Mindmap 1

THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
THE EFFECT OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGY AND PLANNING INTERVENTION

ON THE PROCESSES AND PERFORMANCE
OF COURSE MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT TEAMS
By
Dewi A. Padmo Putri
A Dissertation submitted to the

Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Awarded:
Spring Semester, 2012
UMI Number: 3519429
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Dewi A. Padmo Putri defended this dissertation on February 2, 2012

The members of the supervisory committee were:
Tristan E. Johnson
Professor Directing Dissertation
Jonathan Adams
University Representative
Gershon Tenenbaum
Committee Member
Vanessa Dennen
Committee Member
The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members, and
certifies that the dissertation has been approved in accordance with university requirements.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I feel so blessed to have been able to pursue my study at Florida State University. I am so
grateful to my LORD for showing me the way and helping me every step of the way to fulfill my
education here. Without HIS blessing this might never have happened.
This dissertation would have never been completed without the encouragement and
support of my supervisor and committee chair, Dr. Tristan Johnson. He is the father of my
dissertation; the selection of the topic for this dissertation was an evolving process and came out
of many discussions with him. It began with a simple idea based on a need of the institution that
I work for, Universitas Terbuka (the Indonesia Open University), and gradually became a more
and more fascinating topic. Dr. Johnson helped me a great deal to succeed in this last assignment
for my doctoral degree. I feel so fortune to have had the opportunity to work with him. He has
been in front of me leading the way, behind me pushing hard, and beside me as a friend.
I would like to deeply thank Dr. Gershon Tenenbaum, my committee member, who has
also pushed me to meet his high standards. It has been a wonderful learning process, with the
incredible combination of his professionalism and personal relationship. His constant feedback
really motivated me to work very hard on my dissertation and at the same time he supported and
encouraged me to achieve my goal. A special thanks also goes to my committee member Dr.
Vanessa Dennen, who believed in me and was confident that I could finish this dissertation on
time, and Dr. Jonathan Adams, my university representative, who challenged me to think more
deeply about my dissertation topic. I would like to thank Dr. Michael Spector and Dr. Thomas
Luschei who introduced me to this program at Florida State University and provided excellent
assistance from when I began to prepare to attend, as well as when I arrived in this beautiful city
of Tallahassee to pursue my studies.
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Tian Belawati, the President of the Universitas
Terbuka and Dr. Atwi Suparman, the former President of the Universitas Terbuka for giving me
the time off from my challenging job at Universitas Terbuka to gain other experiences on my
journey to improve my academic capability. I would like to thank Ir. Nadia Sri Damayanti,
M.Ed., M.Si and Dr. Hewindati, the vice president of the Universitas Terbuka for the support and
encouragement for my study here. My research would never have been realized without the
support and assistance of my colleagues at Universitas Terbuka, Drs. Rustam, M.Pd, Dean of the
Education Department; Dr. Nuraini Soleiman, Dean of the Mathematics and Science
iii
Department; Drs.Yun Iswanto, MSi, Dean of the Economics Department; Dr. Daryono, Dean of
Social and Political Science; and Dr. Suciati, the Director of Graduate Study. I would also like to
express my deeply thanks and appreciation for my colleagues, Dra. Ucu Rahayu, M.Si, Dr. Sri
Listyorini, Dr. Adrian M.Si, and Dr. Liestiodono for providing me with the information and data
needed for my study and their efforts in helping me complete my study. Thank you so much to
my very best friends who spent their time assisting me in conducting the study, Asnah Limbong,
Sri Kurniati, Nurul Huda, Harijati, Siti, Ida Malati, Trini, Marisa, and Tika. Thank you to Dr.
Lina Warlina, Muhammad Toha, Endang Indrawati, Sri Ismulyati for always making sure that I
was surviving during my study at FSU.
Last but not least, I would like to thank to my older sisters, my bothers-in-law, my nieces,
my nephews for always supporting me and praying for me. This dissertation is dedicated to my
beloved mother and father.Thank you so much for loving me.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................ix

LIST OF FIGURES ...........................................................................................................................xii
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1
Research Purpose ...................................................................................................................3
Research Questions ................................................................................................................3
Study Relevance.....................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................5
Working in Teams..................................................................................................................6
Supporting systems for work team effectiveness.......................................................7
Course development teams .......................................................................................8
Course material development teams in distance education ......................................8
Team Process ........................................................................................................................9
Team Communication and cordination ......................................................................10
Shared Mental Model .............................................................................................................12
Development of SMMs and its effect on team process and performance .................12
Team Psychological Components ..........................................................................................14
Team motivation ........................................................................................................14
Team satisfaction and team frustration ......................................................................14
Team efficacy.............................................................................................................15
Team affect ................................................................................................................16
Communication Strategy and Planning .................................................................................16
Factors affecting team communication effectiveness ...............................................16
Planning and team effectiveness ................................................................................18
Communication strategy planning intervention .........................................................18
Summary ................................................................................................................................19
Hypotheses .............................................................................................................................20
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS ......................................................................................................22
Participants .............................................................................................................................22
Study Design ..........................................................................................................................24
Treatment and Control Conditions.........................................................................................24
Instrumentation ......................................................................................................................26
Demographics ............................................................................................................26
Manipulation check ....................................................................................................26
Team communication tracking instrument ...............................................................27
Team progress tracking instrument ...........................................................................27
Team assessment and diagnostic instrument ............................................................28
Team psychological components instrument ............................................................29
Team performance:Task completion instrument and product quality instrument ....30
Procedures ..............................................................................................................................31
Data Analysis .........................................................................................................................33
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ..........................................................................................................35
Testing Basic Assumptions ....................................................................................................35
Equality of Variance ..............................................................................................................35
Equality of variance for team communication ...........................................................35
Equality of variance for team SMM degree ...............................................................36
Equality of variance for team SMM similarity ..........................................................37
Equality of variance for team psychological components .........................................38
Equality of variance for team performance ...............................................................39
Testing for Spericity ..............................................................................................................39
Testing for sphericity for team communication .........................................................40
Testing for sphericity for team SMM degree .............................................................40
Testing for sphericity for team SMM similarity ........................................................41
Testing for sphericity for team psychological components .......................................41
Manipulation check ................................................................................................................42
Hypotheses Testing ................................................................................................................43
Effect of the Communication .................................................................................................43
Effect on team communication (communication frequency) ....................................43
Summary of the communication channel usage ........................................................45
Effect on communication planning (planning level and planning value) ..................48
Effect on communication planning level ......................................................48
Effect on communication planning value .....................................................50
Effect on Team SMM ............................................................................................................52
Effect on team-SMM degree ......................................................................................52
Effect on team-SMM similarity ................................................................................55
Effect on Team Psychological Components ..........................................................................57
Effect on team motivation ..........................................................................................57
Effect on team satisfaction .........................................................................................59
vi
Effect on team frustration ..........................................................................................60

Effect on team efficacy ..............................................................................................62
Effect on team positive affect ....................................................................................64
Effect on team negative affect ...................................................................................67
Effect on Team Performance .................................................................................................69
Effect on team product quality...................................................................................69
Effect on team product completion ............................................................................72
Effect on team product submission ............................................................................72
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................75
Effect on Team Communication ............................................................................................76
Communication frequency .........................................................................................77
Communication planning level ..................................................................................78
Communication planning value .................................................................................78
Effect on Team SMM ............................................................................................................79
Team-SMM degree ....................................................................................................79
Team-SMM similarity ...............................................................................................81
Effect on Team Psychological Components ..........................................................................82
Team motivation ........................................................................................................83
Team satisfaction and team frustration ......................................................................83
Team efficacy.............................................................................................................84
Team positive affect ...................................................................................................85
Team negative affect ..................................................................................................86
Effect on Team Performance .................................................................................................86
Product quality ...........................................................................................................87
Product completion ....................................................................................................89
Product submission ....................................................................................................90
Limitation of the study ...........................................................................................................90
Future Research .....................................................................................................................92
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................93
APPENDIX A: INTERVENTION TASK .........................................................................................97
APPENDIX B: INTERVENTION TASK (Indonesian) ....................................................................102
APPENDIX C: CONTROL GROUP TASK .....................................................................................106
APPENDIX D: CONTROL GROUP TASK (Indonesian) ................................................................111
APPENDIX E: DEMOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENT ..........................................................................117
APPENDIX F: DEMOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENT (Indonesian) .....................................................119
APPENDIX G: MANIPULATION CHECK.....................................................................................121
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APPENDIX H: MANIPULATION CHECK (Indonesian) ...............................................................122

APPENDIX I: TEAM COMMUNICATION TRACKING INSTRUMENT ....................................123
APPENDIX J: TEAM COMMUNICATION TRACKING INSTRUMENT (Indonesian) ..............124
APPENDIX K: TEAM PROGRESS TRACKING INSTRUMENT .................................................125
APPENDIX L: TEAM PROGRESS TRACKING INSTRUMENT (Indonesian) ............................126
APPENDIX M: TEST ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC INSTRUMENT ...............................127
APPENDIX N: TEST ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC INSTRUMENT (Indonesian) ..........129
APPENDIX O: TEAM PSYCHOLOGY INSTRUMENT ................................................................131
APPENDIX P: TEAM PSYCHOLOGY INSTRUMENT (Indonesian) ...........................................133
APPENDIX Q: TASK COMPLETION AND PRODUCT QUALITY INSTRUMENT ..................135
APPENDIX R: TASK COMPLETION AND PRODUCT QUALITY INSTRUMENT
(Indonesian) .......................................................................................................................................138
APPENDIX S: RUBRIC FOR PRODUCT QUALITY INSTRUMENT..........................................141
APPENDIX T: RUBRIC FOR PRODUCT QUALITY INSTRUMENT (Indonesian) ....................145
APPENDIX U: HUMAN SUBJECTS APPROVAL AND INFORMED CONSENT FORM .........150
APPENDIX V: INFORMED CONSENT FORM .............................................................................153
APPENDIX W: INFORMED CONSENT FORM (Indonesian) .......................................................156
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................159
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .............................................................................................................172
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LIST OF TABLES
3.1 Research Design ....................................................................................................................24
3.2 Timeline for Assessment of Team Communication, Team SMM, Team Psychological
Components and Team Performance ....................................................................................33
4.1 Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team Communication and Related
Variables ...............................................................................................................................36
4.2 Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team SMM Degree and Related
Variables ...............................................................................................................................36
4.3 Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team SMM Similarity and Related
Variables ...............................................................................................................................37
4.4 Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team Psychological Components ............38
4.5 Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team Performance Product Quality .........39
4.6 Mauchly's Test of Sphericity Result for the Team Communication and Related Variables .40
4.7 Mauchly's Test of Sphericity Result for the Team SMM Degree .........................................41
4.8 Mauchly's Test of Sphericity Result for the Team SMM Similarity .....................................41
4.9 Mauchly's Test of Sphericity result for the Psychological Components and Related
Variables ...............................................................................................................................42
4.10 RM ANOVA for Team Communication frequency ..............................................................43
4.11 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for Team
Communication Frequency ...................................................................................................44
4.12 Type and Frequency of Communication Channel Used by Team Member in Treatment
Group ....................................................................................................................................45
4.13 Type and Frequency of Communication Channel Used by Team Member in Control
Group ....................................................................................................................................46
4.14 RM ANOVA Results for Team Communication Planning Level .........................................49
4.15 RM ANOVA Results for Team Communication Planning Value ........................................51
Communication Planning and Related Variables .................................................................52
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4.17 RM ANOVA Results for Team SMM Degree (Means of TADI) by Main Effect and
Interactions Effect .................................................................................................................53
4.18 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for Team-SMM
Degree and Related Variables...............................................................................................54
4.19 RM ANOVA Results for Team SMM Similarity (SD of TADI) by Main Effect and
Interactions Effect .................................................................................................................56
4.20 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for Team-SMM
Similarity ..............................................................................................................................57
4.21 RM ANOVA Results for Team Motivation by Main Effect and Interactions Effect ...........58
4.22 RM ANOVA Results for Team Satisfaction by Main Effect and Interactions Effect ..........60
4.23 RM ANOVA Results for Team Frustration by Main Effect and Interactions Effect ............61
4.24 RM ANOVA Results for Team Efficacy by Main Effect and Interactions Effect ................63
Psychology Components: Team Motivation, Team Satisfaction, Team Frustration, and
Team Efficacy .......................................................................................................................64
4.26 RM ANOVA Results for Team Positive Affect: Main Effect and Interactions Effect .........65
4.27 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for Team Positive
Affect ....................................................................................................................................66
4.28 RM ANOVA Results for Team Negative Affect: Main Effect and Interactions Effect .......68
4.29 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for Team Negative
Affect ....................................................................................................................................69
4.30 RM ANOVA Results for Team Performance Product Quality effect ...................................70
Performance ..........................................................................................................................72
4.32 Product Submission of the Treatment and Control Groups...................................................73
5.1 Summary of the Results for the Effect of the Communication Strategy Planning on Team
Communication .....................................................................................................................77
5.2 Summary of Results for the Effect of the Communication Strategy Planning on
Team-SMM ...........................................................................................................................79
Psychological Components ...................................................................................................82
Performance ..........................................................................................................................86
5.5 Team Communication Strategy and Planning Intervention Effect on Team Process ...........93
5.6 Team Communication Strategy and Planning Intervention Effect on Team Product ...........95
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
4.1 Team communication frequency means for treatment and control groups across time ........44
4.2 Type and frequency of communication channel used by team member in treatment group .46
4.3 Type and frequency of communication channel used by team member in control group ....47
4.4 Type and frequency of communication channel used by team member in treatment and
control groups .......................................................................................................................48
4.5 Team communication planning level means for treatment and control groups across time .50
4.6 Team communication planning value means for treatment and control groups across time 51
4.7 Team-SMM degree means for treatment and control groups across time.............................54
4.8 Team-SMM similarity overall means for treatment and control groups across time ............56
4.9 Team motivation means for treatment and control groups across time.................................59
4.10 Team satisfaction means for treatment and control groups across time ................................60
4.11 Team frustration means for treatment and control groups across time .................................62
4.12 Team efficacy means for treatment and control groups across time .....................................63
4.13 Team positive affect means for treatment and control groups across time ...........................66
4.14 Team negative affect means for treatment and control groups across time ..........................68
4.15 Team performance product quality means for treatment and control groups across time ....71
4.16 Product submission of treatment and control groups by total number of courses submitted
and not submitted ..................................................................................................................74
5.1 Theoretical framework of team communication strategy and planning intervention............76
xii
ABSTRACT
In most open and distance learning institutions, the development of learning materials,
whether in print or electronic format, is done by teams of people with different skills. Team
communication exerts a critical influence on the development of team shared mental models
(SMMs) as well as team performance. A review of the literature has revealed a gap in our
knowledge about the effects of communication on team performance in open and distance
learning institutions. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a communication
strategy and planning intervention designed to promote team communication, team SMM, team
psychological components, and team performance in the development of course materials at the
Indonesia Open University.
Sixty teams were randomly assigned to the treatment group (30 teams) and to the control
group (30 teams). The study consisted of a treatment as a between subject factor (communication
intervention vs. control) and several dependent variables (team communication, team SMM,
team psychological components, and team performance). Team communication and team SMM
were measured at the beginning, middle, and end of the projects. Team psychological
components were measured at the beginning and end of the project, and team performance was
measured at the end of the project.
Teams in the treatment group were rated significantly higher than the control group teams
for team communication planning level and team communication planning value. In terms of
team SMM, the treatment groups mean for the team SMM degree and team SMM similarity was
significant higher than the control groups. In terms of the psychological components, the mean
score of the treatment group for team efficacy, team satisfaction, and team frustration was
significantly higher than that of the control group.
The communication strategy and planning intervention positively impacted team
performance and helped teams improve their product quality. The quality of the introduction
section and the closing section produced by the treatment group was significantly higher than
those produced by the control group, which indicates that the increased level of communication
among the team members improved the quality of those sections, although they required more
time to complete. Contrary to the hypothesis, the intervention did not lead to a better product
submission.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
In most open and distance learning institutions, the development of learning materials,
whether in print or electronic form, is created by teams of several people with different skills.
Typically, these teams include faculty members, instructional designers, and production
technicians (Peraya & Haessig, 1995). Olcott (1996) claimed that such development teams
working in harmony empower distance learning program course development because the
faculty assume the major instructional development leadership roles. Teams are advantageous
because they use collective resources to work on a complex task which is difficult to handle
individually since it requires a variety of knowledge, skills and expertise (Eccles & Tenenbaum,
2004).
Studies of teamwork in distance education development settings suggest that there are
some constraints on the development of learning material by teams. One of these is a lack of
coordination among the team members (Yousup, Anwar & Sarwar, 2008). In order to complete
team tasks successfully, the development team members need to perform competently and get
along with each other to complete the assignment in a specified time frame (Perraya & Hassig,
1995; Yousup et al., 2008).
Some researchers have reported a correlation between Shared Mental Models (SMM) and
team performance (Bank & Millward, 2007; Lee & Johnson, 2008). In regard to team
performance, Cannon-Bowers and Salas (1998) pointed out that teamwork effectiveness can be
achieved through SMM to develop team knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Klimoski and
Mohammed (1994) defined SMM as a teams shared knowledge which includes a teams goal,
team processes, team interaction (e.g. communication, coordination) as well as team adaptation,
roles, and behavior patterns. To enhance team performance, team members must share SMM that
represent individual knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Griepentrog & Fleming, 2003).
Team communication is another critical aspect that influences the development of SMM
and ultimately enhances team performance. Adler and Rodman (2002) defined team
communication as a transfer of information between two or more people in which the
information is received, encoded, recalled, decoded, and interpreted, and which is usually
followed by relevant action. Eccles and Tenenbaum (2004) pointed out that team communication
1
can be intentional or unintentional, and both types of communication can be verbal or nonverbal.
Verbal communication is mostly done using spoken language and it may involves the use of
media to carry the information while nonverbal communication may involve the use of body
language (Johnson, Khalil & Spector, 2008).
Communication and coordination play a role in linking SMM with team performance
(Klimoski &Mohammed, 1994). There is evidence that the quality and the quantity of
communication affect the development of shared knowledge and team performance (MacMillan,
Entin, & Serfaty, 2004). These findings point out that communication processes, as well as the
frequency of communication, contribute to SMM development, and consequently affect team
performance. While teams assigned to course development may not share the same task
characteristics, the communication process and frequency of communication is likely to result in
a similar effect on SMM development and team performance.
There are several components that may affect team communication strategies. Some
research shows that an intervention based on SMM can improve team processes, and may lead to
better team performance (Mohammed & Dumville, 2001; Sikorski, 2009). Although there are
several intervention that contribute to the development of SMM (Mathieu, Heffner, Goodwin,
Salas & Bowers, 2000), there has been limited research on team communication strategy
interventions. Johnson et al. (2008) pointed out the need for further research on team process
measures in order to provide insights on the mechanisms of team interactions.
Communication strategy is defined as a deliberate series of actions designed to achieve
certain goals by using different methods of communication (Mefalopulos & Kambongera, 2004).
Kim and Kim (2008) recommended further research on the use of coordination tools similar to
communication strategies, which record participants collaborative activities, coordination
problems, and intra-team coordination. More specifically, the main goal of communication
strategies is to help team members interact with each other.
A review of the literature reveals a gap in our knowledge of the effects of communication
on team performance in open and distance learning institutions. This study examined the effects
of a communication strategy and planning intervention designed to promote team
communication and teams SMM as well as the development of learning materials for an open
and distance learning university in Southeast Asia.
Research Purpose
Success in developing instructional materials depends on coordination and
communication among team members (Yousup et al., 2008). The purpose of the research was to
examine the effect of a communication strategy planning intervention on team communication,
team SMM, and team performance operationalized in terms of developing learning materials at
an open and distance learning university.
Research Questions
The primary research question for this study was: What is the effect of a communication
strategy planning intervention on team communication, team shared mental models, team
psychological components, and team performance in the development of course material for a
distance education university? In order to answer the main question, there were 14 supporting
research questions.
Supporting research questions: Does a team communication strategy planning
intervention have an effect on:
1) The frequency of team communication?
2) Team communication planning level?
3) Team communication planning value?
4) Team-SMM degree?
5) Team-SMM similarity?
6) Team motivation?
7) Team satisfaction?
8) Team frustration?
9) Team efficacy?
10) Team positive affect?
11) Team negative affect?
12) The quality of the course development teams product?
13) Task completion of course development teams?
14) Task submission?
Study Relevance
The findings of this study may provide guidance concerning the appropriate
communication that must be used by educational materials development teams in order to
3
perform at high levels. Other researchers will be able to use the study findings as a basis for
related research to improve understanding of the effect of team communication on team SMM
and team performance in various work environments. If a team communication strategy planning
intervention can be used to improve team performance in the work environment, workers will
interact more successfully and handle complex challenges encountered in their work.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Working in teams is a strategy used to develop products or perform services. Marks,

