Fiel Guide To Geometrical Optics - JJhon Greivenkamp

Field
iel Guide
Gu d to
o
Geometrical
Optics
John E. Greivenkamp
Field Guide to
Geometrical
Optics
John E. Greivenkamp
University of Arizona
SPIE Field Guides
Volume FG01
John E. Greivenkamp, Series Editor
Bellingham, Washington USA
Field Guide to
Geometrical
Optics
John E. Greivenkamp
University of Arizona
SPIE Field Guides
Volume FG01
Bellingham, Washington USA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Greivenkamp, John E.
Field guide to geometrical optics / John E. Greivenkamp
p. cm.-- (SPIE field guides)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8194-5294-7 (softcover)
1. Geometrical optics. I. Title II. Series.
QC381.G73 2003
535'. 32--dc22
2003067381
Published by
SPIEThe International Society for Optical Engineering
P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA
Phone: +1 360 676 3290
Fax: +1 360 647 1445
Email: spie@spie.org
Web: http://spie.org
Copyright 2004 The Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation
Engineers
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
distributed in any form or by any means without written permission of
the publisher.
The content of this book reflects the work and thought of the author.
Every effort has been made to publish reliable and accurate
information herein, but the publisher is not responsible for the validity
of the information or for any outcomes resulting from reliance thereon.
Printed in the United States of America.
Introduction to the Series

Welcome to the SPIE Field Guides! This volume is one of the
first in a new series of publications written directly for the
practicing engineer or scientist. Many textbooks and
professional reference books cover optical principles and
techniques in depth. The aim of the SPIE Field Guides is to
distill this information, providing readers with a handy desk or
briefcase reference that provides basic, essential information
about optical principles, techniques, or phenomena, including
definitions and descriptions, key equations, illustrations,
application examples, design considerations, and additional
resources. A significant effort will be made to provide a
consistent notation and style between volumes in the series.
Each SPIE Field Guide addresses a major field of optical
science and technology. The concept of these Field Guides is a
format-intensive presentation based on figures and equations
supplemented by concise explanations. In most cases, this
modular approach places a single topic on a page, and provides
full coverage of that topic on that page. Highlights, insights and
rules of thumb are displayed in sidebars to the main text. The
appendices at the end of each Field Guide provide additional
information such as related material outside the main scope of
the volume, key mathematical relationships and alternative
methods. While complete in their coverage, the concise
presentation may not be appropriate for those new to the field.
The SPIE Field Guides are intended to be living documents.
The modular page-based presentation format allows them to be
easily updated and expanded. We are interested in your
suggestions for new Field Guide topics as well as what material
should be added to an individual volume to make these Field
Guides more useful to you. Please contact us at
fieldguides@SPIE.org.
Optical Sciences Center
The University of Arizona
3UHOLPVIP3DJHL 0RQGD\-DQXDU\
30
Field Guide to Geometrical Optics

The material in this Field Guide to Geometrical Optics
derives from the treatment of geometrical optics that has
evolved as part of the academic programs at the Optical
Sciences Center at the University of Arizona. The
development is both rigorous and complete, and it features a
consistent notation and sign convention. This material is
included in both our undergraduate and graduate programs.
This volume covers Gaussian imagery, paraxial optics, firstorder optical system design, system examples, illumination,
chromatic effects and an introduction to aberrations. The
appendices provide supplemental material on radiometry and
photometry, the human eye, and several other topics.
Special acknowledgement must be given to Roland V. Shack
and Robert R. Shannon. They first taught me this material
several years ago, and they have continued to teach me
throughout my career as we have become colleagues and
friends. I simply cannot thank either of them enough.
I thank Jim Palmer, Jim Schwiegerling, Robert Fischer and
Jose Sasian for their help with certain topics in this Guide. I
especially thank Greg Williby and Dan Smith for their
thorough review of the draft manuscript, even though it
probably delayed the completion of their dissertations.
Finally, I recognize all of the students who have sat through
my lectures. Their desire to learn has fueled my enthusiasm
for this material and has caused me to deepen my
understanding of it.
This Field Guide is dedicated to my wife, Kay, and my
children, Jake and Katie. They keep my life in focus (and
mostly aberration free).
John E. Greivenkamp
Optical Sciences Center
The University of Arizona
3UHOLPVIP3DJH 0RQGD\-DQXDU\
30
Table of Contents
Glossary
Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

Sign Conventions
Basic Concepts
Optical Path Length
Refraction and Reflection
Optical Spaces
Gaussian Optics
Refractive and Reflective Surfaces
Newtonian Equations
Gaussian Equations
Longitudinal Magnification
Nodal Points
Object-Image Zones
Gaussian Reduction
Thick and Thin Lenses
Vertex Distances
Thin Lens Imaging
Object-Image Conjugates
Afocal Systems
Paraxial Optics
Paraxial Raytrace
YNU Raytrace Worksheet
Cassegrain Objective Example
Stops and Pupils
Marginal and Chief Rays
Pupil Locations
Field of View
Lagrange Invariant
Numerical Aperture and F-Number
Ray Bundles
Vignetting
More Vignetting
Telecentricity
Double Telecentricity
Depth of Focus and Depth of Field
Hyperfocal Distance and Scheimpflug Condition
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
vii
3UHOLPVIP3DJH L0RQGD\-DQXDU\
30
Table of Contents (cont.)

Optical Systems
Parity and Plane Mirrors
Systems of Plane Mirrors
Prism Systems
More Prism Systems
Image Rotation and Erection Prisms
Plane Parallel Plates
Objectives
Zoom Lenses
Magnifiers
Keplerian Telescope
Galilean Telescope
Field Lenses
Eyepieces
Relays
Microscopes
Microscope Terminology
Viewfinders
Single Lens Reflex and Triangulation
Illumination Systems
Diffuse Illumination
Integrating Spheres and Bars
Projection Condenser System
Source Mirrors
Overhead Projector
Schlieren and Dark Field Systems
37
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
Chromatic Effects
Dispersion
Optical Glass
Material Properties
Dispersing Prisms
Thin Prisms
Thin Prism Dispersion and Achromatization
Chromatic Aberration
Achromatic Doublet
62
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
viii
3UHOLPVIP3DJH LL0RQGD\-DQXDU\
30
Table of Contents (cont.)

Monochromatic Aberrations
Rays and Wavefronts
Spot Diagrams
Wavefront Expansion
Tilt and Defocus
Spherical Aberration
Spherical Aberration and Defocus
Coma
Astigmatism
Field Curvature
Distortion
Combinations of Aberrations
Conics and Aspherics
Mirror-Based Telescopes
70
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
Appendices
Radiometry
Radiative Transfer
Photometry
Sources
Airy Disk
Diffraction and Aberrations
Eye
Retina and Schematic Eyes
Ophthalmic Terminology
More Ophthalmic Terminology
Film and Detector Formats
Photographic Systems
Scanners
Rainbows and Blue Skies
Matrix Methods
Common Matrices
Trigonometric Identities
Equation Summary
84
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
Bibliography
Index
107
111
ix
3UHOLPVIP3DJH LLL0RQGD\-DQXDU\
30
Glossary
Unprimed variables and symbols are in object space.
Primed variables and symbols are in image space.
Frequently used variables and symbols:
a
Aperture radius
A, A
Object and image areas
B
Image plane blur criterion
BFD
Back focal distance
c
Speed of light
C
Curvature
CC
Center of curvature
d, d
Front and rear principal plane shifts
D
Diopters
D
Diameter
D
Airy disk diameter
DOF
Depth of focus, geometrical
E, EV
Irradiance and illuminance
EFL
Effective focal length
EP
Entrance pupil
ER
Eye relief
f, fE
Focal length or effective focal length
fF, f R
Front and rear focal lengths
f/#
F-number
f/#W
Working F-number
f
Longitudinal chromatic aberration
F, F
Front and rear focal points
FFD
Front focal distance
FFOV
Full field of view
FOB
Fractional object
FOV
Field of view
h, h
Object and image heights
H
Lagrange invariant
H
Normalized field height
H, HV
Exposure
HFOV
Half field of view
I
Optical invariant
Intensity and luminous intensity
I, IV
L
Object-to-image distance
L, LV
Radiance and luminance
x
3UHOLPVIP3DJHL 0RQGD\-DQXDU\
30
Glossary (cont.)
LH
LNEAR , LFAR
LA
m
m
mV
M, MV
MP
MTF
n
N, N
NA
OPL
OTL
P
P, P
PSF
Q
rP
R
s
s, s
S
SR
t
T
TA
TA CH
TIR
t
u, u
U
V
V, V
W
WIJK
WD
x, y
x, y
Hyperfocal distance
Depth of field limits
Longitudinal aberration
Transverse or lateral magnification
Longitudinal magnification
Visual magnification (microscope)
Exitance and luminous exitance
Magnifying power (magnifier or telescope)
Modulation transfer function
Index of refraction
Front and rear nodal points
Numerical aperture
Optical path length
Optical tube length
Partial dispersion ratio
Front and rear principal points
Point spread function
Energy
Pupil radius
Radius of curvature
Surface sag or a separation
Object and image vertex distances
Seidel aberration coefficient
Strehl ratio
Thickness
Temperature
Transverse aberration
Transverse axial chromatic aberration
Total internal reflection
Exposure time
Paraxial angles; marginal and chief rays
Real marginal ray angle
Abbe number
Surface vertices
Wavefront error
Wavefront aberration coefficient
Working distance
Object coordinates
Image coordinates
xi
3UHOLPVIP3DJH 0RQGD\-DQXDU\
30
Glossary (cont.)
xP, xP
XP
y, y
z
z, z
z
z
z, z
Normalized pupil coordinates

Exit pupil
Paraxial ray heights; marginal and chief rays
Optical axis
Object and image distances
Image plane shift
Depth of focus, diffraction
Object and image separations
MIN
X , Y
Z
C
1/2
, V
,
Dihedral angle or prism angle

Prism deviation
Angle of minimum deviation
Longitudinal chromatic aberration
Prism dispersion
Prism secondary dispersion
Transverse ray errors
Longitudinal ray error
Angle of incidence, refraction or reflection
Azimuth pupil coordinate
Critical angle
Half field of view angle
Conic constant
Wavelength
Abbe number
Reflectance
Normalized pupil radius
Reduced thickness
Optical power
Radiant and luminous power
Optical angles; marginal and chief rays
Solid angle
Lagrange invariant
xii
Sign Conventions
Throughout this Field Guide, a set of fullyconsistent sign
conventions is utilized. This allows the signs of results and
variables to be easily related to the diagram or to the physical
system.
The axis of symmetry of a rotationally symmetric optical
system is the optical axis and is the z-axis.
All distances are measured relative to a reference point,
line, or plane in a Cartesian sense: directed distances above
or to the right are positive; below or to the left are negative.
All angles are measured relative to a reference line or plane
in a Cartesian sense (using the right-hand rule): counterclockwise angles are positive; clockwise angles are negative.
The radius of curvature of a surface is defined to be the
directed distance from its vertex to its center of curvature.
Light travels from left to right (from z to +z) in a medium
with a positive index of refraction.
The signs of all indices of refraction following a reflection
are reversed.
To aid in the use of these conventions, all directed distances
and angles are identified by arrows with the tail of the arrow
at the reference point, line, or plane.
Geometrical Optics
Basic Concepts
Geometrical optics is the study of light without diffraction
or interference. Any object is comprised of a collection of
independently radiating point sources.
First-order optics is the study of perfect optical systems, or
optical systems without aberrations. Analysis methods include
Gaussian optics and paraxial optics. Results of these
analyses include the imaging properties (image location and
magnification) and the radiometric properties of the system.
Aberrations are the deviations from perfection of the optical
system. These aberrations are inherent to the design of the
optical system, even when perfectly manufactured. Additional
aberrations can result from manufacturing errors.
Third-order optics (and higher-order optics) includes the
effects of aberrations on the system performance. The image
quality of the system is evaluated. The effects of diffraction
are sometimes included in the analysis.
Index of refraction n:
c
of Light in Vacuum
----------------------------------------------------------------------- = -n Speed
Speed of Light in Medium v
c
v = --n
c = 2.99792458 108 m/s

Following a reflection, light propagates from right to left,
and its velocity can be considered to be negative. Using
velocity instead of speed in the definition of n, the index of
refraction is now also negative.
Wavelength and frequency :
v
= -
c
in vacuum: = -
The wavenumber w is the number of wavelengths per cm.

1
w = --- units of cm1
Optical Path Length

Optical path length OPL is proportional to the time
required for light to travel between two points.
OPL =
n( s ) ds
In a homogeneous medium:
OPL = nd
Wavefronts are surfaces of constant
OPL from the source point.
Rays indicate the direction of energy propagation and are
normal to the wavefront surfaces.
In a perfect optical system or a first-order optical system, all

wavefronts are spherical or planar.
Fermats principle: The path taken by a light ray in going
from point a to point b through any set of media is the one
that renders its OPL equal, in the first approximation, to
other paths closely adjacent to the actual path.
The OPL of the actual ray is either an extremum (a minimum
or a maximum) with respect to the OPL of adjacent paths or
equal to the OPL of adjacent paths.
In a medium of uniform index, light rays are straight lines.
In a first-order or paraxial imaging system, all of the light
rays connecting a source point to its image have equal OPLs.
Geometrical Optics
Refraction and Reflection

Snells law of refraction:
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
The incident ray, the refracted
ray and the surface normal are
coplanar.
When propagating through a series of parallel interfaces, the
quantity n sin is conserved.
Law of reflection:
1 = 2
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the
surface normal are coplanar.
Reflection equals refraction with n2 = n1.
Total internal reflection TIR occurs when the angle of
incidence of a ray propagating from a higher index medium to
a lower index medium exceeds the critical angle.
n
sin C = -----2
n1
n1
At the critical angle, the angle of

refraction 2 equals 90
The reflectance of an interface
between n1 and n2 is given by the
Fresnel reflection coefficients. At
normal incidence with no absorption,
n2 n1
= ----------------n2 + n1
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
C
50.3
45.6
41.8
38.7
36.0
33.7
31.8
30.0
Critical angles
for n2 = 1.0
Optical Spaces
Any optical surface creates two optical spaces: an object
space and an image space. Each optical space extends from
to + and has an associated index of refraction. There are
real and virtual segments of each optical space.
Rays can be traced from optical space to optical space. Within
any optical space, a ray is straight and extends from to +
with real and virtual segments. Rays from adjoining spaces
meet at the common optical surface.
A real object is to the left of the surface; a virtual object is

to the right of the surface. A real image is to the right of the
surface; a virtual image is to the left of the surface. In an
optical space with a negative index (light propagates from
right to left), left and right are reversed in these descriptions
of real and virtual.
If a system has N optical surfaces, there are N + 1 optical
spaces. A single object or image exists in each space. The real
segment of an optical space is the volume between the surfaces
defining entry and exit into that space. It is also common to
combine multiple optical surfaces into a single element and
only consider the object and image spaces of the element; the
intermediate spaces within the element are ignored.
In a multi-element system, the use of real and virtual may
become less obvious. For example, the real image formed by
Surface 1 becomes virtual due to the presence of Surface 2,
and this image serves as the virtual object for Surface 2. In
a similar manner, the virtual image produced by Surface 3
can be considered to be a real object for Surface 4.
Geometrical Optics
Gaussian Optics
Gaussian optics treats imaging as a mapping from object
space into image space. It is a special case of a collinear
transformation applied to rotationally symmetric systems,
and it maps points to points, lines to lines and planes to
planes. The corresponding object and image elements are
called conjugate elements.
Planes perpendicular to the axis in one space are mapped
to planes perpendicular to the axis in the other space.
Lines parallel to the axis in one space map to conjugate
lines in the other space that either intersect the axis at a
common point (focal system), or are also parallel to the
axis (afocal system).
The transverse magnification or lateral magnification
is the ratio of the image point height from the axis h to the
conjugate object point height h:
m h
h
The cardinal points and planes completely describe the
focal mapping. They are defined by specific magnifications:
F
Front focal point/plane
m =
F
Rear focal point/plane
m = 0
P
Front principal plane
m = 1
P
Rear principal plane
m = 1
The front and rear focal lengths ( fF and f R ) are defined as

the directed distances from the front and rear principal planes
to the respective focal points.
Refractive and Reflective Surfaces
The radius of curvature R of a surface is defined to be the

distance from its vertex to its center of curvature CC.
The front and rear principal planes (P and P) of an optical
surface are coincident and located at the surface vertex V.
Power of an optical surface:
= ( n n )C =
Curvature:
( n n )
R
C =
1
R
The effective (or equivalent) focal length (EFL or fE) is

defined as
f = fE 1
The effective in EFL is actually unnecessary; this quantity

is the focal length f. The front and rear focal lengths are
related to the EFL:
fF =
n
= nfE
f R =
n
= nfE
fE =
fF f R
=
n
n
f R
n
=
fF
n
A reflective surface is a special case with n = n:

= 2nC =
fF = f R =
2n
R
R
1
n
= nfE =
=
2
2C
Geometrical Optics
Newtonian Equations
For a focal imaging system, an object plane location is related
to its conjugate image plane location through the transverse
magnification associated with those planes. The Newtonian
equations characterize this Gaussian mapping when the
axial locations of the conjugate object and image planes are
measured relative to the respective focal points. By definition,
the front and rear focal lengths continue to be measured
relative to the principal planes. The Newtonian equations
result from the analysis of similar triangles.
f
z = -----F
m
z = mf R
zz = fF f R
f
m
n
z-----= mfE
n
z
2
--z- --- n n = f E
--z- = -----E
The front and rear focal points map to infinity ( m = and 0 ).

