z=0 and thus, all the z values
are zeros so that the above equation reduces to :

This represents the total head at a cross section.

For the experiments, the pressure head is denoted as hi and the total head as h*I, where I
represents the cross sections at different tapping points.
Other form of Bernoullis equation
If the tube is horizontal the difference in height can be disregarded z1= z2. Hence,

Total pressure head

Water at constant head from a tank is allowed to flow through a horizontal pipe line of
varying cross section. The pressure heads h1,h2 and etc are measured from a probe with an
end hole facing into the flow such that it brings the flow to rest locally at the probe end. Thus,

Volume flow rate

)
)

Velocity measurement
The velocity of the flow is measured by measuring the volume of the flow, V, over a time
period, t. Thus gives the rate of volume flow (m3/s), which in turn gives the velocity of the
flow through a defined area.

Continuity equation
For an incompressible fluid, conservation of mass requires that volume is also conserved.

APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT

Figure1.3: Part Identification Diagram

1) Manometer Tubes
2) Test Section
3) Water Inlet
4) Unions
5) Air Bleed Screw
6) Discharge Valve
7) Gland Nut
8) Hypodermic Probe
9) Adjustable Feet
10) Stopwatch
11) Water

PROCEDURE
PART A: EQUIPMENT SET UP
1) The Bernoullis equation apparatus is set up on the hydraulic bench so that the base is
horizontal.
2) The test-section is ensured to have the 14-tappered section converging in the direction
of the flow.
3) The rig outflow tube is positioned above the volumetric tank.
4) The rig inlet is connected to the bench flow supply, where the bench valve and
apparatus flow control valve are closed and pump is started.
5)

Gradually, the bench valve is opened to fill the test rig with water. Air bubble is
removed from the tube to allow an accurate reading.

6) In order to bleed air pressure tapping point and manometers both the bench valve and
rig flow control valve are closed. The air bleed screw is opened and the cap from the
water adjacent air valve is removed.
7) A length of small-bore tubing from the air valve is connected to the volumetric tank.
8) The bench valve is opened and allowed to flow through the manometer to purge all air
from them.
9) Then, the air bleed screw is tightened where the bench valve and test rig flow control
valve are partly opened.
10) Next, the air bleed is opened slightly to allow air to enter the top of the manometers.
The screw is re-tightened when the manometer reach a convenient height.
PART B: BERNOULLIS THEOREM DEMONSTRATION
1) General Start-up procedure in part A is performed.
2) All the manometer tubes are properly connected to the corresponding pressure taps
and free from air bubble.
3) The discharge valves are adjusted to a high measurable flow rate.
4) Water flow rates are measured by using volumetric method after the level are
stabilizes.
5) Slide the hypodermic tube (total head measuring) connected to manometer #H gently,
so that its end reached the cross section of venturi tube at #A and the reading are
taken.
6) The step at 5 are repeated for other sections (#B,#C,#D,#E and #F)
8

7) Steps 3 to 6 are repeated with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the
venturi discharge valve.
8) The velocity, ViB is calculated using the Bernoullis equation where;

9) The velocity, ViC is calculated using the continuity equation where;

10) The differences between two velocities are calculated.

RESULT DATA
Data Analysis: 1
Volume (L)

3L

Average Time (Min)

0.28 min

Flow Rate (LPM)

10.71 LPM

Result: 1
Cross
Section

Using Continuity

Using Bernoullis Equation

h* = hH

hi

(mm)

(mm)

(m/s)

equation
)

Ai

ViB - ViC

=Di2/4
(m2)

Difference

(m/s)
(m/s)

174

164

0.443

0.00053

0.336

0.107

171

159

0.485

0.000366

0.488

170

130

0.886

0.000201

0.888

168

151

0.578

0.000314

0.568

0.01

166

154

0.485

0.000380

0.469

0.016

165

157

0.396

0.000531

0.336

0.06

10

Data Analysis: 2
Volume (L)

3L

Average Time (Min)

0.29 min

Flow Rate (LPM)

10.34 LPM

Result: 2
Cross
Section

Using Continuity

Using Bernoullis Equation

h* = hH

hi

(mm)

(mm)

(m/s)

equation
)

Ai

ViB - ViC

=Di2/4
(m2)

Difference

(m/s)
(m/s)

190

168

0.657

0.00053

0.325

0.332

187

160

0.728

0.000366

0.471

0.257

183

99

1.284

0.000201

0.857

0.427

179

138

0.897

0.000314

0.549

0.348

175

144

0.779

0.000380

0.454

0.325

174

154

0.626

0.00053

0.325

0.301

11

Data Analysis: 3
Volume (L)

3L

Average Time (Min)

0.32 min

Flow Rate (LPM)

9.38 LPM

Result: 3
Cross
Section

Using Continuity

Using Bernoullis Equation

h* = hH

hi

(mm)

(mm)

(m/s)

equation
)

Ai

ViB - ViC

=Di2/4
(m2)

Difference

(m/s)
(m/s)