Mathieu, and Zaccaro (2001) pointed out that much work is completed through teams where
people work together to complete a task that is too complex to be done individually. Working in
teams has become popular because this framework allows for a variety of expertise and skill to
be applied to the task (Espinosa & Carley, 2001). In corporate settings, effective team
performance is critical, but may be less effective when team members fail to coordinate their
efforts. Researchers are interested in identifying the factors affecting team performance in order
to design team training or interventions that contribute to improving performance (Salas, Diaz
Granados, Klein, Burke & Stagl, 2008).
Research supports the link between shared mental models (SMM) and effective team
performance suggesting that SMM enhance the quality of teamwork skills and team effectiveness
(Canon-Bowers & Salas, 2001; Mathieu, Heffner, Goodwin, Canon-Bowers & Salas, 2005; Salas
& Fiore, 2004). Team members who share mental models about the task and the team are able to
anticipate the behavior and resources needed by their teammates.
Team training or team interventions are mostly related to teamwork knowledge, skills,
and/or attitudes abilities, and focus on team processes and performance (Salas & CannonBowers, 1997, 2000). Team process, which includes team communication and team
coordination, is considered important because teams members interactions may lead to greater
team performance (Johnson et al., 2008). Team process strategy appears to be one technique that
helps teams perform better. Several studies of team process strategy note that team strategy has
an effect on team performance (Gist, Locke, & Taylor, 1987; Hackman, Brousseau, & Weiss,
1976). For example, a study on the effect of strategy discussion on team performance showed
that teams that implemented a strategy discussion performed better than teams that did not
(Hackman et al., 1976).
There is some evidence that the factors which affect team performance include team
communication, team process and team SMM. The next section provides an overview and
empirical evidence about working in teams, team process which covers team coordination and
team communication, shared mental models, and communication strategy. A communication
5
strategy planning intervention in a course development team setting is introduced. This

intervention is believed to improve team performance when the team task is the development of
course material.
Working in Teams
LaFasto and Larson (2002) define a team as a group which has a concrete or tangible
objective requiring a collaborative effort to reach the goal. A working team consists of
interdependent individuals who share responsibility for specific outcomes for an organization
(Sundstrom, 1998, p.7). The key characteristics of teams include: shared responsibility,
interdependence, two or more people working together, shared and valued goals, and
collaboration.
Working teams in corporate settings can be categorized in five ways: management teams,
production and service teams, project teams, action teams, and parallel teams (Smolek, Hoffman,
Moran, 1998; Sundstorm, 1998; Zaccaro & Marks, 1998). Each type of team has different tasks
to accomplish. For example, management teams are usually specialized and focus on leading
functional groups, project teams, or a division of the organization. Production and service teams
often perform repetitive tasks, have highly specialized members, and greater functional diversity
than other types of teams. Action teams are typically composed of members undertaking highly
specialized tasks, and with significant external linkage (e.g. cockpit crews, surgical teams).
Parallel teams usually operate on a limited, temporary, and independent basis within an
organization. These teams have a specific mandate and disband when the task is completed
(Smolek et al., 1998, Zaccaro & Marks, 1998).
Teams can also be viewed as traditional or virtual. Distributed team is another term for
virtual teams. Traditional teams meet and work as a team at the same time and in the same place.
Virtual teams are not co-located and members are distributed across organizations or locations,
often separated by time (Mittleman & Briggs, 1998, Scozzi, Crownston, Esereyel, & Li, 2008).
Distributed teams are becoming more popular thanks to the availability of communication
technology.
Distributed teams need specific forms of support. Scozzi et al. (2008) point out that
communication technology is crucial in this regard and teams have to learn how to communicate
using technology (Butler, Sproull, Kiesler, & Kraut, 2002). Because distributed team members
are not co-located, it is difficult to provide the support required for team communication and
team coordination without the use of technology (Mittleman & Briggs, 1998).
Supporting systems for work team effectiveness.
One challenge in supporting work team effectiveness is to provide an essential support
system. Seven systems supporting work team effectiveness are: team structure, staffing system,
training system, measurement systems, reward system, information systems, and communication
technology (Sundstrom, 1998).Team structure is mainly concerned with how teams are
assembled and integrated into the organization. In structuring teams, relevant aspects to consider
include: purpose and goals, roles, resources, team process, and personal expectations (Smolek
et al., 1998). Staffing is an important support tool for team effectiveness. In recruiting team
members, one should take into consideration the quality and the expertise of team members. The
selection of team members should be based on the teams performance requirements, and the
knowledge, skill, and attitudes of its members.(Klimoski & Zukin, 1998).
Team training is important for team success and should be based on an assessment of the
teams training needs in relation to the task requirement, the team members expertise for the
task, and the organizational context. Team training may focus on interpersonal knowledge, skills,
and attitudes (KSAs), as well as self- management (Stevens &Yarish, 1998).Team measurement
is another important support system for effective team functioning. Reward systems are also
critical to effective work teams although they are often neglected. The kinds of behavior and
skills needed in a work team should be considered when designing a reward system, which needs
to fit with the teams characteristics within the organization (Lawler, 1998).
Working teams need tools to access, manage, and analyze information. Modern
information technology enables people to connect easily, and communication and collaboration
within teams can be done in a timely fashion (Bikson, Cohen, & Mankin, 1998), enabling
members to bridge the limitations of time and place (Mittleman & Briggs, 1998).
Communication technology allows team members to exchange information as required (Kraut,
Egido, & Galegher, 1990). Communication technology such as telephone, fax, teleconference,
computer conference, voice mail, e-mail, Skype, or videoconference enables the teams
communication (Sundstrom, 1998). For virtual teams in particular, communication technology is
the most important supporting system in undermining the constraints of distance (Mittleman & O
Briggs, 1998).
7
Course development teams.

The tools and techniques to support teams apply to a variety of teams including course
development teams. In these teams the members must specialize in designing and developing
course material, and accomplish their tasks within a certain period of time. This type of team is
categorized as a project team. Zaccaro and Marks (1998) pointed out that the work of project
teams typically focuses on accomplishing specific tasks that require a variety of specialized
contributions. A project team typically has temporary status, and usually works for a short term,
even though its work may have long-term implications.
Development of online courseware is complex and it is unreasonable to assume that high
quality online courses can be developed by only one or two people. It requires a team with
involvement and effort from many players (Caplan, 2004). Many institutions use a collaborative
team-based approach involving both faculty and staff to develop online courses. The design and
development team for online University courses challenges the traditional notion of academics
working in isolation as they have to work together with other people who bring their unique
skills to the project (Ellis & Phelps, 2000). It is very common in a single-mode institution, such
as an Open University, to have a team-based course development approach which focuses
exclusively on online education. This approach has also been adopted by many traditional (dualmode) institutions.
Course material development teams in distance education.
Course development in a single mode distance education institution is generally done by
a team. Once a distance education institution implements a team approach to the development of
teaching materials, the division of tasks and roles of each team member should be very clear and
understood by each team member. Communication and coordination between team members
become very important for the team since each member depends on the task completion of other
members (Foster, 1992). In the United Kingdom Open University and in the Indonesian Open
University, course development is undertaken by teams (Foster, 1992; Belawati, Padmo, &
Sinar, 2005). In the United Kingdom Open University (UKOU), a course development team
consists of a course team chair who is responsible for the overall development as well as to
oversight the production of the educational content, an editor who is responsible to the
production of text material, a BBC producer who is responsible for the production of audiovisual
materials, and a course manager who is responsible to maintain the coordination of
8
communication between team members as well as do the scheduling (Foster, 1992).