The two principal planes are conjugate to each other ( m = 1 ).
The cardinal points, and the associated focal lengths and
power, completely specify the mapping from object space into
image space for a focal system. Gaussian imagery aims to
reduce any focal imaging system, regardless of the number of
surfaces, to a single, unique set of cardinal points.
The EFL of a system is determined from its front or rear focal
length in the same manner used for a single surface:
f
f
fE = -----F = ----R
n
n
--f = fE 1
Gaussian Equations
The Gaussian equations describe the focal mapping when
the respective principal planes are the references for measuring
the locations of the conjugate object and image planes.
z = ( 1 m) fF
m
z
= ( 1 m) fE
n
m
z = ( 1 m)f R
z
= ( 1 m)fE
n
f
m = z F
z f R
m =
f R fF
+
= 1
z z
n n 1
= +
z
z fE
z n
zn
When the Newtonian and Gaussian equations are expressed

in terms of the EFL or power (fE or ), all of the axial distances
appear as a ratio of the physical distance to the index of
refraction in the same optical space. This ratio is called a
reduced distance and is usually denoted by a Greek letter,
for example represents the reduced distance associated with
the thickness t:
t
=
n
The EFL is the reduced focal length: it equals the reduced
rear focal length or minus the reduced front focal length.
A ray angle multiplied by the refractive index of its optical
space is called an optical angle:
= nu
10
Geometrical Optics
Longitudinal Magnification
The longitudinal magnification relates the distances
between pairs of conjugate planes.
z = z2 z1
z = z2 z1
h
m1 = -----1
h1
h
m2 = -----2
h2
z
------= -----R- m1m2
z
fF
z n--------------= m1 m2
z n
These equations are valid for widely separated planes. As the

plane separation approaches zero, the local longitudinal
magnification m is obtained.
---- m2
m = n
n
z
n--------------= m2
z n
Since m varies with position, m is a function of z and z.

The use of reduced distances and optical angles allows a
system to be represented as an air-equivalent system with
thin lenses. Consider the example of a refracting surface
and its thin lens equivalent. Both have the same power .
11
Nodal Points
Two additional cardinal points are the front and rear nodal
points (N and N) that define the location of unit angular
magnification for a focal system. A ray passing through one
nodal point of a system is mapped to a ray passing through
the other nodal point having the same angle with respect to
the optical axis.
zPN = zPN = fF + f R
zPN = zPN = ( n n )fE
f
n
mN = ----F- = ---f R n
Both nodal points of a single refractive or reflective surface

are located at the center of curvature of the surface:
zPN = zPN = R
The angular subtense of an image as seen from the rear nodal
point equals the angular subtense of the object as seen from
the front nodal point.
zN
h = ----m ---zN
h
If n = n, zPN = zPN = 0, and the nodal points are coincident
with the respective principal planes. The magnification
relationship now holds for the Gaussian object and image
distances (z and z are measured relative to P and P):
zh = --m ---z
h
when
n = n
12
Geometrical Optics
Object-Image Zones
The object-image zones show the general image properties
as a function of the object location relative to the cardinal
points. An object in Zone A will map to an image in Zone A,
etc. All optical spaces extend from to + . A net reflective
system (an odd number of reflections) inverts image space
about P.
Positive Focal System
> 0; n > 0
Positive Focal System Reflective
> 0; n < 0
Negative Focal System
< 0; n > 0
Negative Focal System Reflective
< 0; n < 0
13
Gaussian Reduction
Gaussian reduction is the process that combines multiple
elements two at a time into a single equivalent focal system.
Two-component system:
The highlighted rays and quantities are associated with the

equivalent reduced system.
= 1 + 2 1 2
t
= ----n2
--d- =
----2
d
----- =
----1
n
P and P are the planes of unit system magnification.

d is the shift in object space of the front system principal
plane from the front principal plane of the first system.
d is the shift in image space of the rear system principal
plane from the rear principal plane of the second system.
t is the directed distance in the intermediate optical space
from the rear principal plane of the first system to the front
principal plane of the second system.
Following reduction, the two original elements and the
intermediate optical space n2 are not needed.
For multiple element systems, several reduction strategies
are possible (two elements at a time):
1 2 3 4 ( 12 ) ( 34 ) ( 1234 )
1 2 3 4 ( 12 ) 3 4 ( 123 ) 4 ( 1234 )
14
Geometrical Optics
Thick and Thin Lenses

Thick lens in air:
t
=
n
1 = ( n 1 )C1
2 = ( n 1 ) C2
= ( n 1 ) [ C1 C2 + ( n 1 )C1C2 ]
d =
d = 1
V and V are the surface vertices, and the nodal points are
coincident with the principal planes.
t0
Thin lens in air:
= ( n 1 ) ( C1 C2 )
d = d = 0
The principal planes and nodal points are located at the lens.
Two separated thin lenses in air:
= 1 + 2 1 2 t
d =
2
t
d = 1 t
The nodal points are coincident with the principal planes.

Optical power is sometimes measured in diopters (D),
which have the units of m1.
( in D) 1
fE
( fE in m)
When closely spaced elements are combined (t small), the

system power is approximately the sum of the element
powers.
15
Vertex Distances
The surface vertices are
the mechanical datums in a
system and are often the
reference locations for the
cardinal points.
Back focal distance BFD:
BFD = f R + d
Front focal distance FFD:
FFD = fF + d
Object and image vertex distances are determined using
the Gaussian distances z, z:
s = z+d
s = z + d
The utility of Gaussian optics and Gaussian reduction is that
the imaging properties of any combination of optical elements
can be represented by a system power or focal length, a pair
of principal planes and a pair of focal points. In initial designs,
the P P separation is often ignored (i.e. a thin lens model).
The Gaussian magnification may also be determined from

the object and image ray angles:
( z n )
nu
m = ----------------- = --------- = ---(z n)

nu
16
Geometrical Optics
Thin Lens Imaging

A thin lens is the most common element used in first-order
layout. This idealized element has an optical power but no
thickness and can be considered as a single refracting surface
separating two spaces with the same index (usually air). The
principal planes and nodal points are located at the lens.
1
f = fE = f R = fF = -
11 1
--= -- + --
1
z
---= 1 + --
z
m = 1 ---f
z
u
h
m = ---- = ---- = ---z
u
h
The overall object-to-image distance for a thin lens in air
is a function of the conjugate magnification.
( 1 m)-2 f
L = z z = -------------------E
m
For each L, there are two possible magnifications and
conjugates: the reciprocal magnifications m and 1/m.
The minimum object-to-image distance with a real object and
a real image occurs at 1:1 imaging:
m = 1
L = 4fE
17
Object-Image Conjugates
Distant objects (real or virtual) map to images located near
the rear focal point. Objects near the front focal point map to
distant images. The plots are for a thin lens in air, and the
object and image distances are measured relative to the lens:
Real Objects: z < 0

Real Images: z > 0
Virtual Objects: z > 0

Virtual Images: z < 0
When the magnitude of the object distance z is more than

a few times the magnitude of the system focal length, the
image distance z is approximately equal to the rear focal
length. Here, n = n = 1
f
--- -L = z z f z
m = z
z f : z f
z z
The fractional error in these approximations is about
f z , so they are very useful when the object distance
more than 1020 times the focal length. Most imaging
problems can be solved with little or no computation.
There are similar approximations for distant images:
z
--- --z f : z f
L = z z z + f
m = z
f
z
18
Geometrical Optics
Afocal Systems
An afocal system is formed by the combination of two focal
systems. The rear focal point of the first system is coincident
with the front focal point of the second system. Rays parallel
to the axis in object space are conjugate to rays parallel to the
axis in image space. Common afocal systems are telescopes,
binoculars and beam expanders.
m =
fF2
f R 1
m = n m2
n
m =
fE2
f
= 2
fE1
f1
z n
= m2
z n
The transverse and longitudinal magnifications are constant.

Equispaced planes map into equispaced planes. The relative
axial spacing changes by the longitudinal magnification m .
Because the magnification is constant, the cardinal points are
not defined for an afocal system, and the Gaussian and
Newtonian equations cannot be used to determine conjugate
planes. However, any pair of conjugate planes coupled with m
can be used. A convenient pair is the front focal point of the
first system FF1 and the rear focal point of the second system
FR2.
m =
h
h
zA = mzA
19
Paraxial Optics
Paraxial optics is a method of determining the first-order
properties of an optical system that assumes all ray angles
are small. A paraxial raytrace is linear with respect to ray
angles and heights since all paraxial angles u are defined to
be the tangent of the actual angle U. Rays in the vicinity of
the optical axis are used, and the surface sag is ignored or
negligible.
u = sin U = tan U
Refraction (or reflection) occurs at an interface between two

optical spaces. The transfer distance t allows the ray height
y to be determined at any plane within an optical space
(including virtual segments).
= nu
= ( n n )C
t
= ---n
Refraction or reflection:
nu = nu y
= y
Transfer:
y = y + ut
y = y +
This type of raytrace is also called an YNU raytrace. All rays

propagate from object space to image space. A reverse
raytrace allows the ray properties to be determined in the
optical space upstream of a known ray segment. A ray can
then be worked back to its origins in object space.
Refraction or reflection (reverse):
Transfer (reverse):
nu = nu + y
= + y
y = y ut
y = y
20
Geometrical Optics
Paraxial Raytrace
The Gaussian properties of an optical system can be
determined using a paraxial raytrace with particular rays.
Rear cardinal points:
Trace a ray parallel to the axis in object space ( u = = 0 ).
This ray must go through the rear focal point F of the system.
The kth surface is the final surface in the system.
nuk
= k
y1
y1
BFD =
y
nyk
= k
k
uk
fE =
f R =
d = BFD f R
Front cardinal points:
Trace a ray from the system front focal point F that emerges
parallel to the axis in image space. The reverse raytrace
equations are used to work from image space back to object
space.
nu1 1
1
n
=
=
fE =
fF =
yk
yk
FFD =
y
ny1
= 1
1
u1
d = FFD fF
21
YNU Raytrace Worksheet

The YNU raytrace worksheet allows a systematic calculation
method for tracing paraxial rays through an optical system.
Its use is demonstrated in the following example.
22
Geometrical Optics

Determine the rear cardinal points and power of the following
Cassegrain objective example. Since the system is folded,
the working distance WD is the distance from V to F. The
problem is solved by paraxial raytracing and also by
Gaussian reduction.
R1 = 200 mm
t = 80 mm
R2 = 50 mm
n1 = n = 1
n2 = 1
n3 = n = 1
C1 = 0.005 mm1
C2 = 0.02 mm1
= y
Paraxial raytrace:
Surface
C
t
n
-0.005
1.0
t/n
nu
u
-0.01
1.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
BFD
1.0
0.04
100
80
+
=
-0.02
-80
-1.0
-f
Object
y = y +
=
-0.01
0.01
0.2
0.0
-0.002
-0.002
A ray launched at an arbitrary height of 1.0 with zero angle is

traced until it crosses the axis at F. The BFD can be directly
solved on the raytrace sheet as the V to F distance. The
arrows overlaying the worksheet indicate the raytrace
procedure: the value of y is multiplied by directly above
and added to the previous nu to get nu in the next space.
Similarly, the value of nu is multiplied by above and added
to the previous y to obtain y at the next surface. continued.
23

The analysis of the raytrace results:
nu
0.002
= ----------2 = ------------------ = 0.002 mm1
y1
1.0
1
f R = fE = --- = 500 mm
y
0.2
BFD = ----2 = ------------------ = 100 mm
u2
0.002
d = BFD f R = BFD fE = 400 mm
WD = BFD + t = 20 mm
Gaussian reduction:
1 = ( n2 n )C1 = 0.01 mm1
2 = ( n n2 )C2 = 0 .04 mm1
= 1 + 2 12 = 0.002 mm1
d = n -----1 = 400 mm
t
= ----- = 80 mm
n2
1
f R = fE = --- = 500 mm
BFD = f R + d = fE + d = 100 mm
WD = BFD + t = 20 mm
In a paraxial raytrace, t is the directed distance from the
current surface to the next surface. As a result, real objects
will usually have a positive distance to the first surface, as
opposed to the typical negative Gaussian object distance z.
Surfaces are raytraced in optical order, not physical order.
All planes of interest in an optical space must be analyzed
before transferring to a reflective or refractive surface and
entering the next optical space. Within an optical space,
transfers move back or forth along the ray in that space
without changing the ray angle. Real and virtual segments
of the space can be accessed.
24
Geometrical Optics
Stops and Pupils

The aperture stop is the aperture in the system that limits
the bundle of light that propagates through the system from
the axial object point. The stop can be one of the lens
apertures or a separate aperture (iris diaphragm) placed in
the system, however, the stop is always a physical surface.
The entrance pupil EP and the exit pupil XP are the
images of the stop in object space and image space. The pupils
define the cones of light entering and exiting the optical
system from any object point.
XP
EP
Object
Image
z
Stop
There is a stop or pupil in each optical space. The EP is in the

system object space, and the XP is in the system image space.
Intermediate pupils are formed in other spaces.
There are two common methods to determine which aperture
in a system serves as the system stop:
Image each potential stop into object space. The pupil with
the smallest angular size from the perspective of the axial
object point corresponds to the stop. An analogous
procedure can also be done in image space.
Trace a ray through the system from the axial object point
with an arbitrary initial angle. The aperture that is the stop
will be proportionately closest to this ray. At each potential
stop, form the ratio of the aperture radius ak to the ray
height at that surface y k:
Aperture Stop Minimum a
-----k
y k
25
Marginal and Chief Rays

Rays confined to the y-z plane are called meridional rays.
The marginal ray and the chief ray are two special meridional
rays that together define the properties of the object, images
and pupils.
The marginal ray starts at the axial object position, goes
through the edge of the entrance pupil, and defines image
locations and pupil sizes. It propagates to the edge of the stop
and the edge of the exit pupil. The marginal ray height and
ray angle are denoted by y and u.
The chief ray starts at the edge of the object, goes through
the center of the entrance pupil, and defines image heights
and pupil locations. It goes through the center of the stop and
the center of the exit pupil. The chief ray height and ray angle
are denoted by y and u.
EP
Object
y
u
Marginal Ray
z
Chief Ray
The heights of the marginal ray and the chief ray can be
evaluated at any z in any optical space.
Image
y = h
y=0
z
Pupil
y = hPUPIL
y=0
z
When the marginal ray crosses the

axis, an image is located, and the size
of the image is given by the chief ray
height in that plane.
Whenever the chief ray crosses the
axis, a pupil or the stop is located, and
the pupil radius is given by the
marginal ray height in that plane.
Intermediate images and pupils are
often virtual.
26
Geometrical Optics
Pupil Locations
The stop is a real object for the formation of both the entrance
and exit pupil.
The pupil locations can be found by tracing a paraxial ray
starting at the center of the aperture stop. The ray is traced
through the group of elements behind the stop and reverse
traced through the group of elements in front of the stop. The
intersections of this ray with the axis in object and image
space determine the locations of the entrance and exit pupils.
Front
Group
EP
Rear
Group
Stop
XP
This ray becomes the chief ray when it is scaled to the object
or image size. The marginal ray gives the pupil sizes.
The trial ray used to determine
which aperture serves as the
system stop can be scaled to
the marginal ray.
u = u a
y = y a
-----k
-----k
y k min
y k min
The pupil locations and sizes can also be found using

Gaussian imagery. Imaging the stop through the rear group
of elements to find the XP is straightforward, however for the
EP, the stop is a real object to the right of the front group.
Light from the stop propagates EP
Stop
Front
from right to left to form the
Group
EP, and a negative index is
z
assigned. The object and image
zS
zS
PFG PFG
distances are measured from
the principal plane of the front
group that is in the same
1 1 1
------ = ----- + ------ (in air)
optical space as the object
zS
zS fFG
(stop) or image (pupil).
27
Field of View
The field of view FOV of an optical system is often expressed
as the maximum angular size of the object as seen from the
entrance pupil. The maximum image height is also used. For
finite conjugate systems, the maximum object height is useful.
Field of view FOV: the diameter of the object/image
Half field of view HFOV: the radius of the object/image
HFOV = 1 2 or h
tan ( 1 2 ) =
h
L
u = tan ( 1 2 ) =
h
L
Full field of view FFOV is sometimes used for FOV to

emphasize that this is a diameter measure. Since the EP is
the reference position for the FOV, this defining ray becomes
the chief ray of the system.
For distant objects, assuming a thin lens in air with the stop
at the lens:
u = tan ( 1 2 ) h
f
h f tan ( 1 2 ) = f u
The system FOV can be determined by the maximum object size,
the detector size, or by the field over which the optical system
exhibits good performance. For rectangular image formats,
horizontal, vertical and diagonal FOVs must be specified.
The fractional object FOB allows objects of different
heights to be defined in terms of the HFOV. FOB 0 is an
on-axis object, and FOB 1 is an object at the edge of the
HFOV. Since objects are two dimensional, FOB 0.7 divides
the circular FOV into two equal areas.
28
Geometrical Optics
Lagrange Invariant
The linearity of paraxial optics provides a relationship
between the heights and angles of any two rays propagating
through the system. The Lagrange invariant ( or H) is
formed with the paraxial marginal and chief rays:
= H = nuy nuy = y y
This expression is invariant both on refraction and transfer,

and it can be evaluated at any z in any optical space, and
often allows for the completion of apparently partial
information in an optical space by using the invariant formed
in a different optical space. Many of the results obtained from
raytrace derivations can also be simply obtained with the
Lagrange invariant. The Lagrange invariant is particularly
simple at images or objects ( y = 0 ) and pupils ( y = 0 ):
Image: = nuy = y
Pupil: = nuy = y
If two rays other than the marginal and chief rays are used,
the more general optical invariant I is formed.
Given two rays, a third ray can be formed as a linear
combination of the two rays. The coefficients are the ratios of
the pair-wise invariants of the values for the three rays at
some initial z. The expressions are then valid at any z.
y3 = Ay1 + By2
A = I32 I12
u3 = Au1 + Bu2
B = I13 I12
Iij = nui yj nuj yi
Changing the Lagrange invariant of a system scales the

optical system. Doubling the invariant while maintaining the
same object and image sizes and pupil diameters halves all of
the axial distances (and the focal length).
The throughput, etendue or product in radiometry
and radiative transfer are related to the square of the
Lagrange invariant:
n2A = 2 2
29
Numerical Aperture and F-Number