221

186

0.829

0.000531

0.294

0.535

217

177

0.886

0.000366

0.427

0.459

212

168

0.929

0.000201

0.778

0.151

207

135

1.189

0.000314

0.498

0.691

205

151

1.029

0.000380

0.411

0.618

202

167

0.829

0.000531

0.294

0.535

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CALCULATION
Area, A=

For area A

= 0.000531 m2
For area B

= 0.000366 m2
For area C

= 0.000201 m2
For area D

= 0.000314 m2
For area E

= 0.000380 m2
For area F

= 0.000531 m2

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14

FIRST READING
Q = 10.71 LPM

FOR A:

= 0.443m/s

= 0.336 m/s
Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.443 0.336
= 0.107 m/s

FOR B:

= 0.485 m/s

= 0.488 m/s

15

Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.49 0.49
= 0.0m/s

FOR C:

= 0.886m/s

= 0.888 m/s
Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.89 0.89
= 0.0m/s

FOR D:

= 0.578m/s

= 0.568 m/s

16

Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.578 0.568
= 0.01m/s

FOR E:

= 0.485m/s

= 0.469 m/s
Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.485 0.469
= 0.016m/s

FOR F:

= 0.396m/s

= 0.336 m/s

17

Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.396 0.336
= 0.06m/s

18

SECOND READING
Q = 10.34 LPM

FOR A:

= 0.657m/s

= 0.325 m/s
Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.657 0.325
= 0.332 m/s

FOR B:

= 0.728 m/s

= 0.471 m/s

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Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.728 0.471
= 0.257m/s

FOR C:

= 1.284m/s

= 0.857 m/s
Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 1.284 0.857
= 0.427m/s

FOR D:

= 0.897m/s

= 0.549 m/s

20

Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.897 0.549
= 0.348m/s

FOR E:

= 0.779m/s

= 0.454 m/s
Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.779 0.454
= 0.325m/s

FOR F:

= 0.626m/s

= 0.325 m/s

21

Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.626 0.325
= 0.301m/s

22

THIRD READING
Q = 9.38 LPM

FOR A:

= 0.829m/s

= 0.294 m/s
Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.829 0.294
= 0.535 m/s

FOR B:

= 0.886 m/s

= 0.427 m/s

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Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.886 0.427
= 0.459m/s

FOR C:

= 0.929m/s

= 0.778 m/s
Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.929 0.778
= 0.151m/s

FOR D:

= 1.189m/s

= 0.498 m/s

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Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 1.189 0.498
= 0.691m/s

FOR E:

= 1.029m/s

= 0.411 m/s
Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 1.029 0.411
= 0.618m/s

FOR F:

= 0.829m/s

= 0.294 m/s

25

Difference

= ViB - ViC
= 0.829 0.294
= 0.535m/s

26

DISCUSSION
To achieved the objectives of this experiment, Bernoullis theorem demonstration apparatus
(FM-24) along with the hydraulic bench (FM-110) were used. This instrument was combined
with a venturi meter and the pad of manometer tubes which indicates the pressure of h A until
hF. a venturi is basically a coverging-diverging section, typically placed between tube or duct
sections with fixed cross-sectional area. The flow rates through the venturi meter can be
related to pressure measurements by using Bernoullis equation.
From this experiment, it is found that the total head pressure increase for convergent and
divergent flow for each manometer tube readings. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
Bernoullis equation is valid when applied to steady flow of water in tapered duct and
absolute velocity values increase along the same channel.
Although the experiment proof that the Bernoullis equation is valid for both flow but the
values obtain might be slightly differ from the actual value. This is because there is some
error maybe happened during the experiment is done. While taking the reading of the
manometer, there might be possibility that the eye position of the reads is not parallel to the
scale. Thus, this error will contribute to the different in values obtained. Other than that, the
readers must take the accurate reading from the manometers. In order to get the accurate
value, the water level must be left to be really stable. This way the experiment that has been
conduct may influence the result afterward.

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CONCLUSION
From the result obtained, we can conclude that the Bernoullis equation is valid for
convergent and divergent flow as both of it does obey the equation. For both flow, as the
pressure difference increase, the time taken for 3L water collected increase and the flow rates
of the water will also increase.
The results show that the reading of each manometer tubes increase when the pressure
difference increase. Thus, as the velocity for the same channel increases, the total head
pressure will also increase for both convergent and divergent flows.
Bernoullis theorem has several applications in everyday lives. In certain cases, Bernoullis
equation can be used to find unknown pressure of the streamlines. All the flow rates and both
static and total pressure head in a rigid convergent and divergent are managed to be
calculated.
RECOMMENDATION
1) The experiment is repeated several times to get an accurate result.
2) The eye of observes should be placed parallel to the scale of manometer to get an
accurate reading.
3) Make sure the bubbles in the manometer are completely removed by adjusting the
bleed screw.
4) The valve should be control slowly so that the pressure difference can be maintained.

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REFERENCES
1) Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall.
2) Douglas, J.F., Gasiorek J.M., and Swaffield J.A, Fluid Mechanics, 3rd ed. Logmans
Singapore Publisher, 1995
3) Robert L. Mott, Applied Fluid Mechanics 5th ed, Prentice Hall
4) Reynold C. Binder, Fluid Mechanics 4th ed.
5) Robert L. Street, Gary Z. Watters, John K. Vennard, Elementary Fluid Mechanics 7th
ed, John Wiley & Sons Inc.

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