Communication within a course development team at UKOU is mostly done through computer
conferencing and e-mail (Foster, 1992).
Similar to the UKOU, courses at the Indonesia Open University (Universitas TerbukaUT) are developed by course teams, consisting of a content expert, instructional designer, and
course manager. In some cases there may be other specialists on the team. The content experts
are generally hired from nationally recognized conventional (face-to-face) universities. They are
responsible for writing the manuscripts. The instructional designers and course managers are
always from the UTs academic staff. The UTs instructional designers are responsible for
formatting the content, based on the UTs standards, while the course managers take care of such
management tasks as communication, coordination, and scheduling (Belawati et al., 2005).
A review of the literature shows that teams mostly deal with tasks too complex for
individual completion (Mark et al., 2001; Ecless & Tenenbaum, 2004) and that the principles of
effective work teams will also apply to course development teams. Effective teamwork also
requires a team process, and communication is an important factor in this. Distance education
institutions need to create a working environment that enables good communication among
members of development teams. A regular meeting schedule and a set of procedures should be
developed to ensure optimal communication within the team (Foster, 1992). It is also clear that
when people work in teams and share the same goals their performance is higher than when they
are working by themselves (Salas et al., 1992). The systems supporting teams play an important
role in enhancing team effectiveness (Sundstrom, 1998).
Team Process
Studies have introduced models on how teams function and identified the various factors
that contribute to team effectiveness (Guzzo & Dickson, 1996). Most of those models are based
on an input-process-outcome (I-P-O) framework. Mathieu, Goodwin, Heffner, Salas, and
Cannon-Brower (2000) defined the IPO framework as follows. Inputs are defined as a given
conditions to start working which include team members and characteristic of the organization.
Processes are described in terms of how teams use the inputs to develop the outputs, while
outcomes are described as the team activity results and product. There are three types of
outcomes (1) the quality and quantity of team performance, (2) the length of team and (3) the
affective reaction of team members (Hackman, 1990).
9
It is impoartnat to understand how a team functions because there are many task
variations that can be completed using teams. Marks, Mathieu, and Zaccaro (2001) pointed out
that organizations need to understand the processes used by employees working collaboratively.
This enables organizations to retool human resources systems and managers to select, train,
develop, and reward personnel for effective teamwork.
Cohen and Bailey (1997) defined team processes as team interactions through the
communication and conflict that happen between team members and others outside the team.
Hackman (1987) pointed out those intra-team processes represent interactions that take place
among team members. Team process involves cognitive, verbal, and behavioral activities that
focus on achieving certain goals (Mark et al., 2001). Process can be also seen as a dynamic
means to achieve the goals that were already established, to accomplish the tasks and to resolve
problems. Talents, tasks, and information are integrated through processes to produce outcomes.
Processes serve three functions: (1) bring the right people together, (2) keep tasks interrelated,
and (3) communicate the goal of the team and the method to achieve it (Lafasto & Larson,
2002).
In reviewing the definitions of team process from many different authors, Marks et al.
(2001) indicated that most believe the core of the team process construct lies in team
interaction. Some researchers pointed out that team process includes team coordination and
team communication (Eccles & Tenenbaum, 2004; Fiore, Salas, Cuevas, & Bowers, 2003). It is
therefore essential to have more detail about team communication and team coordination, and
whether those aspects have an impact on the teams performance.
Team communication and coordination.
Team success requires each team member to communicate and to collaborate effectively.
Communication and collaboration among team members is essential to build rapport, manage
conflict, and encourage productive team discussion (Zaccaro & Marks, 1998). Team members
need to talk to each other and the communication flow between team members must be
developed through communication mechanisms and practice (Forrester & Drexler, 1999).
There are several factors that affect team communication such as communication
frequency, structure, and exchange of information (Pinto & Pinto, 1990). Frequency of
communication refers to the number of times team members communicate with each other. The
communication structure refers to the communication ability of team members. Another aspect
10
of quality communication mentioned by Pinto and Pinto is the information exchange among the
team members. A lack of openness in information exchange may affect team effectiveness.
Considerable research has been conducted on team communication. White (2000) points
out that team may face communication challenges since their members have varied backgrounds
and areas of expertise. The different background of team members is an important aspect that
should be considered by teams. In fact, for course development teams, which are often
distributed teams with minimal face-to-face contact, communication between team members
should be designed carefully and it is important to make sure that communication within team
members is happening rather than focus too much on how they communicate (Luck, 2001).
Some studies have shown that the quality of communication between team members has
an impact on the end-product. For example, when team members develop a similar perception
about the product and communicate about making decisions during the product development
process, it affects the product quality (Clark & Fujimoto, 1991). Kraiger and Wenzel (1997)
report that decision making and communication have the greatest impact on team performance.
Coordination is simultaneously managing a flow of on-going activities and a set of
interrelated decisions (Rathnam, Mahajan, & Whinston, 1995). Team coordination is a
management activity which is dependent on subtasks, resources, and people. The management of
these can affect team performance (Espinosa, Slaughter, Herbsleb & Kraut, 2005). Effective
team coordination results in more accurate understanding among team members about their tasks
and their likelihood of achieving the team goal (Kim & Kim, 2008).
Coordination can be implicit or explicit (Espinosa, Learch, & Kraut, 2004). Implicit
coordination refers to team members communicating with shared mental models or without the
need for overt communication. In this situation, the team members share an understanding of
each others tasks and responsibilities. Explicit coordination within teams usually occurs by
using task organization mechanisms, and communicating explicitly (Espinosa et al., 2004). In
explicit coordination, team members discuss each members plans, actions, and responsibilities
(Stout, Cannon-Bowers, Salas & Milanovich, 1999).
Teams may coordinate explicitly with each other about their tasks, plans, strategies, or
share other information related to the team tasks (Johnson et al., 2008). As team members engage
in team coordination and team communication, they begin to share knowledge, and construct a
commonality within the team so that they are able to make sound decisions and take appropriate
11
action (Klimoski &Mohammed, 1994). What then are shared mental models?
Shared Mental Models
Development of SMMs and its effect on team process and performance.
Shared mental models are defined as the integration of the body of knowledge of each
team member to be shared for the purpose of the team and task, and a coordination of actions as
needed by the task and other team members (Cannon Bowers et al, 1993). Klimoski and
Mohammed (1994) defined a shared mental model (SMM) as a representation of several aspects
related to the team, which include shared knowledge, the teams objective, and information about
team processes, team interaction which involves communication and coordination, as well as
team roles and behavioral patterns.
The concept of a mental model has been used in many different fields (Wilson &
Rutherford, 1989). Acccording to Rouse and Morris (1986) the essence of mental models is
organizing structures of knowledge that allow interaction between individuals and their
environment. This allows individuals to predict and explain the behavior of others, understand
and remember a connection between components, and construct expectations for what may
happen.
A SMM describes how teams are able to deal with their tasks which include its difficulty
and task changing conditions (Cannon-Bowers, Salas, and Converse, 1993). In a highperformance team, members need to be able to adapt and adjust their strategy quickly and
efficiently (Cannon-Bowers, Tenenbaum, Salas, & Volpe, 1995). The mechanism of adaptability
is related to SMM theory (Mathieu et al., 2000).
Johnson, Lee, Lee, OConnor, Kahlil, and Huang (2007) reviewed the literature on shared
mental models and identified five jey factors. These include: team knowledge, team skills, team
attitude, team dynamics, and team environment. Related to the team knowledge factor, CannonBowers and Salas (1998) argued that where knowledge about the team and tasks emerge in a
certain condition as primary elements for team effectiveness, a SMM represents a similarity of
knowledge among the members of the team. Salas and Fiore (2004) pointed out that when team
members have a common perception about the team, as well as the task processes and outcomes,
they will able to work together effectively and achieve a higher level of performance.
Team dynamic is one the five factors identified by Johnson et al. (2007) that affect the
development of the team SMM. This factor is mainly related to interactions among the team
12
members to create new ideas and facilitate communication (Johnson et al., 2007).Team dynamics
are one of the critical components of effective teamwork and involves team coordination and
team cohesion (Smith-Jentsch, Campbell, Milanovich, & Reynolds, 2001). Team coordination
can be done implicitly or explicitly.
One team dynamic processes, team cohesion, focusses on how team members support
one another in achieving the teams goal and meet the need for team satisfaction (Carron &
Hausenblas, 1998). Cohen and Bailey (1997) define team cohesion as an interpersonal attraction
and shared commitment to the task and the ways in which it enhances team productivity. Team
cohesion can be categorized into four dimensions which include: individual-centered socially
oriented, individual-centered task oriented, team-centered socially oriented, and team-centered
task oriented (Lee & Kim, 1995).
Another factor which affects the formation of SMM is team environment (Johnson et al.,
2007). There are several external conditions which relate to team environment such as:
technology, organization, synchrony, and geographic dispersion (MacGrath & Hollingshead,
1994). Information technology speaks to how team members communicate and transfer
information by using computer technology. Many research studies indicate that communication
technology affects the workflow and information flow, and ultimately team performance (Grinter
et.al., 1999).
From the input-process-output (I-P-O) point of view, mental models have an impact on
team effectiveness, which is mediated by team processes (Mathieu, Heffner, Goodwin, Salas, &
Cannon-Bowers, 2000). Johnson et al. (2008) described the relation between development of a
SMM and team performance in a simple I-P-O model. In this case, input refers to the
knowledge of the team members before they start the work, and includes knowledge about other
team members and tasks to be performed. Team interaction, which occurs through
communication and coordination between the team members, takes place during the process
behaviors. Further, a teams SMM develops as a result of the behavior occurring during the
process. Finally, SMM alterations during the interaction create new knowledge, which may
affect team performance (output).Team members poor communication can be attributed to a
lack of shared knowledge (Cannon-Brower, Salas, 2001). A similar finding provides evidence
that team processes are influenced by their SMM (Kraiger &Wenzel, 1997). The availability of
13
information as well as the shared mental model of each team member has an effect on the
quality of the team output (Langan-Fox & Code, 2000).
Cannon-Bowers and Salas (2001) point out that shared cognition leads to a better team
process, which leads to better task performance. Specifically, they show that improved or more
efficient communication and coordination lead to better performance. Further, they mention that
research in shared cognition has uncovered several elements that build team effectiveness. For
example, team communication leads to better interventions for team performance improvement.
Associated with team communication, Klimoski & Mohammed (1994) state that the frequency
of team communication influences team similarity and team SMM. As communication increases
among team members, they will have more in common and thus develop shared mental models
within the team.
Team Psychological Components
Team motivation.
Another factor that can influence the effectiveness of a team is team motivation (Marks,
Mathieu, & Zaccaro, 2001). Motivation refers to the forces which arouse passion and existence
to follow up on a specific activity (Hellriegel, Slocum, & Woodman, 1995). Self-motivation
occurs when one expends energy in a specific direction for a specific purpose (Yost & Tucker,
2000). People who are self-motivated are often noted for their optimistic outlook on life, their
self-confidence, their willingness to be criticized, and their ability to learn from their mistakes
(Goleman, 1998b).
Organizational researchers who focus on organizational issues report a strong relationship
between individuals perception of the culture and climate of their organization, and their
attitude. It has been found that the individual perception of organizational support influences
work motivation and commitment, and both affect job performance (Miles & Tetrick, 1993;
Shore & Shore, 1995). Taylor and White (1991) found that in the University setting, even the
faculty tends to be intrinsically motivated in their teaching with little influence coming from
extrinsic rewards. Lee (2001) found that faculty motivation could be boosted with better
instructional support.
Team satisfaction and team frustration.
There are many factors that can influence team satisfaction. Team satisfaction comes
from the team members perception of several aspects such as freedom to participate on the
14
team, team progress toward the goal, a sense of belonging to the team, and team leadership
(Hanna &Wilson, 1991). Campion, Papper, and Medsker (1996) demonstrated strong
relationships between team communication and team satisfaction. Hamlyn, Hurst, Baggo, and
Bayle (2006) who focused on predictors of team work satisfaction, reported that training has a
positive correlation with team satisfaction. An active intervention such as a workshop on team
skills can be effective in increasing team satisfaction (Bradley, White, & Mennecke, 2003).
Werner and Lester (2001) conducted a study on the effect of team social support. The social
support in their study was concerned with the extent of team interaction and support for one
another. They found that teams with high levels of social support expressed greater team
satisfaction than teams with the lower social support.
At least five situational components can be labeled as frustrating to teams: (1) a feeling
that arises when expectations for individual or team performance are not meet,(2) a feeling of
being trapped and squeezed, (3) an inability to pinpoint the problem, (4) a feeling of
powerlessness, and (5) a feeling of being immobilized (Gunderson, Percy, Canedy, & Pisani,
1977). Such feelings of frustration may lead to aggression, regression, fixation, and resignation
either at an individual or team level. In a study conducted by Wiggins (1965), the perception of
frustration was less in a team that was working cooperatively compared to a team that worked
independently. Research by Biggs (1975) on the impact of the varying levels of information on
group frustration showed that teams that were given a moderate amount of information during an
activity experienced less frustration then teams with more information or less information.
Team efficacy.
Another psychological component is self-efficacy, which is an individuals belief system
driving them to achieve a desirable outcome (Bandura 1977). Self efficacy affects their belief
about themselves in relation to task difficulty and outcome (Driscoll. 2005). Gully (2002)
defines team efficacy as having a high level of confidence in facing team adversity. Similarly,
Lidsley et al. (1995) and Guzzo, Yost, Campbell, & Shea (1993) view team efficacy in terms of
a teams confidence that it will be able to complete certain tasks successfully.When Banduras
self-efficacy concept is applied to group-level motivation it is called collective efficacy. Similar
to self-efficacy, team efficacy refers to the perception of the teams ability to complete a task.
Some studies have shown that teams with higher collective efficacy perform better than
teams with lower collective efficacy (Gibson, 1999; Knight, Durham, & Locke 2001). Mark
15
(1997) suggested that team efficacy influences team process which in turn enhances
performance. Associated with the team process, one thing that matters is the interaction or
communication among team members. In sociotechnical theory, the social system is facilitating
the interaction between human operators and technology as well as among themselves (Gully,
2002). Accordomg to a sociotechnical perspective, task and interpersonal relationships greatly
influence the effectiveness of the work according to Hackman (1992).
Team affect.
In a course materials development team for distance education, interpersonal and
personal factors need to be considered. Each group member has a responsibility to provide
support to other members in difficulty. Because the course material development process is not
simply a rational and technical process, the social and emotional factors of team members
cannot be ignored (Foster, 1992). Teams higher in emotional intelligence demonstrate more
ability to solve problems and perform better. Merging emotional and technical competencies
creates team synergy (Yost, Tucker, 2000). There are several emotional intelligence
competencies which may affect team performance, such as: interpersonal understanding, open
communication, self-awareness, and self efficacy (Goleman, 1998a). A team will be able to
achieve synergy if it has a high level of emotional intelligence. Once teams achieve synergy and
gain momentum, they will be able to perform at their best (Covey, 1996).
Schwarz and Bohner (1996) defined affect as an emotion such as happiness, anger or
sadness which have direct effects on the way people act. There are two general dispositions that
exist in an individual - negative affect and positive affect. Negative affect refers to a mood or
state that reflects a distress dimension such as guilt, fear, anger or nervousness while positive
affect refers to a mood or state characterized by excitement, energy, enthusiasm, and interest
(Watson and Clark, 1984).
Siomkos and Narayanan (2001) point out that many researchers evaluate the effects of
practices or interventions such as training programs by measuring employee attitudes through
self-report. However, Watson and Clark (1997) show that these evaluations can be affected by
the negative or positive affect of the respondents.
Communication Strategy and Planning
Factors affecting team communication effectiveness.
16
The components of a communication model are important when considering the work of
teams. A model of communication demonstrates how ideas or information are sent by one person
and received by another (Hamilton, 2008; PMBOK, 2004). A simple definition is that
communication is the process of people sharing thoughts, ideas, and feelings with each other in
commonly understandable ways (Hamilton, 2008, p.5). This definition applies whether the
process of communication occurs with one other person, a small group, or among many people.
There are five key components in any model of communication. These are: (1)
encoding, which is the function of translating thoughts or ideas into a language that is understood
by others, (2) message which is the output of encoding; (3) medium, which is the method used to
convey the message, (4) noise, which is anything that interferes with the process of transmitting
and understanding of the message, and (5) decoding defined as translating the message back into
meaningful thoughts or ideas (PMBOK, 2004; p.228).
Team success may be influenced by the process of collaboration. Stevens and Yarish
(1998) point out that team success usually requires individual members to communicate and
collaborate effectively. Effective teams must also be well organized (Hamilton, 2008). Organized
teams tend to have fewer problems and are able to develop team members ability and build team
confidence (Jarboe, 1996). Studies of interdisciplinary medical teams show that poor
communication and lack of coordination among members result in unnecessary hospital days and
cost for patients as well as increased mortality. On the other hand, intensive care unit medical
teams with good communication have a more positive impact on the patients who receive better
care and leave the hospital earlier (Greener, Gross, Kunitz, & Mukamel, 2004).
Other studies have examined how communication affects task coordination. When more
people are involved in a given task, the need to coordinate subtasks and activities within the team
increases (Espinosa and Carley, 2001). The most effective team communication is face-to-face,
because all gestures can be observed (Hamilton, 2008). In geographically distributed (differentplace) teams, members are unable to communicate face to face and must rely on using
communication technologies. Collaboration within distributed teams is still possible despite the
team coordination challenges (Espinosa & Carley, 2001).
A comprehensive project communication management process is needed to help a group
of people or team working on a specific project. The project communication management
process includes communication planning which refers to determining the information and
17
communication needs of the project stakeholders and information distribution which