In an optical space of index nk, the numerical aperture NA
describes the axial cone of light in terms of the real marginal
ray angle Uk:
NA nk sin Uk nk uk
The F-number f /# describes the image-space cone of light for
an object at infinity:
f#
fE
DEP
DEP = Diameter of the EP
The NA and the f /# are related assuming a thin lens with the
stop at the lens and infinite conjugates:
f#
1
2NA
NA in image space
While the f /# is an image-space, infinite-conjugate measure,

this approximation allows f /#s to be defined for other optical
spaces and conjugates. In particular, the working F-number
f /#W describes the image forming cone for finite conjugates:
f #W
1 ( 1 m ) f # = ( 1 m ) fE
DEP
2NA
m = Magnification
Fast optical systems have small numeric values for the f /#.
Most lenses with adjustable stops have f /#s or f-stops labeled
in increments of 2 . The usual progression is f /1.4, f /2, f /2.8,
f /4, f /5.6, f /8, f /11, f /16, f /22, etc, where each stop changes the
area of the EP (and the light collection ability) by a factor of 2.
The Lagrange invariant relates the magnification between
two pupils to the chief ray angles at the pupils.
= nuyPUPIL = nuyPUPIL
mPUPIL =
yPUPIL
nu
=
=
nu
yPUPIL
30
Geometrical Optics
Ray Bundles
The ray bundle for an on-axis object is a rotationally
symmetric spindle made up of sections of right circular cones.
Each cone section is defined by the pupil and the object or
image point in that optical space. The individual cone sections
match up at the surfaces and elements.
At any z, the cross section of the bundle is circular, and the

radius of the bundle is the marginal ray value.
For an off-axis object point, the ray bundle skews, and is
comprised of sections of skew circular cones which are still
defined by the pupil and object or image point in that optical
space.
The cross section of the ray bundle at any z remains circular

with a radius equal to the radius of the axial bundle. The offaxis bundle is centered about the chief ray height.
The maximum radial extent of the ray bundle at any z is
yMAX = y + y
31
Vignetting
While the stop alone defines the axial ray bundle, vignetting
occurs when other apertures in the system, such as a lens
clear aperture, block all or part of an off-axis ray bundle.
No vignetting occurs when all of the apertures pass the entire
ray bundle from the object point. Each aperture radius a must
equal or exceed the maximum height of the ray bundle at the
aperture.
Unvignetted:
a y + y
The maximum FOV supported by the system occurs when an

aperture completely blocks the ray bundle from the object
point.
Fully vignetted:
a y y
and
a y
The second vignetting condition ensures that the aperture

passes the marginal ray and is not the system stop. By
definition, vignetting cannot occur at the aperture stop or at a
pupil.
3DUWB&IP3DJH0RQGD\-DQXDU\
30
32
Geometrical Optics
More Vignetting
A third vignetting condition is defined when an aperture
passes about half of the ray bundle from an object point.
Half vignetted:
a
and
a y
The vignetting conditions are used in two different manners:

For a given set of apertures, the FOV that the system will
support with a prescribed amount of vignetting can be
determined. A different chief ray defines each FOV.
For a given FOV and vignetting condition, the required
aperture diameters can be determined.
A system with vignetting will have an image that has full
irradiance or brightness out to a radius corresponding to the
unvignetted FOV limit. The irradiance will then begin to fall
off, going to about half at the half-vignetted FOV, and
decreasing to zero at the fully vignetted FOV. This fully
vignetted FOV is the absolute maximum possible. This
discussion ignores the obliquily factors of radiative transfer,
such as the cosine fourth law.
The diameter of the aperture stop is very important design
parameter for an optical system as it controls five separate
performance aspects of the system:
The system FOV determined by vignetting.
The radiometric or photometric speed of the system or
its light collecting ability.
The depth of focus and depth of field of the system.
The amount of aberrations degrading image quality.
The diffraction-based performance of the system.
While some of these aspects are interrelated, they all
derive from different physical phenomena.
33
Telecentricity
In a telecentric system, the EP and/or the XP are located at
infinity. Telecentricity in object or image space requires
that the chief ray be parallel to the axis in that space. As a
consequence, the apparent system magnification is constant
even if the object or image plane is displaced from its nominal
position. The image will be blurred, but of the correct size or
magnification.
When the stop is located at the front focal plane of a focal
system, the XP is at infinity, and the system is image-space
telecentric. Defocus of the image plane or detector will not
change the image height.
Placing the stop at the rear focal plane puts the EP at infinity
and forms an object-space telecentric system. The blur
from the defocused object is centered about the chief ray and
the image height at the nominal image plane is constant.
Object-space telecentric systems are almost always used at

finite conjugates. The maximum object size is limited to
approximately the radius of the objective lens due to vignetting
considerations.
34
Geometrical Optics
Double Telecentricity
An afocal system is made double telecentric by placing the
system stop at the common focal point. The chief ray is
parallel to the axis in object space and image space, and both
the EP and the XP are located at infinity. All double
telecentric systems must be afocal.
Since the ray bundle is centered on the chief ray, this condition
guarantees that height of the blur forming the image is
independent of axial object shifts or image plane shifts.
Telecentricity is an important feature of many optical
metrology systems as the apparent size of an inspected
object does not change with focus, object position, or object
thickness. Microscope objectives are often object-space
telecentric to prevent zooming of out-of-focus planes when
focusing through a thick, transparent specimen.
Defining the angular FOV relative to the EP or the XP is
impossible if the system is telecentric in that particular
optical space because the respective pupil is at infinity. The
object height or image height can, however, be used.
A second method for defining angular FOV is to measure
the angular size of the object relative to the front nodal
point N. This is useful because the angular sizes of the
object and the image are equal when viewed from the
respective nodal points. This definition of angular FOV
fails for afocal systems which do not have nodal points.
Double telecentric systems, being afocal, generally use the
object height or the image height to define FOV.
The choice of using the EP or nodal point for angular FOV
is of little consequence when the object is distant.
35
Depth of Focus and Depth of Field

There is often some allowable image blur that defines the
performance requirement of an optical system. This maximum
acceptable blur may result from the detector resolution or
just the overall system resolution requirement. This blur
requirement results in a first-order geometrical tolerance for
the longitudinal position of the object or the image plane. No
diffraction or aberrations are included.
The depth of focus DOF describes the amount the detector can
be shifted from the nominal image position for an object before
the resulting blur exceeds the blur diameter criterion B .
b =
BLO Bz
DXP DEP
DOF Bf #W
DOF B
2NA
There is also some range of object positions LFAR to LNEAR, the
depth of field, that will appear in focus for a given detector
or image plane position. The image plane blur criterion is met
for these object positions. LO is the object position
corresponding to the image plane location LO. These results
assume a thin lens with the stop at the lens.
LNEAR
LO f D
f D LO B
LFAR
LO f D
f D + LO B
36
Geometrical Optics
Hyperfocal Distance and Scheimpflug Condition

An important condition occurs when the far point of the depth
of field LFAR extends to infinity. The optical system is focused at
the hyperfocal distance LH , and all objects from LNEAR to
infinity meet the image plane blur criterion and are in focus.
fD
LH = -----B
L
LNEAR ------H
2
LFAR =
The near focus limit is approximately half the hyperfocal

object distance.
The depth of field and the hyperfocal distance help explain
the practical operation of camera systems including the
required focus precision, the needed number of focus zones,
and how fixed-focus cameras work.
First-order optical systems image points to points, lines to
lines and planes to planes. This condition holds even if the
line or plane is not perpendicular to the optical axis. The
Scheimpflug condition states that a tilted plane images to
another tilted plane, and for a thin lens, the line of
intersection lies in the plane of the lens.
Even though the image is in focus, it will exhibit keystone

distortion as the lateral magnification varies along the tilted
object. This condition easily extends to a thick lens or system:
the line of intersection is coincident in the front and rear
principal planes of the system.
Optical Systems
37
Parity and Plane Mirrors

In addition to bending or folding the light path, reflection from
a plane mirror introduces a parity change in the image.
Invert Image flip about a horizontal line.

Revert Image flip about a vertical line.
An inversion plus a reversion is equivalent
to a 180 image rotation; no parity change.
An image seen by an even number of reflections maintains its
parity. An odd number of reflections changes the parity. Parity
is determined by looking back against the propagation
direction towards the object or image in that optical space; let
the light from the object or image come to you.
Each ray from an object obeys the law of reflection at a plane

mirror surface, and a virtual image of the object is produced.
The rules of plane mirrors:
The line connecting an object point and its image is
perpendicular to the mirror and is bisected by the mirror.
Any point on the mirror surface is equidistant from a given
object point and its image point.
The image parity is changed on reflection.
38
Geometrical Optics
Systems of Plane Mirrors

The rules of plane mirrors are used sequentially at each
mirror in a system of plane mirrors. Two parallel plane
mirrors act as a periscope and displace the line of sight.
There is no parity change, and all
image rays are parallel to the
corresponding object rays. The
image is displaced by twice the
perpendicular separation of the
mirrors.
The dihedral line is the line of intersection of two nonparallel plane mirrors. In a plane perpendicular to the
dihedral line (a principal section), the projected ray path is
deviated by twice the angle between the mirrors (the dihedral
angle ). This deviation is independent of the input angle.
= 2
< 90: The input and output
rays cross.
> 90: The input and output
rays diverge.
The projection of the ray paths into a plane containing the
dihedral line shows a simple reflection at the dihedral line.
When the dihedral angle is 90, the
input and output rays are anti-parallel.
This roof mirror can replace any flat
mirror to insert an additional reflection
or parity change. An equivalent plane
mirror is formed at the dihedral line.
All rays through the roof mirror have
the same optical path.
The dihedral line is often in the plane of
the drawing, and the presence of a roof
mirror is indicated by a V at the
equivalent mirror or dihedral line.
Optical Systems
39
Prism Systems
Prism systems can be considered systems of plane mirrors.
If the angles of incidence allow, the reflection is due to TIR.
Prisms fold the optical path and correct the image parity.
Surfaces where TIR fails must have a reflective coating.
A tunnel diagram unfolds the optical path through the
prism and shows the total length of the path through the
prism. The prism is represented as a block of glass of the same
thickness. The tunnel diagram aids in determining FOV, clear
aperture, and vignetting. The addition of a roof mirror to the
prism does not change the tunnel diagram.
Prisms are classified by the overall ray deviation angle and
the number of reflections (# of Rs).
90 Deviation Prisms
Right angle prism (1 R) the deviation depends on the
input angle and prism orientation.
Pentaprism (2 R) two coated surfaces at 45 produce a 90

deviation independent of the input angle. It is the standard
optical metrology tool for defining a right angle.
Amici or Roof prism (2 R) a right angle

prism with a roof mirror.
Reflex prism (3 R) a pentaprism with an
added roof mirror. Used in single lens reflex
(SLR) camera viewfinders.
40
Geometrical Optics
More Prism Systems

180 Deviation Prisms
Porro prism (2 R) a right angle prism using the hypotenuse
as the entrance face. It controls the deviation in one dimension.
Corner cube (3 R) three surfaces at 90. The output ray of

this retroreflector is anti-parallel to the input ray. The figures
appear skewed due to the compound angles needed to
represent a prism face and a roof edge when all three prism
faces have equal angles with the optical axis.
45 Deviation Prisms
45 prism (2 R) half a pentaprism.
Schmidt prism (4 R) a 3 R version without a roof also exists.
TIR often fails when prisms are used with fast f /# beams.
In polarized light applications, TIR at the prism surfaces
will change the polarization state of the light. In both these
situations, silvered or coated prisms must be used.
Prisms with entrance and exit faces normal to the optical
axis can be used in converging or diverging light.
Optical Systems
41
Image Rotation and Erection Prisms

Image Rotation Prisms as the prism is rotated by about
the optical axis, the image rotates by twice that amount (2 ).
Dove prism (1 R) because of the tilted entrance and exit
faces of the prism, it must be used in collimated light.
Reversion or K prism (3 R) the upper face must be coated.
Pechan prism (5 R) a small air gap provides a TIR surface

inside the prism. This compact prism supports a wide FOV.
Image Erection Prisms These prisms are inserted in an

optical system to provide a fixed 180 image rotation.
Porro system (4 R) two Porro prisms.
This prism accounts for the displacement
between the objective lenses and the
eyepieces in binoculars.
Porro-Abbe system (4 R) a variation
of the Porro system where the sequence
of reflections is changed.
Pechan-roof prism (6 R) a roof is added to
a Pechan prism. This prism is used in compact
binoculars and provides a straight-through
line of sight.
42
Geometrical Optics
Plane Parallel Plates

A ray passing through a plane parallel plate is displaced
but not deviated; the input and output rays are parallel.
1 sin2
D = t sin 1 ------------------------n2 sin2
n 1
D t -----------n
(in air)
An image formed through a plane parallel plate is longitudinally
displaced, but its magnification is unchanged.
1
------------ t
d n
n
d --t for n = 1.5
3
t
= t d = --n
The reduced thickness gives the air-equivalent thickness

of the glass plate. A reduced diagram shows the amount of air
path needed to fit the plate in the system, and no refraction is
shown at the faces of the plate. A reduced tunnel diagram
shortens the length of a tunnel
diagram by 1/n to show the airequivalent length of the prism.
Reduced diagrams can be placed
directly onto system layout drawings
to determine the required prism
aperture sizes for a given FOV. Note
that the OPL increases greatly when
a prism or glass plate is inserted.
Optical Systems
43
Objectives
Objectives are lens element combinations used to image
(usually) distant objects. To classify the objective, separated
groups of lens elements are
modeled as thin lenses. The
simple objective is represented
by a positive thin lens.
The Petzval objective
consists of two separated
positive groups of elements.
The system rear principal
plane is located between the
groups.
The telephoto objective
produces a system focal
length longer than the
overall system length (t
+ BFD). It consists of a
positive group followed by
a negative group.
The reverse telephoto
objective or retrofocus
objective consists of a
negative group followed
by a positive group. This
configuration is used to
produce a system with a
BFD larger than the
system focal length. While this configuration is used for many
wide angle objectives, the term reverse telephoto specifically
refers to the configuration, not the FOV.
A collimator is a reversed objective. It creates a collimated
beam from a source at the system front focal point, and the
image of the source is projected to infinity. The degree of
collimation is determined by the source size.
44
Geometrical Optics
Zoom Lenses
A zoom lens is a variable focal length objective with a fixed
image plane. The simplest example consists of two lens
elements or groups (powers 1 and 2) where both the system
focal length f and BFD vary with element spacing t.
1
= -- = 1 + 2 1 2t
f
BFD = f + d = f ----1 t
The pair of elements is moved relative to the fixed image

plane to maintain focus as the focal length is varied. The
element positions are shown for a reverse telephoto zoom.
This configuration is attractive due to its large BFD.
As the separation approaches the sum of the element focal

lengths ( f1 + f2 ), the system becomes afocal ( f ). The zoom
range of the analogous telephoto zoom is limited by its BFD
as the rear element can run into the image plane when the
element separation approaches f1 .
A mechanical cam provides the complicated lens motions
required for these mechanically compensated zoom lenses.
Zoom lenses often use multiple groups of moving elements. A
common three group
configuration uses a
fixed front element
and moving second
and third groups.
Optical Systems
45
Magnifiers
The largest image magnification possible with the unaided
eye occurs when the object is placed at the near point of the
eye, by convention, 250 mm or 10 in. from the eye. A magnifier
is a single lens that provides an enlarged erect virtual image
of a nearby object for visual observation.
The magnifying power MP is defined as (stop at the eye):

Angular size of the image (with lens)
MP = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Angular size of the object at the near point
uM h ( z s )
= -------------------------MP = -----h dNP
uU
dNP = 250 mm
250 mm( z f -) 250

mm--------------------MP = ---------------------------------------f ( z s )
f
This approximation is the most common definition of the MP
of a magnifier. It assumes that the lens is close to the eye and
that the image is presented to a relaxed eye ( z = ).
The angular subtense of the image h at the eye is
= h MP 250 mm
The resolution of the human eye is about 1 arc min. In order
to resolve an object of size h, the required MP is then
MP .075 mm h
Magnifiers up to about 25X are practical; 10X is common.
46
Geometrical Optics
Keplerian Telescope
Telescopes are afocal systems used for visual observation of
distant objects. The image through the telescope subtends an
angle different from the angle subtended by the object .
The magnifying power MP of a telescope is
MP = ---
MP > 1
Telescope magnifies
MP < 1
Telescope minifies
A Keplerian telescope or astronomical telescope consists

of two positive lenses separated by the sum of the focal lengths.
The system stop is usually at or near the objective lens.
fEYE
m = --------fOBJ
fOBJ
1
MP = ---- = --------fEYE
m
The image presented to the eye is inverted and reverted