involvesproviding project stakeholders with needed information (PMBOK, 2004).
Planning and team effectiveness.
Team performance also depends on team members ability to set goals, plan or coordinate
tasks, and monitor individual and team achievement as well as the cost and the targets. These
task and team management activities need to be organized through a team communication
strategy in order to ensure team success (Stevens & Yarish, 1998).
Effective planning requires key skills such as being task-oriented, strong in
interpersonal relations, strong in self-management, and able to facilitate and coach. The
dynamics of effective teams and include team cohesion, a positive attitude, a shared workload,
role clarity, and the willingness to trust each other (Stevens & Yarish, 1998).
The three elements in communication planning are inputs, tools and techniques, and
outputs. Input refers to communication planning in relation to the working environment, the
work process, assets, project scope and management plan. Tools and techniques incorporate
communications requirements analysis, and communications technology. Output, the third
element of communication planning, refers to the communication management plan (PMBOK,
2004). In relation to effective team communication, Smolek, Hofman, and Moran (1998) suggest
the following be addressed: teams purpose, measures, and boundaries. Identifying a clear team
purpose is the most critical element in structuring a team. If a team lacks a clearly stated purpose
it will achieve little (Smolek, Hoffman, Moran, 1998).
It is clear in the literature is clear that planning is an important component of efficient
team communication.Similarly, a high level of team planning skill is a mark of successful
teams(Stout el al., 1999). In a study conducted by Orasanu (1990) team communication, team
SMM, and team planning had a significant effect on team performance.
Communication strategy planning intervention.
Research has shown that training is important in building team capability and improving
performance (Salas et al., 2008).Organizations use a variety of mechanisms to orient and train
individuals to work effectively in teams (Klimoski & Zukin, 1998). For example, teaminteraction training has been used to improve team performance cooperation, interpersonal
relations, and communication processes (Klimonski & Mohammed, 1994). In measuring the
effectiveness of team interaction training, Marks et al. (2000) found that teams that were trained
18
demonstrated greater SMM accuracy than the control group. The performance of teams that
received training was better than the control group and it was partially mediated by the
communication processes.
A study done by Salas, Nichols, and Driskell (2007) showed a small-to-moderate effect
for team training leading to better team performance than alternative conditions. Significant
improvement in team performance has also been achieved through training in team coordination
and adaptation. Some studies have reported that strategy formation has an effect on team
performance (Gist, Locke, & Taylor, 1987; Gladstein, 1984). Hackman et al. (1976) reports that
teams that engage in a strategy discussion relate positively to performing a new task, but
negatively to performing established tasks. This study shows that teams given a discussion
strategy rarely discuss performance strategies for either established tasks or new tasks.
Although several studies have attempted to identify the effect of various communication
interventions on team performance, there is limited research on the effect on team performance
of a team communication strategy and planning intervention. Kim and Kim (2008) recommend
further research on the use of coordination tools similar to communication strategies, to record
participants collaborative activities, coordination problems, and intra-team coordination.
Summary
This review of the literature on teams provides insights on how teams undertake tasks
that are too complex to be done by individuals. In many work settings, people in teams who
share the same goals perform better than those working by themselves. The supporting systems
for teams play a significant role in enhancing team effectiveness.
In this study, the course material development team was categorized as a project team
because the members of this team are highly specialized in specific subject matter areas and in
the instructional design of learning materials for a distance learning system. As these team
members were not co-located, the use of communication technology and other supporting
systems was very important in the development process. It is assumed that this research can be
applied to course development teams in a university setting.
Many studies support the theoretical link between team interventions and improved team
communication, team SMM and team performance. These interventions include such things as
team cross training, team coordination, and team strategy. However, there is little research that
focuses on training teams in communication strategy and planning and its effect on team
19
performance. For these reasons, this study examined the effects of a communication strategy
planning intervention that promotes enhanced team communication, team SMM, team
psychological components and team performance. Specifically, this study tested the effectiveness
of a communication strategy and planning intervention in the Indonesia Open University
(Universitas Terbuka) that uses a team approach to course development. Their teams undergo a
process of communication strategy and planning training. During the training, the team members
engage in (1) an intervention activity on communication strategy and planning, (2) discussion of
several aspects of communication planning, and (3) communication planning. It was expected
that the communication strategy and planning intervention applied in the course development
teams in the Indonesia Open University would increase team communication, team SMM, team
psychological components and ultimately lead to a higher level of team performance.
Hypotheses
To examine the effect of a communication strategy and planning intervention on team
communication, the SMM of the teams, team psychological components and team performance,
14 hypotheses were postulated:
1. The frequency of team communication will be greater for teams that receive the
communication strategy intervention than for teams that do not receive the communication
strategy planning intervention.
2. The communication planning level will be greater for teams that receive the communication
planning and strategy intervention than for teams that do not receive the communication
strategy planning intervention.
3. The team communication planning value will be greater for teams that receive the
communication strategy planning intervention than for teams that do not receive the
communication strategy planning intervention.
4. The level of team SMM degree will be greater for teams that receive the communication
strategy intervention than for teams that do not receive the communication strategy planning
intervention.
5. The level of team SMM similarity will be greater for teams that receive the communication
strategy planning intervention than teams that do not receive the communication strategy
planning intervention.
20
6. The team members motivation will be greater in teams that receive the communication
strategy planning intervention than in teams that do not receive the communication strategy
7. The team members satisfaction will be greater in teams that receive the communication
8. The team members frustration will be lower in teams that receive the communication
9. The team efficacy of team members will be greater for teams that receive the communication
strategy planning intervention than for teams that do not receive the communication strategy
10. The positive affect will be greater for teams that receive the communication strategy
planning than for teams that do not receive the communication strategy planning
intervention.
11. The negative affect will be lower for teams that receive the communication strategy planning
than for teams that do not receive the communication strategy planning intervention.
12. The product completion rate of teams that receive the communication strategy planning
intervention will be greater than for teams that do not receive the communication strategy
13. The quality of team product will be greater for teams that receive the communication strategy
planning intervention than for teams that do not receive the communication strategy planning
intervention.
14. The product submission of teams that receive the communication strategy planning
intervention will be greater than for teams that do not receive the communication strategy
21
CHAPTER THREE
METHODS
The intention of study was to investigate the effects of a communication strategy and
planning intervention on team communication, team SMM, team psychological components, and
course development team performance at the Indonesia Open University, an open and distance
learning institution. The communication strategy planning intervention was designed to improve
team communication, team SMM, team psychological components and course development
performance. In this experimental design, teams in the treatment group received the
communication strategy planning intervention prior to the development of the course material,
while those in the control condition engaged in the control activity that did not involve the
communication strategy planning or team knowledge sharing. In this research design, the team
communication, team SMM, team psychological components (i.e., motivation, team satisfaction,
team frustration, team-efficacy, positive and negative affect), and team performance of the
treatment group was compared to the control group in order to determine the effects of the
intervention.
This chapter presents the essential methodological components required for testing the
studys hypotheses, i.e., sampling, course material development setting, the communication
strategy and planning intervention and control tasks, instrumentation, data collection procedures,
and data analysis.
Participants
The study was conducted at the Indonesia Open University, which has an enrollment of
approximately 600,000 students residing in various locations throughout Indonesia. The
university offers approximately 900 courses in four disciplines. The participants recruited for this
study were members of the course material development teams at the university.
The university appoints approximately 50 or more teams per year to undertake course
development projects. Teams come from four departments: Department of Mathematics and
Natural Sciences, Economics, Education, and Social Sciences and develop courses along with
the associated learning materials. Each team consists of three individuals: a faculty
member/subject matter expert (SME) who provides the content of the course materials, an
instructional designer who reviews the structure of the material, and a course manager who
22
coordinates the development process. The SMEs are generally hired from nationally recognized
conventional (face-to-face) universities. The instructional designers and course managers are
always from the Indonesia Open University academic staff. Because of the limited number of
the university academic staff, the roles of instructional designer and course manager is at times
assigned to the same person.
At the time of this study (Spring 2011), there were 65 teams carrying out course
development projects at the Open University. Teams were randomly assigned into the treatment
group or the control group. There were 32 teams in the treatment group, and 33 teams in the
control group. Because members in five teams did not sign the consent form, there were 60
teams involved in the study, 30 in the treatment group and 30 in the control group. The number
of individuals in each team ranged between two and four people. Participants in this study were
146 team members of course material development teams (60 teams) who worked to develop
course material for the Open University. Out of the total numbers of participants in this study,
there were 71 participants (48.6%) in the treatment group and 75 participants (51.4%) in the
control group. Since this study focused on teams, the unit of analysis was the team, which
effectively reduced the sample size to 60.
Demographic data showed that 52.1% of the course development team members were
from the Open University and 47.9% were from other universities. The age of the participants
ranged from 28 to 72 years old with a mean age of 47.56 years (SD=8.198); 54.1% were male
and 45.9 % were female; 2.7% held a bachelors degree, 61% a masters degree, and 36.3% a
doctoral degree. The development teams came from the four departments; Mathematics and
Natural Sciences (37%), Economics (16.4%), Education (24%), and Social Sciences (22.6%);
64.4% of the course material development team members were lecturers and 35.6% were
officers, which included deans (2.1%), assistant deans (8.2%), head of the centers (5.5%),
chairman of a study programs (15.1%), and secretary of a study programs (4.8%).
In relation to the team role assignments, 54.8% were writers of learning materials
(SMEs), while 45.2% were instructional designers (8.9%), course managers (22.6%), or
performed a dual role - writer and reviewer (2.7%), reviewer and course manager (3.4%),
instructional designer and course manager (6.8%), or writer and a course manager (.7%).
86.3% of the participants had prior experience in developing course material. Their selfreported course development skill level was 3.71 (SD=.60) on a scale ranging from 1 (very low)
23
to 5 (very high) indicating perceived medium skill level overall. The mean of participants
perceived ability to work on a team was 3.84 (SD= .55) measured on the same scale.
Participants self-reported ability to contribute to team success was above medium at 3.84
(SD=.54) measured on a scale from 1 (very low) to 5 (very high).
Study Design
The study consisted of a treatment and a control group as a between subject factor
(communication intervention vs. control) with several dependent variables ( i.e., team
communication, team SMM, team psychological components, and team performance). Two
dependent variables, team communication and team SMM, were measured at the beginning,
middle, and end of the course development projects. One dependent variable, team psychological
component, was measured at the beginning and end of the project. Team performance was
measured at the end of the project. Table 3.1 presents the research design. Time was used as
repeated measures within subject factor (WS factor).
Table 3.1
Research Design
Condition
Independent
Dependent Variables
Variables
(across both conditions)
Communication
Team
Team SMM Team psychological
Team performance
Intervention
strategy and
communication
(degree,
components (team
(product quality,
(30 teams)
planning
(communication
similarity)
motivation, team
product completion,
intervention
frequency,
satisfaction/frustration,
product submission)
communication
team efficacy, team
planning level
positive and negative
and value)
affect)
Control
(30 teams)
No intervention
Treatment and Control Conditions