(rotated 180), and the MP is negative. The eye should be
placed at the real XP to couple the eye to the telescope. The
XP position is the eye relief ER. The magnification of the
afocal system relates the diameters of the EP and the XP.
ER = ( 1 m)fEYE
DEP
DXP = m DEP = -----------MP
The XP of a visual instrument is also known as the eye circle

or the Ramsden circle.
Optical Systems
47
Galilean Telescope
The Galilean telescope uses a positive lens and a negative
lens to to obtain an erect image and a positive MP ( MP > 1 ).
fEYE
m = --------fOBJ
fOBJ
1
MP = ---- = --------fEYE
m
The XP is internal and not accessible to the eye. The FOV of

the system is small. There is no intermediate image plane.
For a given MP , the Galilean telescope is shorter than the
corresponding Keplerian telescope. Its FOV is also smaller.
A reversed Galilean telescope provides a minified erect
image ( 0 < MP < 1). This configuration is used in door peepholes
and many camera viewfinders. In these systems, the eye is
often the system stop.
The term telescope has come to mean any system used to
view distant objects. Here, telescope specifically refers to an
afocal system used with the eye. Large astronomical
telescopes are actually objectives or cameras where an
image array detector is placed at the system focal point.
Binoculars are a pair of parallel telescopes, one for each eye.
The specification provided on telescopes and binoculars is of
the form AXB (for example 7X35).
A = MP
B = Objective diameter in mm
48
Geometrical Optics
Field Lenses
The FOV of the Keplerian telescope is limited by vignetting at
the eye lens. A field lens placed at the intermediate image
plane increases the FOV by bending the ray bundle into the
aperture of the eye lens.
The combination of the field lens eye lens has the same focal
length as the eye lens. The front principal plane of the
combination remains at the eye lens, but the field lens shifts
the rear principal plane to reduce the original eye relief by d.
f = fEYE
2
f EYE
d = ------------fFIELD
The field lens does not change the MP of the telescope or the
size of the XP. Maintaining a usable ER limits the strength of
the field lens and the FOV increase possible for a given eye
lens diameter. Since the field lens is located at an image
plane, dirt and imperfections on it become part of the image.
In practice, the field lens is often displaced from the image
plane to minimize these effects through defocus.
A Keplerian telescope can be considered to be the
combination of an objective plus a magnifier. An aerial
image (or an image formed in air) is formed at the common
focal point by the objective. The eye lens magnifies this
image and transfers it to infinity.
Optical Systems
49
Eyepieces
An eyepiece or ocular is the combination of the field lens
and the eye lens. A simple eyepiece does not have a field
lens. A compound eyepiece has both an eye lens and a field
lens.
A field stop can be placed at the intermediate image plane to
restrict the system FOV. This aperture serves to limit the
field to a well-corrected or non-vignetted region. Reticles and
graticles provide alignment and measurement fiducial marks,
and they are placed in the intermediate image plane to be
superimposed on the image. Since both the reticle and the
image are in focus, reticles must be clean and defect free.
Two
special
eyepiece
configurations displace the
field
lens
from
the
intermediate image plane.
The intermediate image
plane for a Huygens
eyepiece falls between the two elements. The Ramsden
eyepiece places the field lens behind the intermediate image.
It is a good choice to use with reticles as the eyepiece does not
change the magnification or size of the intermediate image.
This eyepiece has about 50% more eye relief than the
Huygens
eyepiece.
A
Kellner eyepiece replaces
the singlet eye lens of the
Ramsden eyepiece with a
doublet for color correction.
Hand-held instruments should have 1520 mm of eye relief.
Microscopes may have as little as 23 mm of eye relief. Other
systems, such as riflescopes, should have a very long eye relief.
The XP should be made larger or smaller than the pupil of the
eye so that vignetting does not occur with head or eye motion.
The human eye pupil diameter varies from 28 mm, with a
diameter of about 4 mm under ordinary lighting conditions.
When overfilled, the eye becomes the system stop.
50
Geometrical Optics
Relays
For terrestrial applications, the image orientation of a
Keplerian telescope can be corrected using an image erection
prism such as a Porro prism system or a Pechan-roof prism. A
relay lens can also correct the image orientation.
The net MP of the relayed Keplerian telescope is positive

and equals the product of the magnification of the relay and
the MP of the original Keplerian telescope.
z
z fOBJ
mR = ----R
MP = mR MPK = ----R- --------zR
zR fEYE
Multiple relay lenses can be used to transfer the image over a
long distance. Examples include periscopes, endoscopes and
borescopes.
Field lenses can also be added at the intermediate images. A
common arrangement is for each field lens to image the pupil
into the following relay lens. All of the light collected by the
objective is transferred down the optical system. The final
field lens is part of the eyepiece.
The functions of a field lens and a relay lens can be combined
into a single erector lens. This lens will require a diameter
larger than the replaced field or relay lenses. The relayed
image and pupil are shifted from their original positions.
Optical Systems
51
Microscopes
A microscope is a sophisticated magnifier consisting of an
objective plus an eyepiece.
The visual magnification is the product of the objective

magnification and the eyepiece MP.
z
mOBJ = ----O
zO
250 mm
MPEYE = ----------------------fEYE
z 250 mm
mV = mOBJ MPEYE = ----O- ----------------------zO fEYE
The optical tube length OTL of a microscope is defined as
the distance from the rear focal point of the objective to the
front focal point of the eyepiece (intermediate image).
Standard values for the OTL are 160 mm and 215 mm. The
OTL is a Newtonian image distance:
OTL
mOBJ = ------------fOBJ
250 mm
------------- -----------------------mV = OTL
fOBJ fEYE
The NA of a microscope objective is defined in object space by

the half-angle of the accepted input ray bundle. Along with
the objective magnification, the NA is inscribed on the
objective barrel.
NA = n sin
Microscope objectives are
often telecentric in object
space. The stop is placed
at the rear focal point of
the objective so that the
magnification does not
change with object defocus.
52
Geometrical Optics
Microscope Terminology
The working distance WD is the distance from the object
to the first element of the objective; can be less than 1 mm
for high-power objectives.
The mechanical tube length is
separation between the shoulder of the
threaded mount of the objective and the
end of the tube into which the eyepiece
is inserted. Objectives and eyepieces
must be used at their design conjugates
and are not necessarily interchangeable
between manufacturers.
A set of parfocal objectives have different magnifications,
but the same shoulder height and the same shoulder-tointermediate image distance. As parfocal objectives are
interchanged with a rotating turret, the image changes
magnification but remains in focus.
Biological objectives are aberration corrected assuming a
cover glass between the object and the objective. The design
of a metallurgical objective assumes no cover glass.
Research-grade microscopes are usually designed using
infinity corrected objectives. The object plane is the
front focal plane of the objective, and a collimated beam
results for each object point. There is no specific tube
length, and an additional tube lens is used to produce the
intermediate image presented to the eyepiece.
The magnification of the objective-tube lens combination is

mOBJ = fTUBE fOBJ
If the objective is object-space telecentric and fTUBE equals
the infinite optical tube length IOTL, the combination is
afocal and double telecentric. This is a useful feature when
using reticles in the eyepiece.
Optical Systems
53
Viewfinders
Viewfinders allow for framing the scene in camera systems.
The FOV of the viewfinder should match the FOV recorded by
the camera.
A reflex viewfinder is a waist-level
viewfinder that uses an auxiliary
objective on the camera. The dim image
produced on a ground glass screen is
erect but reverted.
A brilliant reflex viewfinder produces
a much brighter image by replacing the
ground glass with a field lens. The
aperture of the viewfinder lens is imaged
onto the eyes of the operator.
Reverse Galilean viewfinders ( MP < 1 )
are common in point-and-shoot cameras,
however the lack of an intermediate
image plane prevents the use of a reticle
for framing marks to define the FOV. The
viewfinder stop is often at the eye.
The Van Albada viewfinder adds framing marks by placing

a partially reflecting coating on the negative lens of the reverse
Galilean viewfinder. This resulting concave mirror images a
framing mask or reticle (surrounding the positive eye lens) to
the front focal plane of the eye lens. The framing marks, now
imaged to infinity by the eye lens, are superimposed on the
straight-through viewfinder image of the scene.
For near objects, parallax between the camera FOV and the
viewfinder FOV is a problem with all of these viewfinders.
54
Geometrical Optics
Single Lens Reflex and Triangulation

The single lens reflex SLR system solves the parallax
problem by using the camera objective also for the viewfinder.
The movable mirror directs the light path either through the
viewfinder or to the film or detector. The ground glass is
optically conjugate to the film, and the eye lens serves as a
magnifier to view the image
on this viewing screen. The
reflex prism corrects the
image parity and provides
eye-level viewing. The ground
glass viewing screen prevents
vignetting by scattering light
from the entire image into the
eye lens. It can be replaced by
a field lens, often a Fresnel
lens, for light efficiency.
Because the viewfinder shares the objective lens, the SLR
system is ideal for use with interchangeable camera lenses.
Imaging (a real object and a real image) introduces a 180
image rotation. The optical magnification is negative, and
the image is inverted and reverted.
The perspective difference or parallax between images
produced by separated objectives can be used to triangulate
the distance to an object. The object distance z is related to
the relative image displacement d:
sfsz ---z = -------Passive triangulation
d
d
systems examine the
two images produced by
ambient scene light.
Active triangulation
sends a light beam out
through one lens, and
images
the
light
reflected by the object
with the other lens.
Optical Systems
55
Illumination Systems
A projector is the general term for an imaging system that
also provides the illumination for the object.
There are three basic classifications of illumination systems:

Diffuse illumination light with a large angular spread
is incident on the object. This description would also include
ambient or natural lighting conditions. There is no attempt
to image the source into the imaging system. This type of
system is simple and provides uniform illumination, but it
is light inefficient.
Specular illumination the light source is imaged by the
condenser optics into the EP of the imaging optics. Because
of its good light efficiency, specular illumination is used for
most optical systems designed with an integral light
source.
Critical illumination the light source is imaged directly
onto the object.
While very light efficient, critical illumination is rarely used.
The source brightness distribution is superimposed directly
on the object and therefore also appears as a brightness
modulation of the image. A very uniform source is required;
an example is a tungsten ribbon filament. The field of view of
this type of system is typically small.
56
Geometrical Optics
Diffuse Illumination
Diffuse illumination is usually achieved by the insertion of
a diffuser into the system. Surface diffusers, such as ground
glass, tend to be more efficient and less uniform than volume
diffusers, such as opal glass or translucent plastic sheets.
Diffusers increase the apparent size of the source resulting in
greater uniformity of illumination. This greater range of
illumination angles also provides scratch suppression that
will hide phase errors on the object, such as a scratch or
defect in the substrate of the object transparency.
If specular or narrow angle illumination is used, this scratch
will scatter the light out of the optical system, and the scratch
will appear dark in the image.
With diffuse illumination, many different input angles are

present, and while some rays are scattered out of the system
by the scratch, other rays will be scattered into the aperture
of the imaging lens. The visibility of the scratch in the image
is significantly decreased.
A scratch or defect in the transmission of the object is not

hidden even by diffuse illumination. For example, a scratch in
the emulsion of a transparency becomes part of the object and
will be seen in the image.
Optical Systems
57
Integrating Spheres and Bars

An integrating bar or
light pipe provides diffuse
light with a significant
increase in efficiency over
simple diffusers. The bar
has a rectangular cross
section with polished
surfaces. The source is
placed at one end of the
bar, and TIR occurs at
each face. The tunnel
diagram shows that the
transparency at the other
end of the bar sees a
rectangular array of source
images. The effect is similar to a kaleidoscope. A greater
range of illumination angles or diffuseness results. The bar
geometry and the TIR critical angle limit the number of
source images. With six polished faces, integrating bars are
expensive. The source images produced by a tapered
integrating bar (used to reduce the illuminated area) are
located on a sphere. Hollow mirror tunnels can be used
instead of solid glass.
The ultimate in diffuse illumination
is provided by an integrating
sphere. The inside of a hollow
sphere is coated with a highly
reflective diffuse white coating. Light
directed into the entry port
undergoes many random reflections
before escaping through the exit
port. The output light is extremely
uniform with a brightness that is
independent of viewing angle. The
two ports are usually at 90 to
prevent the direct viewing of the
source and the first source reflection.
Integrating spheres are also used in precision measurement
radiometers by replacing the source with a detector.
58
Geometrical Optics
Projection Condenser System

The most common example of specular illumination is the
projection condenser system. A condenser lens, placed in
close proximity to the transparent object, images the source
into the pupil of the projection lens.
Each point on the object is illuminated by all parts of the

source resulting in uniform illumination. The angular range of
the illumination at the object is limited to the angular size of
the source as seen from the object. The condenser lens serves
as a field lens to bend source rays going through the edge of
the object back into the projection lens. The condenser lens
should be designed to be as fast as possible (f /#W often faster
than f /1 on the source side). The projection lens diameter
must be larger than the size of the source image.
The projection condenser system can be considered to be
two coupled optical systems. The marginal ray of the
condenser system becomes the chief ray of the imaging
system, and the chief ray of the condenser system becomes
the marginal ray of the imaging system.
Koehler illumination is a type of specular illumination often
used in microscopes to provide control of the illumination.
The substage diaphragm (at the source image) allows the
overall light level to be varied, and the field diaphragm
changes the amount of the object that is illuminated.
Optical Systems
59
Source Mirrors
Placing a concave mirror behind
the source can increase the light
level in the projection system. The
classic solution is to place the
source at the center of curvature
of the mirror. The source image is
on top of or adjacent to the source.
An improvement of less than a
factor of two is obtained.
Dramatic increases in illumination level occur by placing the
source at the focus of the concave mirror. The source image
occurs at infinity. The solid angle of the mirror can be more
than 2 sr, and the amount of light intercepted and reflected
by the mirror can exceed the light directly collected by the
condenser by a factor of ten or more. The designs of systems of
this type almost ignore the forward light through the
condenser. The mirror shape is usually parabolic.
To provide a greater level of diffuseness, the surface of the

parabola can be segmented into small flat mirrors. A virtual
source is formed behind each facet.
The details of the faceted parabolic
reflector are complicated, but for
design purposes it can be modeled as
an extended source located at or near
the concave mirror. The mirror
aperture defines the extent of the
extended source. The condenser lens
images the collected sources into the
aperture of the projection lens.
60
Geometrical Optics
Overhead Projector
The overhead projector uses
projection condenser illumination
to project a large transparency
onto a projection screen located
behind the presenter. In addition
to bending the light path, the fold
mirror creates the proper image
parity for the audience.
Because of the large size of the
transparency,
a
conventional
condenser lens is impractical and
a Fresnel lens is used. The thick
lens is collapsed into radial zones.
An image is produced by
each zone, and these
images add incoherently,
so that the diffractionbased resolution is that of
a single zone.
To determine parity,
the diffuse reflection
from the projection
screen introduces a
parity change like any
other reflection.
Heat management is a significant issue for most projectors.

Heat absorbing glass or a hot mirror can be placed
between the source and the condenser lens. In addition, a
concave cold mirror behind the source allows the heat or
infrared IR radiation to exit out the back of the system. A hot
mirror reflects the IR light (the hot) and transmits the visible
light. A cold mirror reflects the visible light (the cold) and
transmits the IR light. A cooling fan is often required to
supplement the heat management in the optical system.
Optical Systems
61
Schlieren and Dark Field Systems

Specular or narrow angle illumination can be used to identify
features or defects on an object. In a schlieren system, light
from a small source is collimated before passing through the
object plane. An imaging lens forms an image of the source as
well as the final image. The image of the source is blocked by
an opaque disk or a knife edge. With no object present, the
image appears black. When the object is inserted, any feature
or imperfection on the object will scatter (or refract or diffract)
some light past the obscuration. These localized areas on the
object will appear bright in the image.
Some applications of the schlieren technique are aerodynamic

flow visualization and inspecting glass for inhomogeneity and
stria.
Dark field illumination is a variation of this technique
using directional lighting. The light source is placed to the
side of the objective lens, or in a ring around the lens. If the
object is perfectly smooth (a mirror), a specular reflection
within the FOV misses the
objective, and the image is dark.
Features or imperfections on the
surface will scatter light into the
objective and appear bright in
the image. This technique is
especially common in machine
vision and reflection microscopy.
Setups for transmission dark
field measurements also exist.
With both techniques, the orientation of features, or the
surface derivatives, can be measured using an oriented knife
edge (schlieren) or by directional illumination (dark field).
62
Geometrical Optics
Dispersion
Index of refraction is commonly measured and reported at the
specific wavelengths of elemental spectral lines. Over the
visible spectrum, the dispersion of the index of refraction for
optical glass is about 0.5% (low dispersion) to 1.5% (high
dispersion) of the mean value of the index.
F
(H)
486.1 nm
d
(He) 587.6 nm
C (H)
656.3 nm
I
h
F
g
e
D
C
r
t
(Hg) 365.0 nm
(Hg) 404.7 nm
(Cd) 480.0 nm
(Hg) 435.8 nm
(Hg) 546.1 nm
(Na) 589.3 nm
(Cd) 643.8 nm
(He) 706.5 nm
(Hg) 1014.0 nm
For visible applications, the F, d and C lines are usually used.

Refractivity:
Principal dispersion:
nd 1
nF nC
Abbe number (or reciprocal relative dispersion):

= V =
nd 1
nF nC
Refractivity
Principal dispersion
Typical values of the Abbe number for optical glass range

from 25 to 65. Low -values indicate high dispersion.
Partial dispersion:
nd nC
Relative partial dispersion ratio: P = Pd , C =
nd nC
nF nC
The P-value gives the fraction of the total index change

nF nC that occurs between the d and C wavelengths nd nC .
Due to the flattening of the dispersion curve, Pd , C < 0.5 .
P-values can also be defined for other sets of wavelengths:
n n
PX, Y = X Y
nF nC
Chromatic Effects
63
Optical Glass
The glass map plots index of refraction versus Abbe number.
By tradition, the Abbe number increases to the left, so that
dispersion increases to the right. The glass line is the locus
of ordinary optical glasses based on silicon dioxide.
The line at 50 to 55 separates the glasses into the two

primary classifications: crown glass (low dispersion) and flint
glass (high dispersion).
The addition of lead oxide increases the dispersion and the
index and moves the glass up the glass line. To increase the
index without changing the dispersion, barium oxide is added.
The rare earth glasses are lanthanum oxide based (instead
of silicon dioxide) and provide high index and low dispersion.
Glasses away from the glass line are softer and more difficult
to polish. Low index glasses are less dense and generally have
better blue transmission.
Glasses are currently being reformulated to eliminate lead
and arsenic. Lead is replaced with other elements, especially
titanium. The new or environmentally safe glasses usually
carry an N, S or E prefix (depending on the manufacturer).
64
Geometrical Optics
Material Properties
The six-digit glass code specifies the index and the Abbe
number:
abcdef
Material
N-FK51*
N-BK7
LLF1
N-KzFS4
N-F2
N-SK16
SF2
KzFSN5
N-LaK8
N-LaF21
N-SF6
N-LaSF31
N-LaSF46
Fused Silica
PMMA
Polycarbonate
Polystyrene
Water
Code
487845
517642
548458
613445
620364
620603
648339
654396
713538
788475
805254
881410
901316
458678
492574
585299
590311
333560
nd = 1.abc = de.f
nd
nF
1.48656 1.49056
1.51680 1.52238
1.54814 1.55655
1.61336 1.62300
1.62005 1.63208
1.62041 1.62756
1.64769 1.66123
1.65412 1.66571
1.71300 1.72222
1.78800 1.79960
1.80518 1.82783
1.88067 1.89576
1.90138 1.92156
1.45847 1.46313
1.492 1.498
1.585 1.600
1.590 1.604
1.333 1.337
nC
1.48480
1.51432
1.54457
1.60922
1.61506
1.61727
1.64210
1.64920
1.70897
1.78301
1.79608
1.87429
1.89307
1.45637
1.489
1.580
1.585
1.331
84.5
64.2
45.8
44.5
36.4
60.3
33.9
39.6
53.8
47.5
25.4
41.0
31.6
67.8
55
30
31
60
P
0.306
0.308
0.298
0.301
0.294
0.305
0.292
0.298
0.304
0.301
0.287
0.297
0.292
0.311
0.33
0.25
0.26
0.33
* Schott Glass Technologies Inc. designation. Equivalent glasses can

also be obtained from Ohara Corp. and Hoya Corp.
The properties of an individual sample, especially for the

plastic materials and water, can vary from these catalog
values. For precision systems, the measured indices of the
actual glass should be used in final designs. The listed indices
are measured relative to air ( n 1.0003), and the indices
should be corrected for use in vacuum. In addition to index
data at various wavelengths, the glass catalog lists other
materials properties important for a design such as
coefficients of thermal expansion, temperature
coefficients of refractive index, internal transmission
as a function of wavelength, several mechanical properties,
and chemical resistance values (for example, stain resistance,
climatic resistance and acid resistance).
Chromatic Effects
65
Dispersing Prisms
At minimum deviation, the
ray path through a dispersing
prism is symmetric = .
The ray is bent an equal
amount at each surface. By
sign convention, the deviation
is negative for this prism
orientation. The angle of
minimum deviation is
For = 60
MIN = 2 sin1 [ n sin ( 2 ) ]

The measurement of the index depends
only on MIN and the prism apex angle :
n =
sin [ ( MIN ) 2 ]
sin ( 2 )
n
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.0
MIN
21.1
28.9
37.2
46.3
56.4
68.3
120
Prism spectrometers can obtain accuracies of one part in 106.

The details of the prism dispersion depend on the geometry
used and the index dispersion curve. However, assuming the
prism is used at or near MIN , the average prism dispersion
over a wavelength band (F to C) can be estimated:
d
d ( n n )
d
= d dn MIN n MIN F C
d dn d
dn
dn ( F C)
where
dMIN
2 sin ( 2 )
=
cos [ ( MIN) 2 ]
dn
= 60
BK7
F2
38.7
48.2
MIN (nd)
n/
.0474/m .1002/m
d/d
4.18/m
10.2/m
or F C
.79
1.92
Blue light is deviated

more than red light.
66
Geometrical Optics
Thin Prisms
Thin prisms introduce small
angular beam deviations and are
useful as alignment devices. The
beam deviation is approximately
independent of the incident angle:
( n 1 )
Thin prisms are used for optometric correction of strabismus
(a misalignment of the axes of the eyes). The deviation is
measured in prism diopters. A prism of 1 diopter deviates
a beam by 1 cm at 1 m.
The beam deviation is parallel to a
principal section of the prism and
towards the thick end of the prism.
The magnitude and direction of
this deviation defines a vector
perpendicular to the optical axis (in
the x-y plane). The net deviation
vector for a series of thin prisms is
the sum of the component vectors.
A Risley prism consists of a pair of identical, but opposing,
thin prisms. The prisms are counter-rotated by to obtain a
variable net deviation in a fixed direction (shown with the net
deviation in the y-direction).
The Risley prism allows the fine angular alignment of an

optical system by adjusting the prism orientations .
Chromatic Effects
67
Thin Prism Dispersion and Achromatization

The dispersion of a thin prism
measures the total angular spread
from C to F light, and the secondary
dispersion gives the spread from
the C to d wavelengths. The results
depend on the index nd , Abbe
number and partial dispersion
ratio P of the glass.
Deviation:
= ( nd 1 )
Dispersion:
= ( nF nC)
Secondary Dispersion:
= ( nd nC )
= -
= P = P --
An achromatic thin prism or achromatic wedge provides

deviation without dispersion. Opposing prisms made from two
different glasses ( nd1, 1 , P1 and nd2 , 2, P2 ) are combined to
force the dispersion between the F and C wavelengths to be
zero. A deviation of is maintained for d light.
1 1 1
----- = ----------------- ---------------- 2 1 nd1 1
2
1 2 -
----- = --------------- 2 1- ----------------
nd2 1
The high-dispersion prism is inverted to obtain an opposing
deviation (as drawn, 1 > 0 and 2 < 0). While the F and C
wavelengths are corrected, a residual secondary dispersion
remains. For most glass pairs, d light will be bent more than
the F and C wavelengths.
P2 P1
P
-- = ---------------- = ------
2 1
A direct vision prism uses opposing prisms to provide
dispersion without deviation of the d light.
68
Geometrical Optics
Chromatic Aberration
Axial chromatic aberration or axial color is a variation of
the system focal length with wavelength. This aberration
derives from the dispersion of the glass.
--1- = ( n 1 ) ( C1 C2 )
f
f = fC fF
= F C
1
f
---= ------ = -f
(Thin lens)
Since Abbe numbers are

typically 3070, the longitudinal
chromatic aberration of a singlet
is 1.53% of the focal length. The
relative order of the foci is
reversed for a negative lens.
Transverse axial chromatic

aberration measures the
image blur size due to axial
chromatic aberration. It
depends only on the glass
and the pupil radius rP (stop
at the lens).
r
TA CH = ----P
Lateral chromatic aberration

or lateral color is caused by
dispersion of the chief ray. The
edge of the lens behaves like a
prism. Off-axis image points
will exhibit a radial color smear.
The blur length increases linearly with image height. Each
color has a different lateral magnification.
Chromatic Effects
69
Achromatic Doublet
The thin lens achromatic doublet corrects longitudinal
chromatic aberration by combining a positive element and a
negative element. Two different glasses (1 , P1 and 2 , P2) are
used. The nominal powers and focal lengths are for d light.
= 1 + 2
1 2
1
-----1 = ---------------
F = C
1 2
2
----2 = ---------------
This result forces the same axial focus for F and C light, but d
light can focus at a different location. This is the secondary
chromatic aberration or secondary color of the doublet.
dC = d C
fCd = fC fd
dC fCd P2 P1 P
----------- = --------- = ----------------- = ------
f
2 1
On a plot of P versus , most glasses lie on a straight line.
P 0.00045
------
f
fCd -----------2200
The use of the achromatic doublet reduces chromatic focal

length variation by a factor of about 40 over the same focal
length singlet. The d focus is inside the F-C focus.
The doublet design places excess power in the positive
element that is cancelled by the negative element. Both
elements contribute equal, but opposite, amounts of primary
chromatic aberration. Large differences in Abbe number
minimize the excess power and provide better performance.
70
Geometrical Optics
First-order or paraxial systems are ideal optical systems with
perfect imagery. Aberrations describe the deviations of real
systems from this perfection. Since the object is modeled as a
collection of independently radiating point sources, light is
propagated from a given object point to all points in the pupil
of the system to analyze the aberrations.
The aberrations are a function of the normalized pupil
coordinates xP , yP and the normalized image height H.
Normalized polar pupil coordinates
are also used. Note that by tradition,
the azimuth angle is defined
against the sign convention. The
physical pupil radius is rp .
x p = sin
yp = cos
A reference image point is defined by the intersection of the

paraxial chief ray and the paraxial image plane. Transverse
ray errors X, Y and longitudinal ray errors Z are
measured relative to this reference image point. Wavefront
errors W are measured in the XP relative to a reference
wavefront or reference sphere centered on the reference
image point. R is the radius of the reference sphere or the
image distance. A positive wavefront error is shown.
71
Rays and Wavefronts

The wavefront error is the OPD difference between the actual
wavefront and the reference wavefront. The wavefront error
will change if the reference image point is moved.
W( x P, yP ) = WA( x P, yP ) WR( x P, yP )
The rays are perpendicular to the wavefront. The transverse
ray errors are related to the slope of the wavefront error:
W( x P, yP )
R- --------------------------Y ( x P, yP ) = --rP
yP
W( x P, yP )
R- --------------------------X ( x P, yP ) = ---xP
rP
R1 2f #
--= --------W
rP nu
n and u are the image space index and marginal ray angle.
By rotational symmetry, only object points in the meridional
plane need be considered. A skew ray leaves the meridional
plane and intersects a general point in the pupil. Two special
sets of rays are used for aberration analysis. Tangential rays
or meridional rays intersect
the pupil at xP = 0.
Sagittal rays or transverse rays

intersect the pupil at yP = 0.
Wave fans are plots of the wavefront
error for these two sets of rays. Ray
fans (or ray intercept curves) plot the
transverse ray error. The tangential
ray fan plots Y versus yP for xP = 0 .
The sagittal ray fan plots X versus xP
for yP = 0 .
72
Geometrical Optics
Spot Diagrams
The spot diagram provides a geometrical
estimate of the image blur produced by that
system aberration. From a single object point,
rays are traced through a uniform grid in the
EP. Each ray corresponds to the same amount
of energy. The spot diagram plots all of the ray
intersections relative to the reference image
point. The common grids are square, hexapolar
and dithered.
The spot centroid relative to the reference image location is
found by averaging the ray errors:
N
1
Y = ---Yi
N i
=1
1
X = ---Xi
N i
=1
The spot size (max to min) is found by sorting through the

transverse ray errors to find the total range in x and y.
A better measure of the spot size is the root-mean-squared
spot size RMS. The ray errors are integrated or summed over
the pupil:
2 1
--- ( Y Y ) 2dd
RMSY = 1
12
0 0
2 1
--- ( X X )2d d
RMSX = 1
0 0
12
12
12
1 ( )2
= ---Yi
Y
N i
=1
1 ( )2
= ---Xi
X
N i
=1
A radial RMS spot size can also be determined:

RMSR2 = RMSY2 + RMSX2
For a rotationally symmetric optical system, the spot diagram
must be symmetric with respect to the meridional plane, and
X = 0. In a similar fashion, the sagittal wave fan must be
symmetric, and the sagittal ray fan is anti-symmetric. All of
the aberration measures (including the wave fans, ray fans
and spot diagrams) will vary with the image height H or FOV.
73
Wavefront Expansion
The wavefront expansion is a power series expansion for the
wavefront aberrations inherent to a rotationally symmetric
optical system. These aberrations are inherent to the design of
the system. In order to satisfy the requirements of rotational
symmetry, the expansion terms are H 2 , 2 and H cos . The
coefficient subscript encodes the powers of the corresponding
polynomial term:
WIJK H I J cosK
W=
W020 2
+ W111H cos
Defocus
Wavefront tilt
Third-Order Terms
+
+
+
+
+
W040 4
W131H 3 cos
W222 H 2 2 cos2
W220 H 2 2
W311 H 3 cos
Spherical aberration (SA)

Coma
Astigmatism
Field curvature
Distortion
Fifth-Order Terms
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
W060 6
W151 H 5 cos
W422 H 4 2 cos2
W420 H 4 2
W511 H 5cos
W240 H 24
W242 H 2 4 cos2
W331 H 3 3 cos
W333 H 3 3 cos3
Fifth-order SA
Fifth-order linear coma
Fifth-order astigmatism
Fifth-order field curvature
Fifth-order distortion
Sagittal oblique SA
Tangential oblique SA
Cubic coma
Elliptical
Line coma
coma
+ Higher order terms

The wavefront terms are denoted by the order of their ray
aberration, which is one less than the wavefront aberration
order. Terms with no pupil dependence, piston ( W000 ) and
field-dependent phase (W200 , W400 , etc.), are usually ignored.
74
Geometrical Optics
Tilt and Defocus

Wavefront tilt describes a difference between the paraxial
magnification and the actual magnification of the system.
W = W111H cos = W111HyP
RW H
Y = ----111
rP
X = 0
In a system with defocus W020 , the actual image plane is

displaced from the paraxial image plane. More importantly,
defocus allows the image plane or the reference image point
to be shifted for aberration balance and better image quality.
Recognizing that this shift is a user decision, the notation
W20 is used.
W = W20 2 = W20( xP2 + yP2 )
R- W cos = 2 ---R- W y
Y = 2 ---20
20 P
rP
rP
R- W sin = 2 ---R- W x
X = 2 ---20
20 P
rP
rP
z
W20 = --------------------2
8( f #)
z = 8( f # ) 2W20
In a system that has a wavefront error W and transverse ray
aberrations Y , X , an image plane shift changes the measured
apparent aberration:
W = W + W
Y = Y + Y
X = X + X
Moving the image plane changes the reference sphere, not the
actual wavefront in the XP of the system.
75
Spherical Aberration
Spherical aberration causes the power or focal length of the
system to vary with pupil radius.
W = W040 4 = W040( x P2 + y P2 ) 2
R- W 3 cos
Y = 4 ---040
rP
R- W 3 sin
X = 4 ---040
rP
Ray fans:
R- W y3
Y = 4 ---040 P
rP
R- W x3
X = 4 ---040 P
rP
The transverse aberration TA is
the transverse ray error from the top
of the pupil.
TA = Y ( yP = 1 )
The longitudinal aberration LA is the

distance from paraxial focus to marginal
focus (where the real marginal ray crosses
the axis). The longitudinal ray errors Z for
SA are quadratic with yP. The real marginal
ray angle is U .
TA = LA tan U
Z 16 ( f # )2 W040 yP2
76
Geometrical Optics
Spherical Aberration and Defocus

The image plane can
be
shifted
from
paraxial
focus
to
obtain better image
quality in the presence
of SA. Focus criteria
include mid focus,
minimum RMS spot
size, and minimum
circle (where the
marginal ray crosses
the caustic).
LA 16( f # ) 2W040
Mid focus:
Min RMS:
Min circle:
Marginal focus:
W20
W20
W20
W20
=
=
=
=
W040
1.33W040
1.5W040
2W040
z
z
z
z
=
=
=
=
.5 LA
.67 LA
.75 LA
LA
Mid focus corresponds to the minimum wavefront variance

condition which is optimum for viewing isolated point sources
such as stars. This condition is used for designing telescopes.
Spherochromatism is SA that varies with wavelength.
The power of a thin lens depends on the difference in surface
curvatures. Bending the lens does not change its power, but
its aberrations do change. The minimum
SA occurs when the ray is bent the same at
both surfaces. This is directly analogous to
the angle of minimum deviation for prisms.
For an object at infinity and n = 1.5, the
correct lens shape is approximately convexplano. At finite conjugates, a biconvex lens is used.
A positive thin lens has positive SA (W040 > 0), independent of
lens bending. Bending can only change the magnitude of the
SA. This is called undercorrected SA and is the situation
shown in the figures.
77
Coma
Coma results when the magnification of the system varies
with pupil position. An asymmetric blur is produced as the
entire image blur is to one side of the paraxial image location.
The image blur increases linearly with image height H.
W = W131H3 cos
R- W H2( 2 + cos 2 )
Y = ---131
rP
R- W H2 sin 2
X = ---131
rP
Ray fans:
R- W Hy 2
Y = 3 ---131
P
rP
X = 0
For a given object point, each annular
zone in the pupil maps to a displaced
circle of light in the image blur. The
blur is contained in a 60 degree
wedge, and about 55% of the light is
contained in the first third of the
pattern. Depending on the sign of the coma, the pattern can
flare towards (W131 > 0) or away from (W131 < 0) the optical
axis. H is assumed to represent a positive image height.
Tangential coma CT and sagittal coma
CS are two other measures of coma:
RW
CT = 3 ---131
rP
RW
CS = ---131
rP
For a thin lens, coma varies with lens
bending and the stop position. For any
bending, there is a stop location that
eliminates coma. This is the natural
stop position.
78
Geometrical Optics
Astigmatism
In a system with astigmatism, the power of the optical
system in horizontal and vertical meridians is different as a
function of image height.
W = W222 H 22 cos2 = W222 H 2yP2
R- W H 2 y
Y = 2 ---222
P
rP
X = 0
With positive astigmatism, light from
a vertical meridian is focused closer
to the lens than light through the
horizontal meridian. Each object
point produces two perpendicular line
images. These are the tangential
focus and the sagittal focus. Sagittal
focus is where the sagittal rays focus,
and a line image in the meridional
plane is formed. Tangential focus is
where the tangential or meridional
rays focus, and a line image is formed perpendicular to the
meridional plane. Located between these two line foci is a
circular focus called the medial focus.
L 8( f /# )W222 H 2
D = L 2 4 ( f /# )W222 H 2
Each of these foci lies on a separate curved image plane. In
the presence of astigmatism only:
Sagittal focus:
W20 = 0
Medial focus:
W20 = .5W222 H
Tangential focus: W20 = W222 H 2
z = 0
2
z 4( f # ) 2H2W222
z 8( f # ) 2H2W222
The field dependence of astigmatism is due to apparent

foreshortening of the pupil at non-zero image heights. On
axis, there is no astigmatism. This aberrational astigmatism
is not caused by manufacturing errors.
79
Field Curvature
Field curvature characterizes the natural tendency of optical
systems to have curved image planes. A positive singlet has
an inward bending image surface.
W = W220 H 2 2 = W220 H 2 ( xP2 + yP2 )
Y = 2 R W220 H 2 yP
rP
X = 2 R W220 H 2xP
rP
A perfect image is formed on a curved
surface, and the image blur at the
paraxial image plane increases as
H 2 . A compromise flat image plane
that reduces the average image blur
occurs inside paraxial focus.
The field curvature is a bias curvature for the astigmatic

image surfaces.
Sagittal surface:
Medial surface:
Tangential surface:
Petzval surface:
W20
W20
W20
W20
=
=
=
=
W220 H 2
W220 H 2.5W222 H 2
W220 H 2W222 H 2
W220 H 2 + .5 W222 H 2
While not a good image surface, the Petzval surface