The teams in the treatment condition were trained on communication strategy and
planning. This intervention was provided at the beginning of the course development process
when the teams were invited to the Open University for a two-day face-to-face course material
24
development workshop. The one and half-hour intervention was implemented during the
workshop, and involved a short presentation on developing a communication strategy plan as
well as guidelines for creating the plan. During the workshop they practiced creating a
communication strategy plan and each team coordinator was asked to initiate the communication
process to ensure that the teams implemented and practiced the communication strategy plan.
The training and guidelines for the communication strategy planning were drawn from
the findings of previous research studies. A communication strategy plan incorporates
information on how team members will achieve the project goal, be clear about their roles,
prioritize tasks, and communicate how the task should done (Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Stout,
Cannon-Bowers, Salas, & Milanovich, 1999). Communication planning covers the flow of
information among the team members and addresses communication issues such as who, when,
how, and by whom (PMBOK, 2004), as well as the teams purpose and boundaries (Smolek,
Hofman, & Moran, 1998).
The communication strategy planning training (see Appendix A) was designed to teach
the participants how to:
Identify key team roles
Identify team goals and team challenges
Identify the responsibilities of each team members
Identify problems that might emerge
Identify solutions to the potential problems
Select communication channels and the media to be used
Identify the types of information to be shared
Decide on the frequency of communication that will take place between team members
In the training, teams had an opportunity to practice and to finalize a communication
strategy plan for use in their project (e.g., a four-month period). The core of the intervention was
to train participants in developing a team communication strategy plan, using the plan, and
adjusting the plan as necessary during the course development process. During the intervention,
the teams discussed and wrote down a communication strategy plan based on the eight
dimensions/components of communication strategy planning. Then the teams were encouraged
to use the communication strategy plan that they developed during the intervention activity.
25
The control group was given a one and half hour session during the same two-day faceto-face course material development workshop. Their activity was unrelated to a communication
strategy intervention, or any activities related to knowledge sharing among team members.
Rather, it involved a short presentation on media selection for distance education and included a
task that required each participant to read an article about media selection as it applied to their
project. After completing the reading, participants were given three questions to respond in
writing to. The aim of the control group activity was to provide the participants with a useful task
related to course material development but not related to team SMM. See Appendix B for the
instructions for the control groups task.
Instrumentation
Demographics.
Demographic data were collected using a survey (see Appendix C) that included standard
demographic questions such as age, gender, race, department, institution affiliation, role in the
team, previous experience with tasks related to the development of course material, prior
experience working in teams, and their current communication skills. The demographic survey
was administered during the face-to-face course material development workshop and prior to
commencement of the course development projects.
Manipulation check.
A manipulation check was given to the treatment group before and immediately after the
intervention to identify whether the treatment had influences their communication skills. Team
members were asked one question before and two questions after the intervention. The questions
asked about implementing a communication strategy plan, and to what degree they would
commit to communicate with each other during the development project based on the
communication strategy plan they created. These questions employed a 5-point Likert-type scale,
ranging from 1 (not developed) to 5 (extremely developed) for the first and third questions and
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) for the second question. The specific items were:
Prior to the training:
1. What is the level of communication strategy plan level of your team?
Following the training:
2. The communication strategy plan developed during this training will help my team to
communicate more effectively in the future.
26
3. Following todays training, what is the level of communication strategy plan developed by
your team? (See Appendix D for manipulation check for the treatment group).
Team communication tracking instrument.
The team communication tracking instrument (TCTI) was a questionnaire developed by
the researcher to measure communication frequency (see Appendix E). The TCTI recorded the
types and frequency of communication used by team members as they developed the learning
materials over a five week period. Teams could use a variety of communication channels such as
face-to-face, telephone, email, audio computer conference, letters, or other means of
communication. . The TCTI questionnaires were administered three times over a four-month
period of course material development project.
Each team member described the type of communication used during the previous time
period and entered the frequency of use for each communication channel type per week over the
five weeks. The TCTI mean score is the average overall communication frequency for all
participants within a team over a five-week period.. Theinternal consistency of the items was
moderately good. Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was .85 for the communication
frequency items and .91 for the communication planning items.
Team progress tracking instrument.
The team progress tracking instrument (TPTI) is a questionnaire developed by the
researcher to measure the progress of product development (see Appendix F). The TPTI recorded
progress on the product development by three course material sections. These sections are the
introduction, the content presentation, and the closing. The introduction section included module
description, formulation of objectives or competencies, and relevance or benefit of the content.
The content presentation section included presentation or description of the content, examples
and non-examples, and learning exercises. The closing section included summary, formative
evaluation and feedback, and bibliography.
The TPTI questionnaire consisted of a nominal scale that provides response options
where participants check a yes or no response for each question. The TPTI also recorded
where the concept or draft of the product was prepared. For example, participants stated how far
through the process they were, e.g., still in the initial conceptualization, conceptualization
developed, draft, or final stage. The initial conceptualization stage relates to course components
that can be discussed via email, telephone, or in person. A developed conceptualization stage
27
refers to the stage in which the ideas related to course components have been worked out and
refined, but a draft version of the course components has not been completed. A course material
draft stage means that a full draft is completed but not finalized. The course material final stage
means a complete and polished course is available. The TPTI questionnaires were administered
three times over the four-month period of the learning material development process. The
internal consistency of this instrument produced a Cronbachs alpha reliability coefficient of .78.
Team assessment and diagnostic instrument.
At the end of every five-week period, participants were asked to complete a team
assessment diagnostic instrument (TADI). The goal of the questionnaire was to measure each
teams Shared Mental Models (SMM) (see Appendix G). Johnson et al. (2007) identified five
team and general task SMM factors in the TADI: task and team knowledge, communication
skills, attitude toward teammates and task, team dynamics and interactions, team resources and
working environment. The SMM factors were measured using a 5-point Likert-type scale,
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Three items were used to measure team SMM
for task and team knowledge factor (e.g., My team usually discusses our goals and attains the agreement of
each other). Three items were used to measure the general communication skills factor (e.g., My team
communicates effectively with each other while performing our tasks). Three items were used to measure
the attitude toward teammates and task factor (e.g. My team likes to do various team tasks).
Three items were used to measure the team dynamics and interactions factor (e.g. My team is likely
to make decisions together). Three items were used to measure the team resources and working
environment factor (e.g. My team creates a safe environment to openly discuss any issue related
to the teams success).
The internal consistency of this instrument reported by Johnson et al. (2007) was
moderately good. The Cronbach alpha coefficient was .76 for the general task and teamknowledge factor (factor 1), .89 for the general communication skills factor (factor 2), .75 for the
attitude toward teammates and task factor (factor 3), .81 for team dynamics and interactions
factor (factor 4), and .85 for team resources and working environment factor (factor 5). In the
current study the internal consistency of the items was moderately good. The Cronbach alpha
coefficient was .72 for factor 1, .71 for factor 2, .80 for factor 3, .75 for factor 4, and .80 for
factor 5.
28
Because the research focus was on teams, the average of each factor of the TADI score
for each participant within the same team was averaged to generate a mean score. The factor
mean score represented the level of team shared mental model (SMM) in terms of the responses
to the statements for each factor in the TADI questionnaire. The value of TADI SD represented
the similarity of the team members. If each of the team members of three had a similar response
to each statement of TADI questionnaire, the standard deviation of the TADI will be low and this
indicates a greater team SMM.
Team psychological components instrument.
The team psychological components instrument (TPCI) included team motivation, team
satisfaction/frustration, team-efficacy, and team affect/emotion (see Appendix H). The items,
especially those having to do with member motivation were drawn or adapted from the Team
Diagnostic Survey (TDS)-Harvard University (Hackman & Wageman, 2005). Four items were
used to measure the internal work motivation (e.g., I feel a real sense of personal satisfaction
when our team does well); the internal consistency for these items on the original study was .66
and in the current studyit was .57. Each of these items was measured on a five-point scale
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
The items on the team psychological components instrument, which measured the teamefficacy of participants, were developed by the researcher. This part of the instrument consisted
of nine items. Participants indicated their level of confidence by using 10-point increments on a
100-point percentage scale (100% = complete confidence, 0%= no confidence at all) for each of
these items (e.g., Carry out your specific tasks related to your team project). Internal
consistency for this instrument produced a Cronbachs alpha coefficient of .91.
The psychological components instrument items, which measured the emotional state of
team members, were adapted from the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)
developed by Watson, Clark, and Tellegen (1988). Originally, the PANAS instrument consisted
of two 10-item scales for positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA). For the purposes of this
study, with its focus on the team development of distance education course materials, six items
were selected from the PANAS instrument that were considered suitable to team assessment.
The PA and NA emotional states were measured using a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from
1 (very slightly or not at all) , 2 (little), 3 (moderately), 4 (quite a bit), and 5 (Extremely) (see Appendix H).
The internal consistency of this instrument as reported by Watson (1988) was moderately good.
29
The Cronbach alpha was .86 to .90 for the PA scale; .84 to .87 for the NA scale. In the current
study, the internal consistency of the positive and negative affect was moderately good. The
Cronbach alpha coefficient for the PA scale was .86, and for the NA scale was .80.
For the last section in the team psychological components instrument, two items on a
five-point scale ranging from 1 (none) to 5 (complete) were used to measure team satisfaction and
frustration. The specific items were:
1. Given the most current team tasks, what is your level of satisfaction with your team?
2. Given the most current team tasks, what is your level of frustration with your team?
For these items, the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was .73.
Team performance: Task completion instrument and product quality instrument.
The team performance task completion instrument and team performance product quality
instrument (TP-TCI/PQI) were used to measure task completion and product quality (see
Appendix I). Task completion was measured by comparing the number of tasks that were
actually completed to the number of tasks that should have been completed.
The TP-TCI contained a checklist of yes and no responses for product completion
overall, as well as by sections (i.e., the introduction section, content section, and closing section).
The product quality instrument (TP-PQI) used a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (poor) to 5
(very good) for each criterion.
The product quality criteria focused on three sections including the introduction, content
presentation, and closing. In terms of introduction, product quality criteria included correctness
of module description, formulation of objectives or competencies, and relevance or usefulness of
materials module. The presentation criteria included quality of content explained, relevance of an
example or non-example, and the clarity of learning exercises. For the closing section, the
quality criteria dealt with the clarity of summary, the correctness of the formative test, the clarity
of feedback and follow-up activity, and the correctness of the bibliography. The internal
consistency of the instrument produced a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .69 for the introduction
section, Cronbach alpha coefficient of .73 for the content presentation section, and a Cronbach
alpha coefficient of .59 for the closing section.
A rubric, which contained a set of criteria and standards linked to course components,
was given to the raters to assist them in evaluating the quality ofeach component of the product
(see Appendix J). The rubric allowed for easier and more transparent assessment of the quality of
30
the product. For example, to evaluate the objectives components, the rubric set criteria and
standards linked to a Likert scale ranging from 1(Poor) to 5 (Very Good). For example, the
rubric criteria for evaluating the objectives were:
1 (Poor): There is no objective present.
2 (Not Good): Objectives do not identify expected outcomes or competencies.
3 (Moderate): Objectives are well written but the formulation of objectives is incomplete
and less operational.
4 (Good): Objectives are well written, the formulation of objectives is complete but less
operational.
5 (Very Good): Objectives are very well written, the formulation of objectives is
complete and operational.
The rubric used by the evaluators was pilot tested. In the pilot study, one course was
evaluated by three evaluators using the TP-PQI. Interrater reliability was used to assess the
consistency of the ratings by the three evaluators and was computed by using Ebels (1951)
formula. The inter-rater reliability index is estimated by r equal to the means of the observed
variances for J items minus error variance divided by the means of the observed variance for J
items. The inter-rater reliability was .74, which indicated substantial agreement. This also
indicated that the rubric provided helpful guidance in assessing the product.
Procedures
The teams in this study were the course material development teams at the Universitas
Terbuka (Indonesia Open University), assigned by the university to develop course material
starting in Spring 2011. Participants (in both the treatment group and control group) were
introduced to the study during a face-to-face meeting held at the university. They were given the
informed consent letter (see Appendix K) and those who chose to participate signed it. The
letters were collected and participants were advised that they could withdraw from the study at
anytime without penalty. After the study introduction, the researcher informed the participants
that they would be divided into two groups.
The treatment intervention was presented during a one and a half hour meeting in which
participants first received 15 minutes training on communication strategy and planning. Each
team had approximately 60 minutes to create a communication strategy plan based on the
training and communication strategy guidelines provided. The researcher presented the training
31
and monitored the team activity. Before and after the training, participants had 15 minutes to
complete the manipulation check as well as a demographic survey.
The control group received one and half hour session which consisted of an activity not
related to communication strategy or team shared knowledge. The activity included a brief
presentation on media selection in distance education, and the group was also provided with brief
reading material on the topic. The activity took approximately 15 minutes. The attendees
answered three questions related to media selection for the course materials that they would be
developing. This activity took approximately 45-60 minutes. After the training, participants had
15 minutes to complete a demographic survey.
Because the briefings of both the treatment group and the control group were done
simultaneously in adjacent rooms, a research assistant worked with the control group, and the
researcher with the treatment group. In order to minimize the possibility of getting a Hawthorne
effect, the researcher and the research assistant periodically monitored the activity of the other
group.
The data collection occurred over a period of approximately four months. Data were
collected during the development process every five weeks. The first and the second data
collection periods included a questionnaire that was sent to the participants either via email,
postal services or handed to them in person. The last data collection was carried out during the
second course development materials workshop held at the university. All course developers
were invited to the Open University for the second workshop which was held for three days at
the Open University head office. In this workshop, team members had the opportunity to meet
face to face with each other and discuss the completion of their teaching materials. On the third
day of the workshop, the teams submitted their product to the executive committee or the head of
the study program. In the workshop, the questionnaires for the final stage were administered. For
the purpose of evaluating the quality of the teams product, a copy of the file of products
completed by the teams was also collected.
Team-SMM degree and similarity (TADI), communication frequency and
communication planning (TCTI), team satisfaction/frustration, and team progress were measured
once every five weeks throughout the four-month period. Team psychological components in
terms of team motivation, team/collective efficacy and positive and negative affects were
measured two times during the first five-week period and at the end of the four-month period.
32
Team performance in terms of task completion and product quality was measured at the end of
the four-month period.Table 3.2 presents the time line for the assessment of team
communication, team SMM, team psychological components, and team performance.
Table 3.2
Timeline for Assessment of Team Communication, Team SMM, Team Psychological
Components and Team Performance
Month 1
W1
Workshop
Month 2
W W W W
2
W2
Assess
Month 3
W W
W W
W3
Assess
Month 4
W W
W4
Assess
Intervention/
TADI
TADI
TADI
Training
TCTI
TCTI
TCTI
Demographic
TPTI
TPTI
TPCI
survey
TPCI
TP-TCI
Manipulation check
TP-POI
TADI: Test Assessment and Diagnostic Instrument; TCTI: Team Communication Tracking Instrument; TPTI:
Team Progress Tracking Instrument; TP-TCI: Team Performance-Task Completion Instrument; TP-PQI: Team
Performance-Product Quality Instrument; Team Psychological Components Instrument (TPCI)
The SMM instrument (TADI) and the team communication tracking instrument (TCTI),
were administered to all teams in both groups every five weeks throughout the four month
period. The team progress tracking instrument (TPTI) was administered to all teams in both
groups every five weeks. Team psychological components instrument (TPCI) was done with
both groups. The measurement of team performance-task completion (TP-TCI) and team
performance-product quality (TP-PQI) were done for both groups at the end of the four month
period.
Data Analysis
The data analysis for this study used a mixed effects repeated measures analysis of
variance (RM ANOVA) for each of the dependent variables. Group-type was the between
subjects factor and time (repeated measures) was used as a within subjects factor. Multivariate
33
statistics (Wilks Lambda, 2, and F-test) were used to generate significant and meaningful
effects for intervention/control, time, and their interaction. The significance level was set at <
.05. Because this study had 14 dependent variables clusters, an adjusted alpha was calculated.
Based on the number of dependent variables clusters and the tests conducted, the alpha
adjustment was set at .0036. Effect sizes were computed by using Cohens d defined as the
difference between two means divided by the pooled standard deviation for those means. The
interpretation of the result followed Cohens d criteria where .2 is indicative of a small effect, .5
a medium effect, and .8 a large effect size (Cohen, 1992).
Data were processed depending on the purpose of the instrument. Microsoft Excel was
used to generate mean and standard deviation statistics for the manipulation check, the SMM
instrument (TADI), the team communication tracking instrument (TCTI), the team progress
tracking instrument (TPTI), the team psychological components instrument (TPCI), team
performance-task completion (TP-TCI), and team performance-product quality (TP-PQI).
The next phase of the data analysis involved assessing the differences between the
treatment and control groups on the SMM, team communication, team psychological
components, and team performance. Interaction effects were also analyzed.
34
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
This study examined the effect of a communication strategy planning intervention on the
processes and performance of course material development teams at the Indonesia Open
University (Universitas Terbuka). The Open University appoints approximately 50 or more
teams per year to carry out course development projects. Sixty course material development
teams participated in this study, which examined the effects of a communication strategy
planning intervention designed to promote enhanced team communication, team SMM, team
psychological components, and team performance in terms of product quality and completion
rates. It tested the effectiveness of this intervention in the Indonesia Open University which uses
a team approach for course development. Teams involved in course material development were
randomly assigned to either a treatment or control condition. The treatment teams received
training in a communication strategy planning while teams in the control conditions did not.
The analyses that were carried out in this study are presented in the following sequence.
1. Testing basic assumptions
2. Manipulation check results
3. Testing the effects of the communication strategy and planning intervention on: (a)
team communication, (b) team SMM (c) team psychological components, and (d)
team performance.
Testing Basic Assumptions
Equality of Variance
An assumption of a one-way ANOVA is that the variances of the treatment and control
groups are similar. Statistical tests were performed to ensure the main assumptions of mean and
homogeneity of variance equality were not violated. Tables 4.1 to 4.8 show the results of
Levene's Test of Homogeneity of Variance, which tests for similar variances. If the significance
value is greater than .05, the homogeneity of variances is not violated.
Equality of variance for team communication.
Levenes test was employed to test the null hypothesis that the error variance of the
dependent variables is equal across groups. Results of Levenes test reveal homogeneity of the
dependent variables, i.e. team communication frequency, communication planning level, and
35
team communication planning value, were not violated (p > .05). However, the assumption of
equal error variance of team communication planning level and team communication planning
value on the first measurement was violated (p < .05) (see Table 4.1). The failure of these two
dependent variables (communication planning level and communication planning value) on the
first measurement to meet the assumption of homogeneity of variance was not fatal since
ANOVA is relatively robust to the violation of equality of variance, particularly when the sample
size of the groups are equal.
Table 4.1
Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team Communication Related Variables
Dependent Variable
Measurement
Team Communication Frequency
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Team Communication Planning Level
Team Communication Planning Value
3.74
.22
.01
4.766
3.475
3.211
10.316
1.027
1.160
.06
.64
.98
.033
.067
.078
.002
.315
.286
Note. df (1.58)
Equality of variance for team-SMM degree.

Results from Levenes test (see Table 4.2) showed that homogeneity of the dependent
variables on team-SMM degree was not violated (p > .05).
Table 4.2
Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team-SMM Degree and Related Variables
Dependent Variable
Measurement
Team-SMM Degree (TADI overall mean)
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Task and Team Knowledge
36
.199
.008
.451
1.30
.66
.93
.50
.26
Tabel 4.2 Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team-SMM Degree and
Related Variables (Continued)
Dependent Variable
Communication Skills
Attitude Toward Teammates and Task
Team Dynamics and Interactions
Team Resources and Working Environment
Measurement
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
.291
.003
.596
.247
.367
1.96
.051
.269
1.02
.074
.149
.633
.029
.396
.59
.96
.44
.62
.55
.17
.82
.61
.32
.79
.70
.43
.86
.53
Note. df =1, 58
Equality of variance for team-SMM similarity.