represents the fundamental field curvature of the system. It
depends only on the construction parameters of the system:
surface curvatures and element indices of refraction.
These four image surfaces are equally spaced and occur in the
same relative order: T-M-S-P or P-S-M-T. The best image
quality occurs at medial focus. An artificially flattened field
or medial surface can be obtained by balancing astigmatism
and field curvature.
80
Geometrical Optics
Distortion
Distortion occurs when image magnification varies with the
image height H. Straight lines in the object are mapped to
curved lines in the image. Points still map to points, so there
is no image blur associated with distortion.
W = W311 H 3 cos = W311 H 3 yP
Y = R W311 H 3
rP
X = 0
Distortion is a quadratic magnification error, and the image
point position is displaced in a radial direction. The figures
assume H represents a positive image height.
Barrel distortion results when the
actual magnification becomes less
than the paraxial magnification with
increasing H. The corners of a square
are pushed in towards the optical
axis.
W311 > 0
Y < 0 for H > 0
Pincushion distortion results
when the actual magnification
becomes larger than the paraxial
magnification with increasing H.
The corners of a square are pulled
away from the optical axis.
W311 < 0
Y > 0 for H > 0
The transverse ray fans for wavefront tilt and distortion both
are constant with respect to yP. These two aberration terms
can be distinguished by their different field or H dependence:
linear for wavefront tilt and cubic for distortion.
81
Combinations of Aberrations
A real system will be degraded by multiple aberrations, and
the ray fans encode the aberration content in the dependence
of the ray errors on xP, yP and H. A similar chart exists for
wave fans.
Aberration
Wavefront tilt W111
Distortion W311
Defocus W20
Field curvature W220
Astigmatism W222
Coma W131
SA W040
Y vs. yP
X vs. xP
constant
constant
yP
yP
yP
yP2
yP3
0
0
xP
xP
0
0
xP3
H
H3
none
H2
H2
H
none
The slopes of the ray fans at the origins are especially

important for deciphering the aberration content. Only
defocus, field curvature and astigmatism produce a non-zero
slope, but each has a different dependence on xP and H. A
positive slope of the H = 0 ray fan indicates that the image
plane is inside paraxial focus, as a ray from the top of the
pupil has not yet crossed the axis ( Y > 0 for yP > 0 ). The
image plane is outside paraxial focus for a negative slope. The
magnitude of the slope is proportional to the separation.
Using normalized field and pupil coordinates gives the
value of the wavefront aberration coefficients physical
meaning. WIJK is the amount of wavefront error associated
with this aberration term at the edge of the pupil ( yP = 1)
and the edge of the field ( H = 1).
Aberration theory allows the Seidel aberration coefficients
to be calculated from paraxial raytrace data. The Seidel
coefficients are easily related to the wavefront aberrations:
SI = 8W040
SII = 2W131
SIV = 4W220 2W222
SIII = 2W222
SV = 2W311
82
Geometrical Optics
Conics and Aspherics

Because of the ease of fabrication and testing, most optical
surfaces are flat or spherical. The introduction of aspheric
surfaces provides more optimization variables for aberration
correction. Rotational symmetry is maintained.
The first class of aspheric surfaces is generated by rotation of
a conic section about the optical axis. Conics are defined by
two foci. A source placed at one focus will image without
aberration to the other focus. The sag of a conic is given by
s( r) =
Cr2
1 + ( 1 ( 1 + )C 2 r 2 )1 2
where C is the base curvature of the surface, r is the radial

coordinate and is the conic constant. Conics are often used
as reflecting surfaces.
Circle:
= 0
Both foci are at the center of curvature.
Parabola: = 1
One focus is at infinity, the other is at the focal
point of the reflecting surface. Parabolas are
used for imaging distant objects.
Ellipse:
1 < < 0
Both foci are real. Elliptical surfaces are
used for relaying images.
Hyperbola: < 1
One focus is real, and the other is virtual.
Hyperbolas are used as negative reflecting
elements.
Other rotationally symmetric terms can be
added to the conic to obtain a generalized
asphere:
s( r ) =
Cr 2
+ A1r 2 + A2r 4 + A3r 6 + A4r 8 + .
1 + ( 1 ( 1 + )C 2r 2 )1 2
83
Mirror-Based Telescopes
The imaging properties of conic surfaces are used in the design
of mirror-based telescopes.
Newtonian telescope: a parabola
with a fold flat. Analogous to a
Keplerian refracting telescope.
Gregorian telescope: the parabola is followed by an ellipse
to relay the intermediate image. As with a relayed Keplerian
telescope, this design is good for terrestrial applications as it
produces an erect image.
Cassegrain telescope: the parabola is combined with a

hyperbolic secondary mirror to reduce the system length. The
combination of the primary and secondary is the mirror
equivalent of a telephoto objective.
The Cassegrain design uses two conic surfaces to correct

spherical aberration. The Ritchey-Chretien telescope is
identical in layout, except that it uses two hyperbolic mirrors
to correct coma as well as spherical aberration.
The sag of a spherical surface is often calculated using
the parabolic approximation.
r2
Sag = s ( r ) ------2R
Valid for Sag r
84
Geometrical Optics
Radiometry
Radiometry characterizes the propagation of radiant energy
through an optical system. Radiometry deals with the
measurement of light of any wavelength; the basic unit is the
watt W. The spectral characteristics of the optical system
(source spectrum, transmission and detector responsivity)
must be considered in radiometric calculations.
Radiometric terminology and units:
Energy
Q
Joules (J)
Flux
W
Power
Intensity I
W/sr
Power per unit solid angle
Irradiance E
W/m2
Power per unit area incident
Exitance
M W/m2
Power per unit area exiting
Radiance L
W/m2sr
Power per unit projected area
per unit solid angle
In this simplified discussion, objects and images are assumed
to be on-axis and perpendicular to the optical axis. With this
assumption, the projected area equals the area.
The solid angle of a right circular cone is
= 2( 1 cos 0 )
r 2
-------20- 02
d
Exitance and irradiance are related by the reflectance of the
surface . Photographic research has shown that = 18% for
the average scene.
M = E
The radiance of a Lambertian source (a perfectly diffuse
surface) is constant. The intensity falls off with the apparent
source size or the projected area (Lamberts law). The
exitance of a Lambertian source is related to its radiance by .
L = constant
I = I0 cos
M = L
L = E
This relationship is (instead of the

expected 2 for a hemisphere) because of
the falloff of the projected area with .
Appendices
85
Radiative Transfer
Radiative transfer determines the amount of light from an
object that reaches the image.
In air, the radiance and the AW product or throughput are

conserved, and the flux collected by the lens is transferred
to the image area A.
2
A
----
L = L
A = A
m2 = ----- = z
A
z
= LA = LA
The image plane irradiance E is
L
L
- = ----------------------E = ----------------------------------------= L( NA) 2
4( 1 m) 2( f # ) 2
4 ( f #W ) 2
This result is known as the camera equation. An on-axis
Lambertian object and small angles are assumed. The object
and image planes are perpendicular to the optical axis. Including
obliquity factors associated with off-axis objects leads to the
cosine fourth law. The image irradiance falls off as the cos4
of the field angle. Spectral dependence can also be added to
these results.
Multiplying by the exposure time gives the exposure (J/m2):
H = E t
The mean solar constant is 1368 W/m2 outside the
atmosphere of the earth, and the solar irradiance on the
surface is about 1000 W/m2.
In the general situation when the index is not unity, the basic
throughput n2A and the basic radiance L /n2 are invariant.
Since throughput is based on areas, the basic throughput is
proportional to the Lagrange invariant squared.
n2A = 2 2
86
Geometrical Optics
Photometry
Photometry is the subset of radiometry that deals with
visual measurements, and luminous power is measured in
lumens lm. All of the rules and results of radiometry and
radiative transfer apply.
The lumen is a watt weighted to the visual photopic response.
The peak response occurs at 555 nm, where the conversion is
683 lm/W. The dark adapted or scotopic response peaks at
507 nm with 1700 lm/W.
Photometric terminology and units:
Luminous power
Luminous intensity
Illuminance
Luminous exitance
Luminance
Exposure
V
IV
EV
MV
LV
HV
lm
lm/sr
lm/m2
lm/m2
lm/m 2 sr
lm s/m 2
Other common photometric units and

conversions include:
IV:
EV:
L V:
HV:
candela (cd)
= lm / sr
lux (lx)
= lm / m2
foot-candle (fc)
= lm/ft2
1 fc = 10.76 lx
2
foot-lambert (f L)= --1
- cd/ft
2
nit (nt)
= cd/m
1 f L = 3.426 nt
lux-second (lx s) = lm s /m2
Luminous
Photopic
Efficacy
(nm) lm/W
400
0.3
420
2.7
440
15.7
460
41.0
480
95.0
500
221
520
485
540
652
560
680
580
594
600
425
620
260
640
120
660
41.7
680
11.6
700
2.8
720
0.7
The unit meter-candle-second (mcs) is an obsolete unit of

exposure equal to the lux-second.
Typical illuminance levels:
Sunny day:
Overcast day:
Interior:
10 5 lx
10 3 lx
10 2 lx
Moonlit night:
Starry night:
Desk lighting:
10 1 lx
10 3 lx
10 3 lx
Appendices
87
Sources
Blackbody sources have a spectral radiance given by Plancks
equation; T is the temperature and vacuum is assumed:
2
1
----------- ----------------------------L = 2hc
5
( ehc kT 1 )
or
h = 6.626 1034 J s
c = 2.998 108 m/s
k = 1.381 1023 JK1
1016 Wm2------------------------------------------1
------------------------------------------------L = 3.742
( e0.01439 mK T 1 )
5
The units of L are W/m3 sr. Thermal sources must include
a multiplicative emittance . If is constant, a graybody
results, and non-gray bodies are characterized by ().
Weins displacement law locates the peak wavelength of the
blackbody distribution:
MAXT = 2898 mK
The total exitance for the
blackbody source is given by
the Stefan-Boltzmann law:
M = L = T 4
Laser wavelengths:
HeNe
632.8 nm
543 nm
1.15 m
1.52 m
3.39 m
Ar ion
488 nm
515 nm
Kr ion
647 nm
Ruby
694 nm
Sun:
Halogen Lamp:
Tungsten Lamp:
Room Temp:
6000K
3200K
2800K
300K
= 5.6704 108 Wm2 K4
Nd:YAG
Doubled
Tripled
HeCd
CO2
F2 excimer
ArF excimer
KrF excimer
Nitrogen
1.064 m
532 nm
354 nm
442 nm
10.6 m
157 nm
193 nm
248 nm
337 nm
Some common wavelengths for diode lasers include (in nm):

635, 650, 670, 780, 808, 830, 850, 980, 1310 and 1550. The
output wavelength can vary considerably. Examples of
compound semiconductor materials used for diode lasers (and
their corresponding wavelength ranges) are AlGaInP (630
680 nm), AlGaAs (780880 nm) and InGaAsP (11501650 nm).
88
Geometrical Optics
Airy Disk
Because of diffraction from the system
stop, an aberration-free optical system
does not image a point to a point. An
Airy disk is produced having a bright
central core surrounded by diffraction
rings.
2J1( r f #W)
E = E0 ---------------------------------------r f #W
where r is the radial coordinate, J1 is a

Bessel function, and f /#W is the image
space working f /#.
Central maximum
First zero r1
First ring
Second zero r2
Second ring
Third zero r3
Third ring
Fourth zero r4
Radius r
Peak E
0
1.22 f #W
1.64 f #W
2.24 f #W
2.66 f #W
3.24 f #W
3.70 f #W
4.24 f #W
1.0 E0
0.0
0.017 E0
0.0
0.0041 E0
0.0
0.0016 E0
0.0
Energy in
Ring (%)
83.9
7.1
2.8
1.5
The diameter of the Airy disk (diameter to the first zero) is

D = 2.44f #W
In visible light 0.5 m and D f #W in m
The Rayleigh resolution criterion states that two point
objects can be resolved if the peak of one falls on the first zero
of the other:
Resolution = 1.22f #W
The angular resolution is found by dividing by the focal
length (or image distance):
Angular resolution = = 1.22 DEP
Appendices
89
Diffraction and Aberrations

A system is said to be well corrected or diffraction limited
if the total system wavefront aberration is less than /4.
This requirement applied to the defocus coefficient W20
leads to the Rayleigh focus criterion for diffractionlimited performance:
z = 8( f # ) 2 W20 = 2( f # ) 2
In visible light 0.5 m and z ( f # ) 2 in m
The diffraction-based point spread function PSF equals
the squared modulus of the Fourier transform of the pupil
function. The result is scaled to the image plane coordinates
(x, y). The wavefront error W appears as a phase factor in the
pupil of the system:
rP i2W(x , y
PSF( x, y ) = cyl --------e
D
XP
P)
fX = x f, fY = y f
The cylinder function defines the pupil diameter. When W = 0,

the diffraction-limited Airy disk results. The modulation
transfer function MTF is the normalized Fourier transform
of the PSF.
{ PSF( x, y ) }
MTF( fX, fY) = ---------------------------------------------------------------{ PSF( x, y ) } f = 0, f = 0
X
The Strehl ratio SR is a single-number measure of image

quality for systems with small amounts of aberration.
E
SR = ------0
E0
The SR has a maximum value of
one, and it measures the
degradation of the Airy disk. Any
reduction of the SR is directly
proportional to the wavefront
variance. The SR correlates well
with image quality down to values
of about 0.5.
90
Geometrical Optics
Eye
The optical power of the human eye is about 60 D, of which

the cornea provides 43 D. The base radius of curvature of the
cornea is about 8 mm, and the overall length of the eye is
about 25 mm. Since the vitreous (nV = 1.337) fills the eye, the
rear focal length differs from the focal length.
f --1- 17 mm
f R = nVf 23 mm
Anatomical variations between eyes can be as much as 25%.

The crystalline lens is a gradient index element; it has a
higher index at its center. The relaxed power of the lens is
about 19 D, and the eye focuses at infinity. To view near
objects, the ciliary muscle contracts, causing the lens power
to increase. The lens bulges and its radii of curvature become
steeper. The range of accommodation varies with age, but
can be as much as 15 D. The iris is the stop of the eye. The
pupil is the EP of the eye and has a typical diameter of about
4 mm, with a range of 28 mm.
The front and rear principal planes of the eye P and P are
located about 1.6 mm and 1.9 mm, respectively, behind the
vertex of the cornea. The system nodal points N and N are
located near the anterior surface of the lens, 7.2 mm and 7.5
mm, respectively, from the corneal vertex. The visual axis of
the eye is defined by the macula and is displaced about 5
nasally from the optical axis.
Appendices
91
Retina and Schematic Eyes

The retina covers the interior of the globe of the eye. The
cones provide color vision at daylight illumination levels.
The highest cone density is at the fovea in the center of the
macula. The macula is about 3 mm in diameter (11 FOV),
and the fovea has a diameter of about 1.5 mm (5 FOV). The
rods are more uniformly distributed over the retina and are
used for dark-adapted vision.
The light sensitivity of the eye covers a dynamic range of
10101014. Most of this range comes from dark adaptation of
the retina as the variation in the pupil area is only a factor of
16. For comparison, film and most electronic sensors have a
dynamic range of only about 10 310 5.
Under bright illumination, the resolution of the
eye is 1 arc min (1 mm at 3 m). This corresponds
to about 100 lp/mm on the retina. The vernier
acuity of the eye (the ability to line up two line
segments) is about 5 arc sec (0.1 mm at 3 m).
Schematic eyes are simplified models of the eye. The simplest
is the reduced schematic eye: a single refractive surface which
approximates the paraxial properties of the eye (R = 5.65 mm,
n = 1.333 and length = 22.6 mm).
A variety of more sophisticated eye modes have been
developed; some model the aberration content of the eye. The
following schematic eye provides a more complete model of
the paraxial properties of the eye (Le Grand and El Hage).
The crystalline lens is assumed to have a uniform index.
Surface
Anterior cornea
Posterior cornea
Anterior lens
Posterior lens
= 59.9 D
R (mm)
7.8
6.5
10.2
6.0
t (mm)
0.55
3.05
4.00
16.60
f = 16.9 mm
n
1.3771
1.3374
1.420
1.336
f R = 22.3 mm
(D)
48.35
6.11
8.10
14.00
92
Geometrical Optics
Ophthalmic Terminology
Emmotropia: Distant objects are imaged correctly onto the
retina; normal vision.
Myopia or nearsighted: the eye is too powerful for its axial
length. Images of distant objects are in front of the retina;
corrected with a negative spectacle lens.
Hyperopia or farsighted: the eye is too weak for its axial
length. Images of distant objects are behind the retina;
corrected with a positive spectacle lens. Accommodation can
cause distant objects to be in focus.
Far point: the object distance that is in focus without
accommodation. The far point is virtual with hyperopia.
Near point: the object distance that is in focus with
maximum accommodation.
Spectacle lens: the rear focal
point of the correcting lens
should be placed at the far
point of the relaxed eye. If
the spectacle lens is placed
at the front focal point of the eye, distant objects are brought
into focus by shifting the rear focal point of the eye without
changing the power or magnification of the eye.
Contact lens: applied to the surface of the cornea to change
to the system power. The radius of curvature at the air
interface is changed.
Presbyopia: the loss of accommodative response due to a
stiffening of the crystalline lens with age. Occurs after age
40 and is compensated by additional positive spectacle
power (as with bifocals or progressive lenses).
Visual astigmatism: a variation of the power of the eye with
meridional cross section due to a non-rotationally symmetric
cornea or lens. Linearly blurred images result. Because
there is no field dependence, this effect is different from
aberrational astigmatism W222. Visual astigmatism is
characterized by a wavefront aberration coefficient W022.
Stiles-Crawford effect: the reduction in effectiveness of
light rays entering the edge of the pupil due to the shape and
orientation of the cones. The light efficiency as a function of
pupil radius is approximately: 1 mm 90%; 2 mm 70%; 3
mm 40% and 4 mm 20 %.
Appendices
93
More Ophthalmic Terminology

Snellen visual acuity VA: a single number measure of the
resolution of the visual system based upon the ability of the
subject to identify characters or symbols. The value 20/XX
implies that the subject can identify a letter at 20 feet that a
standard observer can just identify at XX feet. The 20/20 line
of characters on the VA chart subtends 5 arc min. The letters
on the 20/40 line subtend 10 arc min. Note that a 20/20 letter
can be broken down into 5 segments of size 1 arc min. The
human retina is capable of supporting
a VA of better than 20/10. Metric VA is
based upon distances in meters and
reads as 6/6, etc.
Intra-ocular lens IOL: with age, the crystalline lens becomes
opaque. The lens can be surgically removed and replaced
with an artificial lens or IOL.
Refractive surgery techniques:
RK Radial keratotomy: A series of non-penetrating
incisions are made in the periphery of the cornea to relax
the cornea and change its shape.
PRK Photorefractive keratectomy: the outer layer
(epithelium) of the cornea is removed to expose the body of
the cornea (stroma). An excimer laser (193 nm) is used to
ablate the stroma to change the corneal shape and power.
The healing process must regrow the epithelium.
LASIK Laser in situ keratomileusis: a variation on PRK
where a flap is shaved into the cornea to reveal the stroma
and save the epithelium. The flap is replaced after ablation.
Phakic IOL: a small addition lens surgically implanted in
front of the natural lens to correct the power of the eye.
The resolution of the eye and diffraction combine to place
practical limitations on the magnifying power MP of
telescopes and the visual magnification mV of microscopes.
MP 0.43 DEP
(DEP in mm)
mV 230 NA
Visible light is assumed and the NA of the microscope

objective is used. Powers in excess of these values only result
in magnification of the just-resolved Airy disks. Extra
magnification (or empty magnification) is often used so that
the eye is not forced to work at the visual resolution limit.
94
Geometrical Optics
Film and Detector Formats

Film width Frame size
(mm)
(mm mm)
120 (4:3)
61.5
60 45
220 (1:1)
61.5
60 60
220 (7:6)
61.5
70 60
220 (3:2)
61.5
90 60
126 (1:1)
35.0
28 28
110 (4:3)
16.0
17 13
135 (3:2)
35.0
36 24
Disk (4:3)
11 8
APS Classic (3:2)
24.0
25.0 16.7
APS HDTV (16:9)
24.0
30.2 16.7
APS Panoramic (3:1)
24.0
30.2 10.0
Film format
Diagonal
(mm)
75.0
84.9
92.2
108.2
40.0
21.4
43.3
13.6
30.1
34.5
31.8
In photographic terms, a standard lens is one that produces

an image perspective and FOV that somewhat matches
human vision. A lens with a focal length equal to the diagonal
of the format is usually considered standard. There is
considerable variation in this definition as a standard lens for
35 mm camera (135 format) is historically 5055 mm. Lenses
that produce a larger FOV are called wide angle lenses, and
lenses that produce a smaller FOV are long focus lenses.
Video format
2/3 inch
1/2 inch
1/3 inch
1/4 inch
Image size
(mm mm)
8.8 6.6
6.4 4.8
4.8 3.6
3.6 2.7
Diagonal
(mm)
11.0
8.0
6.0
4.5
To match standard television format, video sensors or focal

plane arrays are usually produced in a 4:3 format. This
situation will likely change with the introduction of HDTV.
Note that the format size (i.e. 2/3 inch) has little or nothing to
do with the actual sensor size. These formats originated with
vidicon or tube-type sensors and are the outer diameter of the
glass tube required for the given active area. For the smaller
formats, there is some variation in image size between
manufacturers. A large variety of sensor formats exist for
digital photography and scientific applications.
Appendices
95
Photographic Systems
On a small-format photographic print, a blur diameter of
75 m (0.003 in) is considered excellent image quality. Note
that this corresponds to the resolution of the eye (1 arc min)
at the standard near point of 250 mm. Blurs larger than about
200 m are typically unacceptable. These blur sizes can be
scaled by the enlargement ratio from the film to determine a
blur requirement for the imaging lens.
A qualitative plot of
image blur as a
function of the f /# of an
objective can be drawn.
With large apertures,
aberrations and depth
of field errors are
dominant, and the blur
grows quickly with
faster f /#s. When the system has a small aperture, diffraction
dominates and there is a linear dependence of blur on the f /#.
For many camera lenses, the minimum blur occurs at about
f /5.68. Faster camera lenses are not produced because of the
potential for reduced diffraction blur, but rather for their
radiometric performance in low light level conditions or with
fast shutter speeds. The best image quality is produced when
the lens is stopped down several stops.
The ISO film speed specifies the required exposure:
HV is in lx s
HV = EV t = 0.8/ISO #
The transmission T and optical density D of film or a filter:
T = 10 D
A white image is produced by equal amounts of the additive
or primary colors red R, green G and blue B. Combinations
two at a time produce the complimentary or subtractive
colors cyan C, magenta M and yellow Y:
C=B+G
M=B+R
Y=G+R
Cyan filters are also known as minus red, magenta are minus
green and yellow are minus blue. White light W filtered by
two subtractive filters produce a single primary color:
WCM=B
WCY=G
WMY=R
96
Geometrical Optics
Scanners
There are three basic configurations for scanners based upon
the source or detector configuration: area, line or spot. The
area scanner uses a two-dimensional sensor. This is really
just a camera.
A linear array scanner or push
broom scanner uses a linear
detector array or a linear array of
sources such as LEDs. One line
of the scene is imaged or recorded
at a time. The scene is scanned
by moving the two-dimensional
output media or scene through
the image of the linear array.
Examples are thermal printers,
high resolution film scanners,
flatbed document scanners and
earth resources satellites.
In a flying spot scanner, a point detector or source is
scanned in a two-dimensional pattern over the scene or output
surface. The two common options for the fast line scan in an
optical flying spot scanner are a
galvanometer mirror or a polygon
scanner. The primary example is a
laser printer where the page scan
is accomplished by moving the
photosensitive recording medium.
Laser light shows use two
galvanometer mirrors. CRTs are
electron-based flying spot scanners.
Two pertinent television definitions related to scanners:
Progressive scan: all of the TV lines are written in a single
pass down the screen (HDTV and some scientific cameras).
Interlace scan: two fields are written per frame. Each field
contains every other line in the image. In the U.S., the frame
rate is 30 Hz, and the field rate is 60 Hz. Phosphor lag and
the response of the eye combine the two fields into a single
image without noticeable flicker.
Appendices
97
Rainbows and Blue Skies

Rainbows result from the combination of refraction, reflection
and dispersion with a raindrop. The entering ray is refracted
and dispersed twice. For the primary rainbow, there is single
internal Fresnel reflection. There are two reflections for the
secondary rainbow. In both cases, blue light is deviated more
than red light.
In the primary rainbow,

the droplets directing
the red light to the
observer are above those
that direct the blue light.
Because the angle of
rotation is opposite, the
colors of the secondary
rainbow are reversed.
The primary rainbow is
at an angle of about
42, and the secondary
rainbow is at 51. Each
observer uses a different
set of raindrops to view
their individual rainbow.
Molecules in the atmosphere act as scattering centers for the
incident sunlight. The primary scattering mechanism is
Rayleigh scattering which has a 1/4 dependence. As a
result, blue light is preferentially scattered, and the sky
appears blue. The colors in sunsets occur for the same reason.
The long path length through the atmosphere depletes the
blue and green content of the direct sunlight at sunset,
leaving reds and oranges.
98
Geometrical Optics
Matrix Methods
Matrix methods are an alternate methodology of tracing
paraxial rays where the ray height and ray angle at an input
plane are propagated through the system using a series of
matrix operations. The two fundamental operations are
refraction and transfer.
Refraction: R = 1 0
1
Transfer: T = 1 t n
0 1
Successive application of these operands leads to the output

ray:
y
y
= TkR k T3 R 2 T2R 1T1

The matrix operations must be performed in optical order as
is done is a paraxial raytrace. Each refraction operation
propagates the ray into the next optical space. All of the
individual operations can be combined into a single system
matrix that connects the two planes. This composite matrix
allows the internal details of the raytrace to be hidden, and
the entire propagation takes place with a single operation.
M S = TkR kT3R 2T2R 1T1
y
y
= M S

Matrix methods allow two rays to be propagated at once by

defining a ray matrix, shown here with the marginal and
chief rays.
L = y y

L = M S L
The determinant of the ray matrix is the Lagrange invariant

or the optical invariant if two other rays are used.
L =
y y

= y y = nuy nuy =
The system matrix connecting any plane in
object space to any plane in image space M S = A B

D
must have as the C element.
Appendices
99
Common Matrices
The conjugate matrix connects an object plane to its conjugate
image plane through the magnification m. The afocal system
matrix between conjugate planes is found by setting = 0:
MC = m 0
1 m
MA = m 0
0 1m
Focal plane to focal plane matrix:
MF = 0 1
0
Nodal plane to nodal plane matrix:
M N = n n 0
n n
Thin lens matrix:
M THIN = 1 0
1
Thick lens matrix (1 and 2 are the powers of the two
surfaces, and is the reduced thickness of the lens):
1 1

M THICK =
1 2

The system vertex matrix is the product of the component
matrices interspersed with the appropriate transfer matrices.
Given the elements of the vertex matrix, the cardinal points
of the system can be determined:
A B
MV = V V
CV DV
--1- = CV
f
n
f R = -----CV
n
fF = -----CV
DV 1
d
--- = --------------CV
n
1A
d
----- = ---------------V
CV
n
D
CV
------------- = ------V
FFD ------V
-----------=
n
BFD
n
A
CV
100
Geometrical Optics
Trigonometric Identities
sin ( ) = sin
cos ( ) = cos
sin = +cos( 90) = sin( 180) = cos( 270)

cos = sin( 90) = cos( 180) = +sin( 270)
tan = cot( 90) = +tan( 180) = cot( 270)
sin2 + cos2 = 1
1 + tan2 = sec2
sin( + ) = sincos + cossin

sin( ) = sincos cossin
cos( + ) = coscos sinsin
cos( ) = coscos + sinsin
sin 2 = 2 sin cos =
2 tan
1 + tan2
cos2 = 1 2sin2 = 2cos2 1 = cos2 sin2

sin2 = --12 (1 cos2)
cos2 = --12 (1 + cos2)
sinsin = 1--2 cos( ) 1--2- cos( + )

coscos = 1--2 cos( ) + 1--2 cos( + )
sincos = 1--2 sin( + ) + 1--2 sin( )
sin + sin = 2sin1--2- ( + )cos1--2 ( )
sin sin = 2cos1--2 ( + )sin1--2- ( )
cos + cos = 2cos1--2 ( + )cos1--2- ( )
cos cos = 2sin1--2- ( + )cos1--2 ( )
ei = cos + isin
sin =
ei ei
2i
cos =
ei + ei
2
Appendices
101
Equation Summary
General equations (index, refraction, mirrors, etc.):
OPL = nd
n n1
= 2
n2 + n1
n1 sin1 = n2 sin2
sin C =
t
n
n2
n1
= nu
d n 1 t = t
n
= 2
Power and focal length:
= ( n n )C =
( n n )
R
f
f
fE 1 = F = R
n
n
Newtonian equations (z, z measured from F, F):

f
z
= E
n m
z z = f 2
E
n n
z
= mfE
n
Gaussian equations and imaging (z, z measured from P, P):
z n
=
zn
z
= ( 1 m) fE
n
m
z
= ( 1 m)fE
n
n
n 1
= +
z
z fE
z n
= m1m2 m = n m2
z n
n
zPN = zPN = fF + f R
m =
mN =
fF
n
=
f R
n
Gaussian reduction:
= 1 + 2 1 2
BFD = f R + d
d 2
=
n
d
= 1
n
FFD = fF + d
3DUWB+IP3DJH:HGQHVGD\ H HP HU 3
102
Geometrical Optics
Equation Summary
Thin lens:
( n 1 ) ( C1 C2 )
z z
( 1 m) 2 f
E
m
Afocal systems:
m
fE2
fE1
f2
f1
z n
z n
n m2
n
m2
Paraxial raytrace:
nu = nu y
= y
y = y + ut
y = y +
FOV, stops and pupils:

tan ( 1 2 )
NA nk sin Uk nk uk
f/#
fE
1
DEP 2NA
f/#W ( 1 m)f/#
mPUPIL
nuy nuy
Vignetting:
Un:
Half:
a y y
Fully:
y
a y
a y y
a y
Depth of focus and hyperfocal distance:

DOF Bf/#W B
2NA
LH
fD
B
LNEAR
LH
2
Appendices
103
Equation Summary
Magnifiers, telescopes and microscopes:
250 mm
MP = --------------------f
fOBJ
1
MP = ---- = --------fEYE
m
mV = mOBJ MPEYE
Dispersion:
nd 1
= V = ----------------nF nC
nd nC
P = Pd, C = ----------------nF nC
sin [ ( MIN ) 2 ]
n = ---------------------------------------------sin ( 2 )
Thin prisms:
( n 1 )
= --
1 1 1
----- = ---------------- ---------------- 2 1 nd1 1
= P = P --
2
1 - --------------------2 = --------------
2 1 nd2 1
P2 P1
P
-- = ----------------= ------ 2 1
Chromatic aberration and achromats:

----f
1
= ------ = -f
r
TACH = ----P
1
1
---- = --------------
1 2
2
2
---- = --------------
1 2
dC fCd P
----------- = ---------- = ------
104
Geometrical Optics
Equation Summary
Surface sag:
r2s ( r ) ------2R
Cr2
s ( r ) = ----------------------------------------------------------1 + ( 1 ( 1 + )C2r2 )1 2
Radiometry and radiative transfer:

= 2( 1 cos 0 )
r 2
-------20- 02
d
M E
L = ----- = ------
= LA
L
L
- = --------------------E = --------------------------------------= L( NA ) 2
4( 1 m)2( f/# ) 2 4( f/#W) 2
H = ET
Diffraction limited systems:
D = 2.44f/#W
D f/#W in m
( = 0.5 m)
z = 2(f/#)2
z ( f/#)2 in m
( = 0.5 m)
Appendices
107
Bibliography
M. Bass, Handbook of Optics, Vol. I, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1995.
R. W. Boyd, Radiometry and the Detection of Optical
Radiation, Wiley, New York, 1983.
Bureau of Naval Personnel, Basic Optics and Optical
Instruments, Dover, New York, 1969.
R. Ditteon, Modern Geometrical Optics, Wiley, New York, 1998.
R. E. Fischer and B. Tadic-Galeb, Optical System Design,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2000.
N. Goldberg, Camera Technology: The Dark Side of the Lens,
Academic, San Diego, 1992.
D. S. Goodman, Basic Optical Instruments, in Geometrical
and Instrumental Optics, D. Malacara, Ed., Academic, San
Diego, 1988.
J. W. Goodman, Introduction to Fourier Optics, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1968.
Hoya Optical Glass Catalog, Hoya Corporation, Tokyo, Japan.
F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamentals of Optics,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1976.
B. K. Johnson, Optics and Optical Instruments, Dover, New
York, 1960.
M. J. Kidger, Fundamental Optical Design, SPIE Press,
Bellingham, WA, 2002.
H. C. King, The History of the Telescope, Dover, New York, 1979.
L. Levi, Applied Optics A Guide to Optical System Design,
Volumes I and II, Wiley, New York, 1968 and 1980.
108
Geometrical Optics
Bibliography
R. Kingslake, Lens Design Fundamentals, Academic, San
Diego, 1978.
R. Kingslake, Optical System Design, Academic, Orlando, 1983.
R. Kingslake, History of the Photographic Lens, Academic,
San Diego, 1989.
R. Kingslake, Optics in Photography, SPIE Press, Bellingham,
WA, 1992.
Y. Le Grand and S. G. El Hage, Physiological Optics, Springer
Verlag, Berlin, 1980.
V. N. Mahajan, Optical Imaging and Aberrations: Ray
Geometrical Optics, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA, 1998.
V. N. Mahajan, Optical Imaging and Aberrations: Wave
Diffraction Optics, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA, 2001.
Military Standardization Handbook: Optical Design, MILHDBK-141, U. S. Department of Defense, 1962.
P. Mouroulis and J Macdonald, Geometrical Optics and
Optical Design, Oxford, New York, 1997.
P. Mouroulis, Visual Instrumentation, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1999.
Ohara Optical Glass Catalog, Ohara Corporation, Kanagawa,
Japan.
D. C. OShea, Elements of Modern Optical Design, Wiley, New
York, 1985.
S. P. Parker, Optics Source Book, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
F. L. Pedrotti and L. S. Pedrotti, Introduction to Optics,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993.
Appendices
109
Bibliography
L. S. Pedrotti and F. L. Pedrotti, Optics and Vision, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1998.
S. F. Ray, Scientific Photography and Applied Imaging, Focal,
Oxford, 1999.
S. F. Ray, Applied Photographic Optics, Focal, Oxford, 2002.
B. E. A. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics,
Wiley, New York, 1991.
Schott Optical Glass Catalog, Schott Glass Technologies, Inc.,
Duryea, PA.
F. W. Sears, Optics, Addisson-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1958.
R. R. Shannon, The Art and Science of Optical Design,
Cambridge, New York, 1997.
G. Smith and D. A. Atchison, The Eye and Visual Optical
Instruments, Cambridge, Cambridge, 1997.
W. J. Smith, Modern Lens Design, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1992.
W. J. Smith, Practical Optical System Layout, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1997.
W. J. Smith, Modern Optical Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 2000.
W. T. Welford, Aberrations of Optical Systems, Adam Hilger,
Bristol, 1986.
W. T. Welford, Optics, Oxford, Oxford, 1988.
W. T. Welford, Useful Optics, Chicago, Chicago, 1991.
110
Index
1:1 imaging, 16
180 deviation prisms, 40
45 prism, 40
product, 28, 85
Abbe number, 6264, 6769
aberration theory, 81
accommodation, 90, 92
achromatic doublet, 69
achromatic thin prism, 67
achromatic wedge, 67
achromatization, 67
acid resistance, 64
active triangulation, 54
aerial image, 48
afocal system, 6, 18, 34, 44,
46, 47, 52, 99, 102
Airy disk, 88, 89, 93
Amici prism, 39
angle of minimum deviation,
76
angular resolution, 88
aperture stop, 24, 26, 31, 32
area scanner, 96
artificially flattened field, 79
aspherics, 82
astigmatism, 73, 78, 79, 81,
92
astronomical telescope, 46
48, 50, 83
axial chromatic aberration,
68
axial color, 68
back focal distance (BFD),
15, 20, 22, 43, 44, 99, 101
barrel distortion, 80
basic radiance, 85
bending a lens, 76
binoculars, 18, 41, 47
biological objectives, 52
BK7, 64, 65
blackbody sources, 87
brilliant reflex viewfinder, 53
camera equation, 85
cardinal points and planes, 6,
8, 11, 12, 15, 18, 20, 22, 99
Cassegrain objective, 22, 23
Cassegrain telescope, 83
chief ray, 2530, 3234, 58,
68, 69, 98
ciliary muscle, 90
circle (geometric), 82
climatic resistance, 64
coefficients of thermal
expansion, 64
cold mirror, 60
collinear transformation 6
collimator, 43
coma, 73, 77, 81, 83
complimentary colors, 95
compound eyepiece, 49
concave mirror,53, 59, 60
condenser, 55, 5860
cones (of the eye), 91, 92
conics, 82, 83
conjugates, 6, 810, 17, 18,
27, 29, 33, 52, 54, 76, 99
conjugate matrix 99
contact lens 92
cornea, 90, 92, 93
corner cube, 40
cosine fourth law, 32, 85
critical angle, 4, 57
critical illumination, 55
crystalline lens, 90-93
cubic coma, 73
111
Index
dark adaptation, 91
dark field illumination, 61
dark field system, 61
defocus 33, 48, 51, 73, 74, 76,
81, 89
depth of field, 32, 35, 36, 95
depth of focus (DOF), 32, 35,
102
determinant of the ray
matrix, 98
diffraction, 2, 35, 88, 89, 93,
95
diffraction limited system 89,
104
diffuse illumination, 5557
diffuser, 56, 57
dihedral angle, 38
dihedral line, 38
diode lasers, 87
diopters, 14, 66
direct vision prism, 67
directed distances, 1, 6
dispersing prism, 65
dispersion, 62, 63, 65, 67, 68,
97, 103
dispersion of a thin prism, 67
distortion, 36, 73, 80, 81
double telecentricity, 34, 52
dove prism, 41
effective (or equivalent) focal
length (EFL) 79, 15, 17,
28, 43, 44, 46, 48, 68, 69,
75, 90, 94, 101
ellipse, 82, 83
elliptical coma, 73
emittance, 87
emmotropia, 92
empty magnification, 93
energy, 84, 88
entrance pupil (EP) 2427,