Results of Levenes test (see Table 4.3) showed that homogeneity of the dependent
variables on team-SMM similarity was not violated (p > .05).
Table 4.3
Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team-SMM Similarity and Related Variables
Dependent Variable
Measurement
Team-SMM Similarity (TADI overall SD)
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Task and Team Knowledge
Attitude Toward Teammates and Task
Team Dynamics and Interactions
37
.180
.045
2.358
.749
.068
.194
1.023
.830
.141
.090
.066
.926
.299
.099
.014
.673
.833
.130
.390
.795
.661
.316
.366
.708
766
.798
.340
.586
.754
.908
Table 4.3 Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team-SMM Similarity and
Related Variables (Continued)
Dependent Variable
Measurement
Team Resources and Working Environment
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
.101
3.563
3.090
.751
.064
.084
Note. df =1, 58
Equality of variance for team psychological components.

variables on team psychological components was not violated (p > .05).
Table 4.4
Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team Psychological Components
Dependent Variable
Team psychological components
Team Motivation
Team Satisfaction
Team Frustration
Team Efficacy
Team positive affect
Interested
Excited
Enthusiastic
Proud
Inspired
Attentive
Measurement
Time 1
Time 2
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
3.61
2.03
.871
1.288
.240
1.481
1.568
.085
.422
.000
.062
.159
.354
.261
.626
.229
.216
.772
.519
.985
Time 1
Time 2
Time 1
Time 2
Time 1
Time 2
Time 1
Time 2
Time 1
Time 2
Time 1
Time 2
.642
.953
2.40
3.105
.146
.002
.020
.233
.848
.820
2.268
.942
.426
.333
.127
.083
.704
.962
.887
.631
.361
.369
.138
.336
38
Table 4.4 Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team Psychological
Components (Continued)
Dependent Variable
Team negative affect
Distressed
Upset
Guilty
Irritable
Ashamed
Jittery
Measurement
Time 1
Time 2
Time 1
Time 2
Time 1
Time 2
Time 1
Time 2
Time 1
Time 2
Time 1
Time 2
.844
2.540
.371
.337
.625
1.451
1.479
2.408
.292
.008
.060
2.251
p
.362
.116
.545
.564
.433
.233
.229
.126
.591
.929
.808
.139
Note. df = 1,58
Equality of variance for team performance.

variables on team performance product quality (i.e. introduction section, content section, and
closing section) was not violated (p > .05).
Table 4.5
Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variance for Team Performance Product Quality
Dependent Variable
Measurement
Team Performance
Introduction Section
.97
Content Section
.40
Closing Section
.01
Note. Introduction section df (1, 47); content section df (1, 50): closing section df (1, 43)
p
.33
.53
.93
Testing for Sphericity

Mauchly's Test of Sphericity tests the assumption of sphericity, to determine if the
variances of the differences are equal. If Mauchly's Test of Sphericity is statistically significant
39
(p < .05), this means that the variances of the differences are not equal (i.e. sphericity has been
violated). In this case, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction would be used. On the other hand, if
Mauchly's Test of Sphericity is statistically not significant (p > .05), this means that the variances
of the differences are equal (i.e. sphericity had not been violated). Tables 4.6 to 4.14 present the
results from Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for each dependent variable.
Testing for sphericity for team communication.
The result of Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for team communication frequency and team
communication planning value was not significant. This means that the variances of the
differences were equal (i.e. sphericity had not been violated). In the case of team communication
planning level, the p-value was significant which means that the variances of the differences are
not equal (i.e. sphericity has been violated). In this case, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was
used for the team communication planning level variable. Table 4.6 presents the results from
Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for each dependent variable on team communication.
Table 4.6
Mauchly's Test of Sphericity Result for the Team Communication and Related Variables
Dependent Variable
Team communication Frequency
Team communication Planning Level
Team communication Planning Value
Note. df = 2; *significant p < .05
Measurement
Time
Time
Time
Chi-Square
.599
22.739
5.208
p
.741
.000*
.071
Testing for sphericity for team-SMM degree.

The result of Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for effect of factor in team-SMM degree was
not significant meaning that the variances of the differences were equal (i.e. sphericity had not
been violated). For the effect of time and interaction between time and factor, the result of
Mauchlys Test of Sphericity was significant indicating that the variances of the differences were
not equal (i.e. sphericity has been violated). In this case, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was
used. Table 4.7 presents the results from Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for each dependent
variable on team-SMM degree.
40
Table 4.7
Mauchly's Test of Sphericity Result for the Team SMM Degree
Dependent Variable
Team-SMM Degree
Measurement
Chi-Square
Time
14.782
Factor
10.899
Time*Factor
81.152
Note. df for time= 2; df for factor = 9, df for time*factor = 35; *significant p < .05
p
.001*
.283
.000*
Testing for sphericity for team SMM similarity.

The result of Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for effect of factor in team-SMM similarity was
not significant meaning that the variances of the differences were equal (i.e. sphericity had not
been violated). For the effect of time and interaction between time and factor, the result of
Mauchlys Test of Sphericity was significant. This means that the variances of the differences
were not equal (i.e. sphericity has been violated). In this case, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction
was used. Table 4.8 presents the results from Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for each dependent
variable on team-SMM similarity.
Table 4.8
Mauchly's Test of Sphericity Result for the Team SMM Similarity
Dependent Variable
Team -SMM Degree
Measurement
Chi-Square
Time
12.042
Factor
7.685
Time*Factor
61.040
Note. df for time = 2, df for factor = 9, df for time*factor = 35; *significant at p < .05
p
.002*
.556
.004*
Testing for sphericity for team psychological components.

The result of Mauchly's Test of Sphericity in the team psychological components (i.e.
team satisfaction, team motivation, team efficacy, team negative affect) were significant. This
means that the variances of the differences were not equal (i.e. sphericity has been violated). In
this case, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was used. Table 4.9 presents the results from
Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for each dependent variable on team-psychological components.
41
Table 4.9
Mauchly's Test of Sphericity Result for the Team Psychological Components and Related
Variables
Dependent Variable
Measurement
Chi-Square
Team Motivation
Team Satisfaction
Team Frustration
Team Efficacy
Team Positive Affect
Time
.000
.000*
Time
10.361
.006*
Time
15.292
.000*
Time
.000
.000*
Time
.000
.000*
Positive Affect
32.816
.003*
Time*Positive Affect
221.818
.000*
Team Negative Affect
Time
.000
.000*
Negative Affect
45.976
.000*
Time*Negative Affect
237.293
.000*
Note. df for time = 1 (team motivation, team efficacy), df for time = 2 (team satisfaction, team frustration), df for
time =1 (team positive affect, team negative affect), df = 14 (for affect and interaction between time and Affect);
*significant at p < .05
Manipulation Check
The manipulation check was designed to gather data about the participants experiences
and perceptions of the communication strategy planning intervention. These data were collected
before and after the intervention activity for the treatment group only. The first question asked
how well the team developed their communication strategy plan before the training. Responses
were based on a scale ranging from 1 (not developed) to 5 (extremely well developed).
Participants mean score on this item was 2.14 (SD = 1.09) indicating that the communication
strategy plan was minimally developed prior to the intervention. The second question asked
whether the teams communication strategy plan, developed during the training, would help team
members to communicate with one another in the future. Responses were based on a scale
ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Participants mean rating on this item
was 4.63 (SD = .49) indicated a strong belief that the communication strategy plan would help
team members to communicate with each other during the course material development period.
The third question asked about how well the team developed their communication strategy plan
after they had been trained. The response scale ranged from 1 (not developed) to 5 (extremely
well developed). Participants mean score on this item was 4.00 (SD = .68) indicating that
participants had a well developed communication plan. Clearly, the intervention given to the
42
treatment group was perceived to be very helpful to the team in relation to their course
development work.
Hypotheses Testing
Effect on Team Communication
Effect on team communication (communication frequency).
The first hypothesis postulated that the frequency of team communication would be
greater for teams that receive the communication strategy planning intervention than for teams
that do not receive the communication strategy planning intervention.
RM ANOVA was employed to show the changes over time in the team communication
dependent variable and the two levels of independent variable (treatment and control groups) as
grouping between subjects (BS) factors. Results of team communication RM ANOVA are
presented in Table 4.10.
Mauchly's Test of Sphericity indicated that the assumption of sphericity had not been
violated, 2(2) = .559, p = .741, and therefore, Wilks was used in the RM ANOVA. The
findings within subjects revealed that there was no significant effect of time on team
communication at unadjusted alpha (p < .05), p = .227. There was no significant interaction
effect between time and group (treatment and control) at unadjusted alpha (p < .05), p = .269.
The findings between subjects (BS) effects revealed that there was no significant effect between
groups (see Table 4.10). These results fail to support the hypothesis that teams in the intervention
condition would score significantly higher on the communication frequency than teams in the
control condition; however the difference was approaching significance. The result of Cohens d
at Time 1 = .73; Time 2 = .32; Time 3 = .22. In relation to communication frequency there was a
medium effect size at Time 1, and a small effect size at Time 2 and Time 3.
Table 4.10
RM ANOVA for Team Communication Frequency
Effect
Wilks
Time (WS)
.955
1.502
.227
.025
Time * Group (WS)
.927
1.327
.269
.022
Group (BS)
2.967
.090
Note. *significant at unadjusted alpha p <.05; **significant at adjusted alpha p <.0036
.049
43
Figure 4.1. Team communication frequency means for treatment and control groups
across time
Figure 4.1 shows the means for each measurement for team communication frequency at
Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3. Although the means for the treatment group were greater than the
means for the control group, there were no significant differences between the three
measurements of time between treatment group and control group based on the results of RMANOVA. Table 4.11 presents means and SDs for the treatment and control groups separately as
well as combined on team communication planning frequency.
Table 4.11
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Group for Team
Communication Frequency
Treatment
N=30
M
SD
Group
Control
N=30
M
SD
Combined
N=60
M
SD
Outcome Measure
Team Communication Frequency a
Time 1
10.10 5.58
6.61 3.76
8.36
Time 2
10.30 6.28
8.28 6.26
9.29
Time 3
10.08 7.72
8.60 5.53
9.34
Note. The range of possible communication Frequency mean scores was from 1 with no upper limit
44
5.05
6.30
6.70
Summary of the communication channel usage.

Table 4.12 and Figure 4.2 show the type of communication channel and the frequency of
use by team members of the treatment group in total at three times of measurement, Time 1,
Time 2 and Time 3. Each measurement was taken for each five-week period. Based on the data
obtained in the treatment group, it appears that the communication channels that were most
widely used were the telephone (Time 1 = 23.03%, Time 2 = 25.24%, Time 3 = 24.39%), SMS/
texting (Time 1 = 34.69%, Time 2= 34.41%, Time 3 = 31.24%), and email (Time 1 = 23.46%,
Time 2 = 21.46%, Time 3 = 22.68%).
Table 4.12
Type and Frequency of Communication Channel used by Team Member in Treatment Group
Type of Communication Channel
Internet
Telephone
SMS (Texting)
Email
Letter
Face to face
Product
Frequency
Time 2
16
2.16%
187 25.24%
255 34.41%
159 21.46%
10
1.35%
61
8.23%
53
7.15%
Time 1
37
5.20%
164 23.03%
247 34.69%
167 23.46%
8
1.12%
45
6.32%
44
6.18%
45
Time 3
23
3.28%
171 24.39%
219 31.24%
159 22.68%
13
1.85%
57
8.13%
59
8.42%
Total
76
522
721
485
31
163
156
Communication Channel
Internet
Telephone
SMS (Texting)
Email
Letter
Face-to-face
Product
255
247
219
187
164
171
167
159
159
61
45 44
37
8
57 59
53
23
16
10
Time 1
Time 2
13
Time 3
Figure 4.2. Type and frequency of communication channel used by team member in
treatment group
Table 4.13 and Figure 4.3 show the type of communication channel and the frequency of
use by team members of the control group in total at three times of measurement, Time 1, Time 2
and Time 3.
Table 4.13
Type and Frequency of Communication Channel Used by Team Members in Control Group
Type of Communication Channel
Internet
Telephone
SMS (Texting)
Email
Letter
Face to face
Product
Time 1
17
3.33%
120 23.53%
139 27.25%
92 18.04%
10
1.96%
82 16.08%
50
9.80%
46
Frequency
Time 2
43
6.87%
120 19.17%
180 28.75%
154 24.60%
5
0.80%
86 13.74%
38
6.07%
Time 3
51
7.88%
126 19.47%
175 27.05%
149 23.03%
5
0.77%
86 13.29%
55
8.50%
Total
111
366
494
395
20
254
143
Each measurement was taken for each five-week period. Based on the data obtained from the
control group, it appears that the communication channels most widely used were the telephone
(Time 1 = 23.53%, Time 2 = 19.17%, Time 3 =19.47%), SMS/texting (Time 1 = 27.25%, Time 2
= 28.75%, Time 3 = 27.05%), and email (Time 1=18.04%, Time 2 = 24.60%, Time 3 = 23.03%).
The communication channel type used was similar for both treatment and control groups.
Communication Channel
Internet
Telephone
SMS (Texting)
Email
Letter
Face to face
180
Product
175
154
149
139
120
126
120
92
86
82
86
55
51
50
43
38
17
10
Time 1
Time 2
5
Time 3
control group
Figure 4.4 shows the type of communication channel and the frequency of use by team members
in total at three times of measurement, Time 1, Time 2 and Time 3 for both the treatment and the
control group.
47
treatment and control groups
Effects on team communication (planning level and planning value).

To examine the effect of the communication strategy planning intervention on team
communication, the following hypotheses were postulated:
1. The team communications planning level will be greater for teams that receive the
communication strategy and planning intervention than for teams that do not receive the
2. The team communication planning value will be greater for teams that receive the
communication strategy planning intervention than for teams that do not receive the
RM ANOVA was employed to show the changes over time in the dependent variables
(the team communication planning level and of the communication planning value) in team
communication as WS repeated measures and the two level of independent variable (treatment
and control group) as grouping (BS) factors.
Effects on communication planning level.
Mauchly's Test of Sphericity on team communication level indicated that the assumption
of sphericity had been violated, for time 2 (2) = 22.739, p < .05. Therefore, a GreenhouseGeisser correction was used. The findings within subjects revealed that there was no significant
48
main effect of time and there was no significant interaction effect between time and group
(treatment and control). Between subjects effects test results show there was a significant effect
between treatment and control group at the adjusted alpha (p < .0036), F(1,58) = 68.076, p <
.0001, = .540, Cohens d at Time 1 = 1.75; Time 2 = 1.55; Time 3 = 1.84. For the
communication planning level there was a very large effect size at all three times. This result is
consistent with the hypothesis that the team communication planning level was greater for teams
receiving the communication strategy planning intervention than for teams that did not receive
the communication strategy planning intervention. Results of RM ANOVA for team
communication planning level are presented in Table 4.14.
Table 4.14
RM ANOVA Results for Team Communication Planning Level
Effect
Wilks
Time (WS)
.875
2.977
.070
.049
Time * Group (WS)
.987
.051
.305
.675
68.076
.000**
Group (BS)
Note. *significant at unadjusted alpha p < .05; **significant at adjusted alpha p < .0036
.540
Figure 4.5 shows the means plotted for treatment and control group for the team communication
planning level. The means score for the treatment group were higher than for the control group.
49
Communication Planning Level

4.5
4
3.5
Means
3
2.5
Treatment
Control
1.5
1
0.5
0
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Figure 4.5. Team communication planning level means for treatment and control groups
across time
Effects on communication planning value.