29, 33, 34, 46, 55, 72, 90
erector lens, 50
etendue, 28
excess power, 69
exit pupil (XP), 2426, 3335,
4649, 70, 74, 89
exitance, 84, 86, 87
exposure, 85, 86, 95
eye, 4549, 53, 54, 66, 90-93,
95, 96
eye circle, 46
eye relief (ER), 46, 48, 49
eyepiece, 49
F2, 64, 65
faceted parabolic reflector,
59
far point, 92
farsighted, 92
Fermats principle, 3
field curvature, 73, 79, 81
field diaphragm, 58
field lens, 4850, 53, 54, 58
field of view (FOV), 27, 31,
32, 39, 41, 43, 47, 48, 49,
53, 55, 61, 72, 91, 94, 102
field stop, 49
field-dependent phase, 73
fifth-order astigmatism, 73
fifth-order distortion, 73
fifth-order field curvature, 73
fifth-order linear coma, 73
fifth-order spherical
aberration, 73
film and detector formats 94
first-order optics, 2
flux, 84, 85
flying spot scanner, 96
F-number (f / #), 29, 102
112
Index
focal length, 79, 15, 17, 28,
43, 44, 46, 48, 68, 69, 75,
90, 94, 101
focal plane arrays, 94
focal plane to focal plane
matrix, 99
focal system, 6, 8, 1113
fractional object (FOB), 27
frequency, 2
Fresnel lens, 54, 60
Fresnel reflection
coefficients, 4
front focal length, 69
front cardinal points, 20
front focal distance (FFD),
15, 20, 99, 101
front focal plane, 6, 33, 52,
53
front focal point, 6, 17, 18,
20, 43, 51, 92
front principal plane, 6, 13,
48
full field of view (FFOV), 27
fused silica, 64
Galilean telescope, 47
Gaussian equations, 9, 101
Gaussian optics, 2, 6, 15
Gaussian reduction, 13, 15,
22, 23, 101
generalized asphere, 82
glass code, 64
glass map, 63
graticles, 49
Gregorian telescope, 83
half field of view (HFOV), 27
heat absorbing glass, 60
heat management, 60
hot mirror, 60
human eye, 4549, 53, 54, 66,

90-93, 95, 96
Huygens eyepiece, 49
hyperbola, 82
hyperfocal distance, 36, 102
hyperopia, 92
illuminance, 86
illumination systems, 55
image blur, 35, 68, 72, 77, 79,
80, 95
image erection prisms, 41
image rotation, 37, 41, 54
image rotation prisms, 41
image space 5, 6, 8, 12, 13,
1820, 24, 26, 29, 33, 34,
71, 88, 98
image-space telecentric, 33
index of refraction, 1, 2, 5, 9,
62, 63
infinity corrected objectives,
52
integrating bar, 57
integrating sphere, 57
intensity, 84
interlace scan, 96
internal transmission, 64
intra-ocular lens, 93
invert, 37
iris, 24, 90
irradiance, 32, 84, 85
K prism, 41
kaleidoscope, 57
Kellner eyepiece, 49
Keplerian telescope, 4648,
50, 83
keystone distortion, 36
Koehler illumination, 58
113
Index
Lagrange invariant, 28, 29,
85, 98, 102
Lambertian source, 84
laser in situ keratomileusis,
93
laser wavelengths, 87
LASIK, 93
lateral chromatic aberration,
68
lateral color, 68
lateral magnification, 6, 36,
68
law of reflection, 4, 37
light pipe, 57
line coma, 73
linear array scanner, 96
long focus lenses, 94
longitudinal aberration, 75
longitudinal magnification,
10, 18
longitudinal ray errors, 70,
75
lumens, 86
luminance, 86
luminous exitance, 86
luminous intensity, 86
luminous photopic efficacy,
86
luminous power, 86
macula, 90, 91
magnifier, 45, 48, 51, 54, 103
magnifying power (MP), 4548, 50, 51, 53, 93, 103
marginal focus, 75, 76
marginal ray, 25, 26, 29, 30,
31, 58, 71, 75, 76
matrices, 98, 99
matrix methods, 98
mean solar constant, 85
mechanical tube length, 52

mechanically compensated
zoom, 44
medial focus, 78, 79
medial surface, 79
meridional rays, 25, 71, 78
metallurgical objective 52
metrology, 34, 39
microscope, 34, 49, 51, 52,
58, 93, 103
minimum circle, 76
minimum deviation, 65, 76
minimum wavefront
variance, 76
mirror-based telescopes, 83
modulation transfer function
(MTF), 89
myopia, 92
natural stop position, 77
near point, 45, 92, 95
nearsighted, 92
Newtonian equations, 8, 18,
101
Newtonian telescope, 83
nodal plane to nodal plane
matrix, 99
nodal points, 11, 14, 16, 34,
90
normalized image height, 70
normalized pupil
coordinates, 70
numerical aperture (NA), 29,
51, 93, 102
object space, 5, 6, 8, 13, 18
20, 24, 33, 34, 51, 52, 98
object-image conjugates, 17
object-image zones, 12
114
Index
objectives, 22, 23, 33, 34, 43,
44, 4648, 5054, 61, 93, 95
object-space telecentric, 33,
34, 52
object-to-image distance, 16
ocular, 49
optical angle, 9, 10
optical axis, 11, 19, 36, 40,
41, 66, 77, 80, 82, 84, 85,
90
optical density, 95
optical invariant, 28, 98
optical order, 23, 98
optical path length (OPL), 3
optical spaces, 5, 9, 12, 13,
19, 2330, 34, 37, 98
optical tube length (OTL),
51, 52
overhead projector, 60
parabola, 59, 82, 83
parallax, 53, 54
parallel plane mirrors, 38
paraxial optics, 2, 19, 28
paraxial raytrace, 19, 20, 22,
23, 81, 98, 102
parfocal objectives, 52
parity, 3739, 54, 60
partial dispersion, 62, 67
passive triangulation system,
54
Pechan prism, 41
Pechan-roof prism, 41, 50
Pentaprism, 39, 40
periscope, 38, 50
Petzval objective, 43
Petzval surface, 79
phakic IOL, 93
photometric units, 86
photometry, 86
photopic respons,e 86
photorefractive keratectomy
(PRK), 93
pincushion distortion, 80
piston, 73
Plancks equation, 87
plane mirror, 3739
plane parallel plate, 42
point spread function (PSF),
89
polycarbonate, 64
polystyrene, 64
Porro prism, 40, 41, 50
Porro system, 41
Porro-Abbe system, 41
power of an optical surface, 7
presbyopia, 92
primary colors, 95
primary rainbow, 97
principal dispersion, 62
principal section, 38, 66
prism diopters, 66
prism dispersion, 65, 67
prism systems, 3941
progressive scan, 96
projected area, (Lamberts
law) 84
projection condenser system,
58
projection lens, 58, 59
projection screen, 60
projector, 55, 60
pupil (of the eye), 9092
pupil locations, 25, 26
push broom scanner, 96
radial keratotomy (RK), 93
radiance, 84, 85, 87
radiative transfer, 28, 32, 85,
86, 104
115
Index
radiometry, 8486, 104
radius of curvature, 1, 7, 90,
92
rainbow, 97
Ramsden circle, 46
Ramsden eyepiece, 49
rare earth glasses 63
ray bundle, 3032
ray fans, 71, 72, 75, 77, 80,
81
ray intercept curves, 71, 72,
75, 77, 80, 81
Rayleigh criterion, 88, 89
Rayleigh scattering, 97
real image, 5
real object, 5
rear cardinal points, 20, 22
rear focal length, 69, 17, 90,
92
rear focal point/plane, 6, 8,
17, 18, 20, 33, 51, 92
rear principal plane, 6, 36,
43, 48, 90
reciprocal magnifications, 16
reduced diagram, 42
reduced distance, 9, 10
reduced schematic eye, 91
reduced thickness, 42, 99
reduced tunnel diagram, 42
reference image point, 7072,
74
reference sphere, 70, 74
reference wavefront 70, 71
reflectance, 4, 84
reflex prism, 39, 54
reflex viewfinder, 53
refraction matrix, 98
refractive surgery
techniques, 93
refractivity, 62
relative partial dispersion

ratio, 62
relay lens, 50
relayed Keplerian telescope,
50, 83
resolution of the eye, 91, 93,
95
reticle ,49, 52, 53
retina, 9193
retrofocus objective, 43
reverse Galilean viewfinder,
53
reverse raytrace, 19, 20
reverse telephoto objective,
43
reverse telephoto zoom, 44
reversed Galilean telescope,
47
reversion prism, 41
revert, 37
right angle prism, 39, 40
right circular cone, 30, 84
Risley prism, 66
Ritchey-Chretien telescope,
83
RMS spot size 72, 76
rods, 91
roof mirror, 38, 39
roof prism, 39
root-mean-squared spot size,
72, 76
sag of a spherical surface, 83,
104
sagittal coma, 77
sagittal focus, 78
sagittal oblique spherical
aberration, 73
sagittal ray fan, 71, 72
116
Index
sagittal rays or transverse
rays, 71, 78
sagittal surface, 79
scanners, 96
Scheimpflug condition, 36
schematic eyes, 91
schlieren system, 61
Schmidt prism, 40
scotopic response, 86
scratch suppression, 56
secondary chromatic
aberration, 69
secondary color, 69
secondary dispersion, 67
secondary rainbow, 97
Seidel aberration
coefficients, 81
sensitivity of the eye, 91
shoulder height, 52
sign conventions, 1
simple eyepiece, 49
simple objective, 43
single lens reflex system, 39,
54
skew ray, 71
SLR system, 39, 54
Snells law of refraction, 4
Snellen visual acuity, 93
source mirror, 59
spectacle lens, 92
specular illumination, 55, 58
spherical aberration (SA), 73,
75, 76, 83
spherochromatism, 76
spot diagram, 72
stain resistance, 64
standard lens, 94
Stefan-Boltzmann law, 87
Stiles-Crawford effect, 92
Strehl ratio, 89
substage diaphragm, 58
subtractive colors, 95
sunsets, 97
surface vertices, 7, 14, 15
system matrix, 98, 99
system of plane mirrors, 38
tangential coma, 77
tangential focus, 78
tangential oblique spherical
aberration, 73
tangential rays or meridional
rays, 25, 71, 78
tangential surface, 79
tapered integrating bar, 57
telecentricity, 33, 34
telephoto objective, 43, 83
telephoto zoom, 44
telescopes, 4650, 83
temperature coefficients of
refractive index, 64
thermal sources, 87
thick lens, 14, 36, 60
thick lens matrix, 99
thin lens, 10, 1417, 27, 29,
35, 36, 43, 68, 69, 76, 77,
102
thin lens matrix, 99
thin prisms, 66, 103
third-order optics, 2
throughput, 28, 85
total internal reflection
(TIR), 4
transfer matrix, 98
transmission, 56, 61, 63, 64,
84, 95
transverse aberration, 75
transverse axial chromatic
aberration, 68, 103
117
Index
transverse magnification, 6,
8
transverse ray errors, 7072
trigonometric identities, 100
tunnel diagram, 39, 42, 57
two separated thin lenses, 14
two-component system, 13
undercorrected (SA), 76
Van Albada viewfinder, 53
vernier acuity, 91
vertex distances, 15
vertex matrix, 99
video sensors, 94
viewfinders, 39, 47, 53
vignetting, 3133, 39, 48, 49,
54, 102
virtual image, 5
virtual object, 5
visual astigmatism, 92
visual magnification 51, 93
vitreous, 90
wave fans, 71, 72, 81
wavefront errors, 70
wavefront expansion, 73
wavefront tilt, 73, 74, 80, 81
wavefronts, 3, 71
wavelength, 2
wavenumber, 2
Weins displacement law, 87
wide angle lenses, 94
working distance (WD), 22,
23, 52
working f - number, 29
YNU raytrace, 19, 21
YNU raytrace worksheet, 21
zoom lens, 44
John E. Greivenkamp is a Professor at

the Optical Sciences Center of the
University of Arizona where he has
taught courses in optical engineering
since 1991. After receiving a Ph.D. from
the Optical Sciences Center in 1980, he
was employed by Eastman Kodak. He is
a fellow of SPIEThe International
Society for Optical Engineering, of the
Optical Society of America, and he has
served a member of the National Research Council
Committee on Optical Science and Engineering (COSE).
Professor Greivenkamps research interests include
interferometry and optical testing, optical fabrication,
ophthalmic optics, optical measurement systems, optical
systems design, and the optics of electronic imaging systems.
SPIE Field Guides

John E. Greivenkamp
Series Editor
The aim of each SPIE Field Guide is to distill
a major field of optical science or technology
into a handy desk or briefcase reference that
provides basic, essential information about
optical principles, techniques, or phenomena.
Written for youthe practicing engineer or
scientisteach field guide includes the key
definitions, equations, illustrations, application
examples, design considerations, methods, and
tips that you need in the lab and in the field.
www.spie.org/press/fieldguides
SBN 978 0 8194 5294 8
9 0 0 0 0
780819 452948
P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, WA 98227-0010
ISBN-10: 0819452947
ISBN-13: 9780819452948
SPIE Vol. No.: FG01

Fiel Guide To Geometrical Optics - JJhon Greivenkamp

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Fiel Guide To Geometrical Optics - JJhon Greivenkamp

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Field

Bellingham, Washington USA

Bellingham, Washington USA

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Introduction to the Series

Field Guide to Geometrical Optics

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

Table of Contents (cont.)

Table of Contents (cont.)

Normalized pupil coordinates

Dihedral angle or prism angle

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

c = 2.99792458 108 m/s

The wavenumber w is the number of wavelengths per cm.

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

Optical Path Length

In a perfect optical system or a first-order optical system, all

Refraction and Reflection

At the critical angle, the angle of

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

A real object is to the left of the surface; a virtual object is

The front and rear focal lengths ( fF and f R ) are defined as

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

Refractive and Reflective Surfaces

The radius of curvature R of a surface is defined to be the

The effective (or equivalent) focal length (EFL or fE) is

The effective in EFL is actually unnecessary; this quantity

A reflective surface is a special case with n = n:

The front and rear focal points map to infinity ( m = and 0 ).

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

When the Newtonian and Gaussian equations are expressed

These equations are valid for widely separated planes. As the

Since m varies with position, m is a function of z and z.

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

Both nodal points of a single refractive or reflective surface

Positive Focal System

Positive Focal System Reflective

Negative Focal System

Negative Focal System Reflective

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

The highlighted rays and quantities are associated with the

P and P are the planes of unit system magnification.

Thick and Thin Lenses

Thin lens in air:

The nodal points are coincident with the principal planes.

When closely spaced elements are combined (t small), the

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

The Gaussian magnification may also be determined from

m = ----------------- = --------- = ---(z n)

Thin Lens Imaging

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

Real Objects: z < 0

Virtual Objects: z > 0

When the magnitude of the object distance z is more than

The transverse and longitudinal magnifications are constant.

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

Refraction (or reflection) occurs at an interface between two

This type of raytrace is also called an YNU raytrace. All rays

Front cardinal points:

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics

YNU Raytrace Worksheet

Cassegrain Objective Example

A ray launched at an arbitrary height of 1.0 with zero angle is