Mauchly's Test of Sphericity indicated that the assumption of sphericity was not violated,
for time 2 (2) = 5.280, p = .071. The findings within subjects revealed that there was no
significant main effect of time at alpha adjusted (p < .0036). However, it was significant at the
unadjusted alpha (p < .05), F (2, 116) = 4.79, p = .014, = .071, and therefore further study of
this outcome is needed. Post-hoc Bonferroni tests revealed a significant difference between Time
1 and Time 3 on team communication value at unadjusted alpha (p<.05), p = .030. There was no
significant interaction effect between time and group (treatment and control). The between
subjects effects test result shows there was a significant effect between treatment and control
group at the adjusted alpha (p < .0036), F(1,58) = 36.430, p <.0001, .= .386, Cohens d at
Time 1 = 1.13; Time 2 = 1.31;Time 3 = 1.20. For the communication planning value there was
a large effect size at all three times. This result shows that the team communication planning
value was greater for teams receiving the communication strategy planning intervention than for
teams that did not receive the communication strategy planning intervention. Results of RM
ANOVA for team communication planning value are presented in Table 4.15.
50
Table 4.15
RM ANOVA Results for Team Communication Planning Value
Effect
Wilks
Time (WS)
.875
4.446
.014*
.071
Time * Group (WS)
.987
1.304
.275
.022
36.430
.000**
Group (BS)
.386
Figure 4.6 shows the means plotted for treatment and control groups for the team
communication planning value. The means scores for the treatment group were higher than for
the control group.
Communication Planning Value

4.6
4.4
4.2
sn 4
a
e
M3.8
Treatment
Control
3.6
3.4
3.2
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Figure 4.6. Team communication planning value means for treatment and control groups
across time
Table 4.16 presents means and standard deviations for the treatment and control groups
separately as well as combined on team communication planning level and team communication
planning value.
51
Table 4.16
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Group for Team
Communication Planning and Related Variables
Treatment
(N=30)
M
SD
Group
Control
(N=30)
M
SD
Outcome Measure
Team Communication Planning Levela
Time 1
4.02
.39
3.20
Time 2
4.09
.41
3.29
Time 3
4.22
.39
3.32
Team Communication Planning Valueb
Time 1
4.17
.27
3.75
Time 2
4.33
.47
3.72
Time 3
4.43
.41
3.86
Note.
a.The range of possible communication planning level mean scores was from 1 to 5
b.The range of possible communication planning value mean scores was from 1 to 5
Combined
(N=60)
M
SD
.54
.61
.57
3.61
3.69
3.77
.62
.65
.66
.45
.46
.53
3.96
4.03
4.14
.42
.55
.55
Effect on Team SMM

Effect on team-SMM degree.
It was expected that the level of team-SMM degree would be greater for teams that receive
the communication strategy planning intervention than for teams that do not receive the
RM ANOVA was employed to show the changes over time in the dependent variable
team SMM-degree as WS repeated measures and the two levels of independent variable
(treatment and control group) as grouping (BS) factors.
Mauchly's Test of Sphericity indicated that the assumption of sphericity had been
violated for time, 2 (2) = 14.782, p < .05, and, therefore, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was
used. The findings revealed that there was a significant effect for time (three time measurements)
on team-SMM degree, F(1.628, 94.428) =7.99, p = .001, = .121. The analysis using Post-hoc
Bonferroni tests revealed a significantly mean increase in team-SMM degree from Time 1 to
Time 3, p=.001 which was statistically significant at adjusted alpha (p < .0036). There was no
significant interaction effect between time and group at the adjusted alpha (p < .0036) as well as
at the unadjusted alpha p < .05. Between subjects effects test results indicated there was a
significant difference between the treatment and the control group on team-SMM degree at the
52
adjusted alpha (p < .0036), F (1, 58) = 12.998, p=.001, = .183, Cohens d at Time 1 = 1.04;
Time 2 = .78; Time 3 = .82. For the team-SMM degree there was a very large effect size at Time
1 and Time 3, and a medium effect size at Time 2. The results are consistent with the hypothesis
that the level of team-SMM degree would be greater for teams that receive the communication
strategy planning intervention than for teams that did not receive the communication strategy
planning intervention. Table 4.17 presents the results of RM ANOVA for team-SMM degree
(TADI means).
Table 4.17
RM ANOVA Result for Team-SMM Degree (Means of TADI) by Main Effect and Interactions
Effect
Effect
Wilks
Time (WS)
.769
Time * Group (WS)
.923
Group (BS)
8.011
.001**
.121
2.715
.082
.064
.001**
.183
12.998
Note.*significant at unadjusted alpha p < .05; **significant at adjusted alpha p < .0036
Figure 4.7 shows the overall means plot for treatment and control groups for team-SMM
degree. The mean scores of the treatment group were higher than the control group.
53
Team SMM Degree

4.3
4.2
Means
4.1
Treatment
Control
3.9
3.8
3.7
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Figure 4.7. Team-SMM degree overall means for treatment and control groups across
time
In Figure 4.7 the curves of the treatment group and control group are increasing over time, which
was expected since the effect of time was significant.
separately as well as combined on team-SMM degree.
Table 4.18
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for Team-SMM Degree
and Related Variables
Team SMM Degree Overall
Team and Task Knowledge
Outcome Measure
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Time 1
Time 2
Treatment
(N= 30)
M
SD
4.22
.27
4.23
.29
4.26
.23
4.26
.30
4.29
.32
54
Group
Control
(N= 30)
M
SD
3.89
.35
4.02
.24
4.07
.25
4.01
.30
4.06
.31
Combined
(N=60)
M
SD
4.06
.35
4.13
.29
4.16
.26
4.14
.32
4.18
.34
Table 4.18 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for
Team-SMM Degree and Related Variables (Continued)
Treatment
(N= 30)
Outcome Measure
M
SD
Time 3
4.33
.26
Time 1
4.16
.29
Time 2
4.22
.36
Time 3
4.18
.26
Attitude Toward Team and
Time 1
4.23
.33
Task
Time 2
4.21
.38
Time 3
4.27
.30
Team Dynamic and
Time 1
4.24
.31
Interaction
Time 2
4.20
.31
Time 3
4.28
.29
Resource and Working
Time 1
4.19
.40
Environment
Time 2
4.25
.36
Time 3
4.26
.30
Note. The range of possible TADI mean scores was from 1 to 5
Group
Control
(N= 30)
M
SD
4.11
.27
3.79
.35
3.94
.35
3.97
.35
3.90
.50
4.06
.35
4.09
.33
3.85
.49
3.99
.32
4.03
.31
3.99
.44
3.99
.38
4.17
.26
Combined
(N=60)
M
SD
4.22
.28
3.98
.37
4.08
.38
4.08
.32
4.06
.45
4.13
.37
4.18
.33
4.04
.46
4.10
.33
4.16
.32
4.09
.43
4.12
.39
4.23
.28
Effect on team-SMM similarity.

It was expected that the level of team-SMM similarity would be greater for teams that
received the communication strategy planning intervention than teams that did not receive the
RM ANOVA was employed to show the changes over time in team-SMM similarity as
WS repeated measures and the two levels of independent variable (treatment and control groups)
as grouping (BS) factors. Results of team-SMM similarity RM ANOVA are presented in Table
4.19.
violated, 2 (2) = 14.915, p < .05 and, therefore, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was used. The
findings revealed that there was no significant main effect of time (see Table 4.19). The between
subjects effects revealed no significant effect between groups (treatment and control) at the
adjusted alpha (p < .0036), but it was significant at unadjusted alpha (p < .05), F(1, 58) = 5.489,
p = .023, = .086, Cohens d at Time 1 = .49; Time 2 = .55; Time 3 = .40. For the team-SMM
similarity there was a medium effect size at all three times. According to the unadjusted alpha (p
< .05), the result supported the hypothesis that the level of team-SMM similarity would be
55
greater for teams that receive the communication strategy planning intervention than for teams
that did not receive the communication strategy planning intervention. However, since the result
was not significant at the adjusted alpha (p< .0036), further study at this outcome is needed.
Table 4.19
RM ANOVA Results for Team-SMM Similarity (SD of TADI) by Main Effect and Interactions
Effect
Effect
Wilks
Time (WS)
.979
1.000
Time *Group (WS)
.409
.665
.007
.006
.987
.000
Group (BS)
5.489
.023*
.086
Figure 4.8 shows the means plot for treatment and control groups for team-SMM
similarity. The means of the treatment group were lower than those of the control group,
indicating greater team similarity. The result turned out as expected that the team similarity of
the treatment group would be greater than the control group.
Team SMM Similarity
0.7
0.6
Means
0.5
0.4
Treatment
Control
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Figure 4.8. Team-SMM similarity overall means for treatment and control groups across
time
56
In Figure 4.8 the similarity score of the treatment group and control group are decreasing over
time (even though the effect of time was not significant). As explained before, the lower the
team-SMM similarity mean, the greater the team similarity. Furthermore, the curves are
approximately parallel as the interaction was not significant.
separately as well as combined on team-SMM similarity.
Table 4.20
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for Team-SMM
Similarity
Treatment
(N= 30)
Outcome Measure
M SD
Team -SMM Similarity Overall Time 1
.50 .12
Time 2
.47 .15
Time 3
.46 .10
Team and Task Knowledge
Time 1
.37 .23
Time 2
.40 .24
Time 3
.42 .18
Time 1
.41 .31
Time 2
.38 .26
Time 3
.34 .26
Attitude Toward Team and
Time 1
.46 .26
Task
Time 2
.49 .19
Time 3
.42 .23
Team Dynamic and
Time 1
.37 .29
Interaction
Time 2
.35 .29
Time 3
.34 .25
Resource and Working
Time 1
.38 .28
Environment
Time 2
.38 .28
Time 3
.37 .25
Note. The range of possible TADI SD scores was from .00 to 1.00
Effect on Team Psychological Components

Effect on team motivation.
57
Group
Control
(N= 30)
M SD
.58 .21
.55 .15
.52 .18
.44 .34
.47 .22
.49 .22
.57 .31
.47 .36
.43 .34
.51 .28
.54 .19
.52 .20
.49 .35
.53 .32
.50 .32
.47 .29
.42 .22
.44 .20
Combined
(N=60)
M
SD
.54
.18
.51
.15
.49
.15
.41
.29
.44
.23
.45
.20
.49
.32
.42
.31
.39
.31
.48
.27
.52
.19
.47
.22
.43
.33
.44
.31
.42
.29
.42
.28
.40
.25
.41
.23
According to the hypothesis, team members motivation would be greater for teams that
receive the communication strategy planning intervention than for teams that did not receive the
team motivation as WS repeated measures and the two levels of independent variable (treatment
and control groups) as grouping (BS) factors.
Mauchly's Test of Sphericity indicated that the assumption of sphericity has been
violated, 2 (2) <.0001, p < .05, and, therefore, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was used. The
findings revealed that there was no significant effect of time, there was no significant interaction
effect between the three time measurements and groups (treatment and control), and there was no
significant effects between groups (see Table 4.21). These results failed to support the hypothesis
that the teams in the intervention condition would score significantly higher than teams in the
control condition. Table 4.21 presents the result of RM ANOVA for team psychological
components-team motivation.
Table 4.21
RM ANOVA Results for Team Psychological Components Team Motivation by Main Effect and
Interactions Effect
p
3.215
.078
.053
.410
.012
Group (BS)
.855
.359
.015
Effect
Time (WS)
Time * Group (WS)
Wilks
.947
.988
.689
Figure 4.9 shows the means for treatment and control groups for team psychological components
team motivation. The means of the treatment group were higher than the control group.
However, the differences between means were not significant.
58
Team Motivation
4.3
4.28
4.26
Means
4.24
Treatment
4.22
Control
4.2
4.18
4.16
4.14
Time 1
Time 2
Figure 4.9. Team motivation means for treatment and control groups across time
Effect on team satisfaction.

According to the hypothesis, the satisfaction of team members would be greater for teams
that received the communication strategy planning intervention than for teams that did not
receive the communication strategy planning intervention. RM ANOVA was employed to show
the changes over time in team satisfaction as WS repeated measures and the two levels of
independent variables (treatment and control group) as grouping (BS) factors. Results of RM
ANOVA for team psychological component team satisfaction are presented in Table 4.22.
violated for time 2 (2) =10.361, p = .006 and therefore a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was
used. Between-subjects effects test results revealed no significant difference between the
treatment groups and the control groups at the adjusted alpha (p < .0036), but it was significant at
the unadjusted alpha (p < .05), F(1, 58) = 8.541, p = .005, 2 = .128, Cohens d at Time 1 = .796;
Time 2 = .836; Time 3 = .842. For the team satisfaction there was a large effect size at all three
times. According to the unadjusted alpha (p < .05), the result is consistent with the hypothesis
that team satisfaction would be greater for teams that received the communication strategy
planning intervention than for teams that did not receive the communication strategy planning
59
intervention. However, the result was not significant at the adjusted alpha (p< .0036), suggesting
that further study of this outcome is needed.
Table 4.22
RM ANOVA Results for Team Satisfaction by Main Effect and Interactions Effect
Effect
Wilks
Time (WS)
Time *Group (WS)
.926
F
3.181
p
.053
.052
.987
.531
.562
.009
8.541
.005*
Group (BS)
Note. *significant at unadjusted alpha p < .05: **significant at adjusted alpha p < .0036
.128
Figure 4.10 shows the means for treatment and control groups for team satisfaction. The between
groups test indicates that there was a significant difference at the unadjusted alpha (p < .05),
showing that the curves for the treatment group and the control group are far apart.
Team Satisfaction
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
Treatment
Control
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Figure 4.10. Team satisfaction means for treatment and control groups across time
Effect on team frustration.
60
According to the hypothesis the frustration of team members would be lower for teams
receive the communication strategy planning intervention.
RM ANOVA was employed to show the changes over time in team frustration as WS
repeated measures and the two levels of independent variables (treatment and control group) as
grouping (BS) factors. Results of RM ANOVA for team frustration are presented in Table 4.23.
violated for Time 2 (2) = 15.292, p < .0001 and therefore a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was
used. The findings revealed no significant effect of time on team frustration at the adjusted alpha
(p < .0036), but it was significant at the unadjusted alpha (p < .05), F(1, 58) = 3.324, p = .050, 2
= .054. Between-subjects effects test results revealed a significant difference between the
treatment groups and the control groups at adjusted alpha (p < .0036), F(1, 58) = 13.718, p <
.0001, partial 2 = .191, Cohens d at Time 1 = .655; Time 2 = .716; Time 3 = .841. For the team
frustration there was a medium effect size at Time 1 and Time 2, and a large effect size at Time
3. The result is consistent with the hypothesis that the team frustration of team members would
be lower for teams that received the communication strategy planning intervention than for
teams that did not receive the communication strategy planning intervention.
Table 4.23
RM ANOVA Results for Team Frustration by Main Effect and Interactions Effect
Effect
Wilks
Time (WS)
.824
Time *Group (WS)
.999
3.324
p
.050*
.054
.26
.953
.000
.000**
Group (BS)
13.718
.191
Figure 4.11 shows that the means of the treatment group were higher than the control group,
which meant that the frustration level of treatment group was lower than the control group.
61
Team Frustration
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.3
Treatment
4.2
Control
4.1
4
3.9
3.8
3.7
Time 1
Time 2
Time 3
Figure 4.11. Team frustration means for treatment and control groups across time
Effect on team efficacy.

According to the hypothesis, team efficacy of team members would be greater for teams
receive the communication strategy planning intervention.
team psychological component team efficacy as WS repeated measures and the two levels of
independent variables (treatment and control groups) as grouping (BS) factors. Results of team
efficacy RM ANOVA are presented in Table 4.24.
violated, 2(2) <.0001, p < .05, therefore, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was used. The
findings revealed a significant effect of time on team efficacy at the adjusted alpha (p < .0036),
F(1, 58) = 12.304, p = .001, 2 = .053. The within subject test revealed a significant time effect,
in other words, team efficacy of both groups was greater over time. The findings between
subjects effects revealed that there was also a significant effect between groups (treatment and
control) at the adjusted alpha (p < .0036), F(1, 58) = 9.574, p = .003, 2 = .142, Cohens d at
Time 1 = 0.69; Time 2 = 0.90. For the team efficacy there was a medium effect size at Time 1,
and a large effect size at Time 2. The result is consistent with the hypothesis that the team
62
efficacy of team members would be greater for teams that received the communication strategy
planning intervention than for teams that did not receive the communication strategy planning
intervention.
Table 4.24
RM ANOVA Results for Team Efficacy by Main Effect and Interactions Effect
Wilks
Time (WS)
.825
12.304
.001**
.053
Time *Group (WS)
.963
2.215
.142
.012
.003**
.142
Effect
Group (WS)
9.574
Note. *significant at unadjusted alpha p<.05; **significant at adjusted alpha p<.0036
Figure 4.12 shows the means for treatment and control groups for team psychological
components team efficacy. The means score of the treatment group were higher than the control
group. The between groups test revealed a significant difference as can be seen in the Figure
4.12.
Figure 4.12. Team efficacy means for treatment and control groups across time
63
separately as well as combined on team psychological components (team motivation, team
satisfaction, team frustration, and team efficacy).
Table 4.25
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for Team Psychological
Components: Team Motivation, Team Satisfaction, Team Frustration, and Team Efficacy
Treatment
(N= 30)
M
SD
Group
Control
(N= 30)
M
SD
Combined
(N=60)
M
SD
Outcome Measure
Team Motivationa
Time 1
4.26
.37
4.19
.27
4.23
.32
Time 2
4.29
.34
4.21
.28
4.25
.31
Team Satisfactiona
Time 1
4.17
.42
3.78
.55
3.97
.53
Time 2
4.18
.38
3.89
.31
4.03
.37
Time 3
4.27
.38
3.97
.33
4.12
.38
Team Frustrationa
Time 1
4.42
.49
4.02
.71
4.21
.64
Time 2
4.38
.59
4.01
.43
4.20
.51
Time 3
4.57
.49
4.17
.46
4.37
.51
Team Efficacy b
Time1
83.43
5.69
79.46
5.78
81.44 6.03
Time 2
84.50
4.74
79.89
5.48
82.19 5.58
Note. a. The range of possible mean scores was from 1 to 5; b. The range of possible mean scores was from 1 to 100
Team
psychological
components
Effect on team positive affect.

According to the hypothesis positive affect of team members would be greater for teams
receive the communication strategy planning intervention. The positive affect variable
investigated in this study covers the following emotions: interested, excited, enthusiastic, proud,
inspired, and attentive.
RM ANOVA was employed to show the changes over time in team positive affect as
WS repeated measures and the two levels of independent variables (treatment and control group)
as grouping (BS) factors. Results of RM ANOVA for team-psychology positive affect are
presented in Table 4.26.
64
violated for time 2(1) <.0001, p < .05, and therefore a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was used.
The findings revealed no significant effect of time on team positive affect at adjusted
alpha (p < .0036), but it was significant at the unadjusted alpha (p <.05), F(1, 58)= 8.56, p =
.005, 2= .13. There was no significant interaction between time and group at the adjusted alpha
(p < .0036), but it was significant at the unadjusted alpha (p <.05), F(1, 58) = 4.59, p = .036,
further study at this outcome is needed. For the between subject effect, the findings revealed no
significant difference. These results failed to support the hypothesis that the intervention
condition would score significantly higher than teams in the control condition.
Table 4.26
RM ANOVA Results for Team Positive Affect by Main Effect and Interactions Effect
Wilks
Time (WS)
.87
8.56
.005*
.129
Time *Group (WS)
.93
4.59
.036*
.073
.459
.009
Effect
Group (BS)
.556
Figure 4.13 shows the overall means for treatment and control groups for team positive
affect when the scores for the six positive affects were pooled. The within subject test indicates
that the interaction of time and group was significant at p < .05. As shown in Figure 4.13 the
treatment group is increasing in positive affect over time and the control group is decreasing
slightly in positive affect over time.
65
Positive Affect
4.2
4.15
4.1
Means
4.05
Treatment
Control
3.95
3.9
3.85
3.8
Time 1
Time 2
Figure 4.13. Team positive affect means for treatment and control groups across time
separately as well as combined on team positive affect.
Table 4.27
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for Team Positive
Affect
Treatment
(N= 30)
Team
psychological
components
Outcome Measure
Team Positive Affect overalle
Time 1
Time 2
Interested
Time 1
Time 2
Excited
Time 1
Time 2
Enthusiastic
Time 1
Time 2
Group
Control
(N= 30)
Combined
(N=60)
SD
SD
SD
3.92
4.16
.37
.28
4.11
4.12
.41
.41
4.02
4.14
.40
.35
4.42
4.44
.41
.38
4.20
4.21
.46
.46
4.31
4.32
.45
.43
4.19
4.22
.44
.39
4.18
4.18
.57
.57
4.19
4.20
.51
.49
4.15
4.17
.40
.38
4.02
4.01
.45
.45
4.09
4.10
.42
.42
66
Table 4.27 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for
Team Positive Affect (Continued)
Treatment
(N= 30)
M
SD
Group
Control
(N= 30)
M
SD
Outcome Measure
Proud
Time 1
3.93
.57
4.12
Time 2
4.03
.52
4.13
Inspired
Time 1
4.15
.36
4.03
Time 2
4.18
.34
4.04
Attentive
Time 1
4.08
.36
4.05
Time 2
4.10
.40
4.06
Note. The range of possible team positive affect mean scores was from 1 to 5
Combined
(N=60)
M
SD
.53
.52
4.02
4.08
.55
.52
.59
.58
4.09
4.11
.42
.48
.48
.47
4.06
4.08
.42
.43
Effect on team negative affect.

According to the hypothesis, negative affect of team members would be lower for teams
that receive the communication strategy planning intervention than for teams that did not receive
the communication strategy planning intervention.
team psychological component negative affect as WS repeated measures and the two levels of
independent variables (treatment and control groups) as grouping (BS) factors. Results of RM
ANOVA for team psychological component negative affect are presented in Table 4.28.
violated, 2 (1) =.000, p < .05, and, therefore, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was used. The
findings revealed a significant main effect for time on team negative affect F (1, 58) =8.31, p =
.006. However, the effect for time was not significant at the adjusted alpha (p <.0036), further
study at this outcome is needed. There was a significant interaction effect between time and
group at the adjusted alpha (p <.0036), F (1, 2), p = .003, 2= .15. As presented at Table 4.28 the
results indicate that there was no significant effect between subjects. This result failed to support
the hypothesis that teams in the intervention condition would score significantly higher than
teams in the control condition.
67
Table 4.28
RM ANOVA Results for Team Negative Affect by Main Effect and Interactions Effect
Wilks
Time (WS)
.875
8.31
.006*
.13
Time *Group (WS)
.854
9.93
.003**
.15
.115
.735
.002
Effect
Group (BS)
Note.*significant at unadjusted alpha p < .05; **significant at adjusted alpha p<.0036
Figure 4.14 shows the overall means for treatment and control groups for team
psychological component negative affect when the scores for all six negative affects were
pooled. The means of the control groups were higher than those of the treatment groups for both
time measurements. As expected, the negative affect for the treatment group was lower than the
control group even though the difference was not significant.
Figure 4.14. Team negative affect means for treatment and control groups across time
68
separately as well as combined on team negative affect.
Table 4.29
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for Team Negative
Affect
Treatment
(N= 30)
M SD
Outcome Measure
Team Negative Affect overall
Time 1
1.76 .64
Time 2
1.74 .47
Distressed
Time 1
1.99 .71
Time 2
1.90 .59
Upset
Time 1
1.59 .59
Time 2
1.59 .59
Guilty
Time 1
1.88 .71
Time 2
1.83 .66
Irritable
Time 1
1.59 .53
Time 2
1.54 .47
Ashamed
Time 1
1.60 .52
Time 2
1.56 .50
Jittery
Time 1
2.20 .87
Time 2
2.00 .64
Note. The range of possible team negative affect mean scores was from 1 to 5
Team
psychological
components
Group
Control
(N= 30)
M SD
Combined
(N=60)
M
SD
1.83
1.82
.50
.51
1.80
1.78
.57
.49
2.06
2.08
.78
.77
2.03
1.99
.74
.69
1.71
1.72
.61
.61
1.66
1.66
.60
.60
1.77
1.78
.82
.82
1.83
1.80
.76
.74
1.74
1.75
.66
.65
1.67
1.65
.60
.57
1.38
1.38
.53
.53
1.49
1.47
.53
.52
2.23
2.22
.84
.84
2.22
2.11
.85
.75
Effect on the Team Performance

Effect on product quality.
According to the hypothesis, the quality of team product would be greater for teams that
received the communication strategy planning intervention than for teams that did not receive the
RM ANOVA was employed to show the changes in quality in the different sections of
the courses in product quality as WS repeated measures and the two levels of independent
69
variable (treatment and control groups) as grouping (BS) factors. Results of team performance
product quality RM ANOVA are presented in Table 4.30.
The findings revealed there was no significant effect on product quality and there was no
significant interaction effect between the product quality and groups (treatment and control).
Between subjects effects test results revealed a significant difference between the treatment
groups and control groups scores, F(1, 43) = 6.039, p = .018, 2 = .123. However, since the
result was not significant at the adjusted alpha< .0036, further study of this outcome is needed.
Table 4.30
RM ANOVA Results for Team Performance Product Quality Effect
Wilks
Product quality (WS)
.994
.316
.730
.007
Product Quality *Group (WS)
1.000
1.977
.145
.044
6.039
.018*
.123
Effect
Group (BS)
*significant at unadjusted alpha p < .05;**significant at adjusted alpha p < .0036
One-way ANOVA was conducted to investigate whether the differences in product

quality were significant between treatment and control groups for three sections of the productintroduction, content, and closing sections. There was no statistically significant difference
between groups (treatment and control) as determined by one-way ANOVA in relation to the
introduction at the adjusted alpha (p < .0036), but it was significant at the unadjusted alpha (p <
.05), F(1, 47) = 4.46, p = .040, Cohen ds = .61. For the introduction section there was a medium
effect size. In relation to the closing section there was no statistically significant difference at the
adjusted alpha (p < .0036), but it was significant at the unadjusted alpha (p < .05), F(1, 43) =
6.77, p = .013, Cohen ds = .25. For the closing section there was a small effect size. According
to the unadjusted alpha (p < .05), the results are consistent with the hypothesis that the quality of
team product would be greater for teams that received the communication strategy planning
intervention than for teams that did not receive the communication strategy planning
intervention. However, these results were not significant at the adjusted alpha (p < .0036),
70
indicated a need for further study of this outcome. On the other hand, there was no significant
difference between treatment and control in relation to the quality of the product in the content
section p = .38. This result failed to support the hypothesis that teams in the intervention
condition would score significantly higher than teams in the control condition. Figure 4.15 shows
the means for treatment and control groups for team-performance product quality. The means for
the treatment group were higher than for the control group for all sections (introduction, content,
and closing) even though the difference was not significant.
Product Quality
4.5
4
3.5
Means
3
2.5
2
Treatment
Control
1.5
1
0.5
0
Figure 4.15. Team performance product quality means for treatment and control groups across
time
separately as well as combined on team product quality.
71
Table 4.31
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Treatment and Control Groups for Team Performance
Team
Performance
Treatment
M
SD
.90
.72
.78
26
28
24
3.33
3.38
3.14
Outcome Measure
TP-PQI (Product quality) a
3.85
Content Section
3.54
Closing Section
3.77
Group
Control
SD
.81
.60
.84
Combined
SD
23
24.
21
3.60
3.47
3.48
.89
.67
.86
49
52
45
Notes.
a.The range of possible team performance-product quality mean scores was from 1 to 5
Effect on the product completion.

According to the hypothesis, product completion would be greater for teams that received
the communication strategy planning intervention than for teams that did not receive the
Chi-square tests were conducted to investigate whether the differences in teamperformance product completion were significant between treatment and control groups for the
three sections of the product (introduction, content, and closing). There was a statistically
significant difference between groups (treatment and control) as determined by chi-square in the
content section completion at unadjusted alpha (p < .05), 2 (4) =10.136, p= .038, Cohen ds =
.25. However, this result was not significant at the adjusted alpha (p < .0036).Further study of
this outcome is needed. There was no significant difference between treatment and control
groups for the completion of the product in the introduction p = .157, and for closing section p =
.458. These result fail to support the hypothesis that the intervention condition would score
significantly higher than teams in the control condition.
Effect on the product submission.
According to the hypothesis product submission would be greater for teams that received
the communication strategy planning intervention than for teams that did not receive the
communication strategy planning intervention.Chi-square tests were conducted to investigate
whether the differences in product submission were significant between treatment and control
groups. There was no significant difference between groups (treatment and control) as
determined by chi-square in the task submission at the unadjusted alpha (p < .05), 2 (1) = 3.268,
72
p = .071. Even though the result was not significant at the unadjusted alpha (p < .05), the p value
is approaching significance (p=.071).This result fails to support the hypothesis that teams in the
intervention condition would score significantly higher than teams in the control condition. Table
4.32 presents the product submission of treatment and control groups.
Table 4.32
Product Submission of the Treatment and Control Groups
Completion
Not Submitted
Submitted
Group
Treatment
Control
Total
Count
Total
28
30
% within Group
Count
% within Group
Count
6.7%
7
23.3%
9
93.3%
23
76.7%
51
100.0%
30
100.0%
60
% within Group
15.0%
85.0%
100.0%
Figure 4.16 shows the means for treatment and control groups for teamperformance
product submission. The means scores for the treatment group were higher than for the control
groups.
73
Product Submission
30
25
Means
20
Treatment
15
Control
10
5
0
Submitted
Not Submitted
Figure 4.16. Product submission of the treatment and control groups by total number of courses
submitted and not submitted
74
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION
Research conducted in the field of shared cognition provides insight on the key elements
of effective work teams. Communication is one of those elements. This study examined the
effect of a communication strategy planning intervention on the processes and performance of
course material development teams at the Indonesia Open University. The communication
strategy planning intervention was designed to enhance the team processes and team
performance in developing course materials at the Indonesia Open University. In particular, the
intervention was designed to increase the team communication, team-SMM, team psychological
components, and performance of course material development teams.
The communication strategy and planning intervention incorporated several key criteria
to develop well organized teams. These criteria include: key roles in a course development team;
team's quality goals and team challenges; responsibilities of each team member; problems that
team members may be facing during the development process; solutions to potential problems;
and appropriate communication channels to be used including the frequency and scheduling of
communication.
According to the theoretical framework for this study (see Figure 5.1), the
communication strategy and planning intervention will have an effect on team interaction that in
turn will affect team performance. The team interaction has three components that interact with
each other including team communication, team shared mental model, and team psychological
components. Each of these components represents three important factors of the interaction
process that is behavioral, cognitive, and affective in nature. The behavioral interaction is
represented by the team communication, the cognitive factor by the team shared mental model,
and the team affective factor is represented by team psychological components. The theoretical
framework of this study is a modification of the theoretical framework of Johnson et al. (2008).
For this study, the affective component has been added to the interaction process in the
framework used by Johnson et al.
The theoretical framework proposes that sufficient interaction among team members
mediated by communication skills may enhance the teams shared mental model which in turn
will affect team performance (Cannon-Bowers & Salas, 2001). The communication among team
75
members may also influence the team psychological components (i.e., motivation, satisfaction,
frustration, efficacy, and affect) of the team members. When team members experience the
psychological components in a positive direction, it may result in increased performance of the
team (Hoegl & Gemuenden, 2001).
Communication Strategy
and Planning Intervention
Team Interaction
Team Performance
Team Communication
Team Shared Mental

Model
Team Psychological
Components
Figure 5.1 Theoretical framework of team communication strategy and planning intervention
The results for the current study are related to the theoretical framework. The findings
relate specifically to team communication, team shared mental model, team psychological
components, as well as team performance. The discussion of each variable will focus on the
findings that support the theoretical framework, interpretation of the findings, and what we can
learn from them. Discussion of the study limitations, and suggestions for future research are also
presented.
Effect on Team Communication
Three hypotheses focused on the relationship between the communication strategy
planning intervention and team communication. Data showed that the communication strategy
and planning intervention had a significant effect on the level of team communication planning
76
and the value of team communication but not on the frequency of team communications (see
Table 5.1).
Table 5.1
Summary of the Results for the Effect of the Communication Strategy Planning on Team
Communication
Communication Measure
Effect
Team Communication Frequency
Time (WS)
Time * Group (WS)
Group (BS)
Time (WS)
Time * Group (WS)
Group (BS)
Team Communication Planning Level
Significant
**
Team Communication Planning Value
Time (WS)
*
Time * Group (WS)
Group (BS)
**
Note. denotes no significant difference; * significant at unadjusted alpha p < .05; **significant at adjusted alpha p
< .0036
Communication frequency.
The effects of the treatment and the control conditions on team communication frequency
were not significantly different. Teams in the treatment condition did not score significantly
higher than teams in the control condition on communication frequency across the four months
of the study. However descriptively, the treatment group means for communication frequency in
all three time measures was higher than for the control group. Based on Cohens d, there was a
medium effect size comparing the effects of the treatment and control conditions at Time 1. This
would indicate that the intervention was quite effective for the treatment group at Time 1. The
treatment group had more communications among team members very early in the study and the
level of frequency in the treatment group was maintained across all three time periods. The
communication frequency for the control group was the lowest in the first time period and
increased with each subsequent time period. This may have been caused by the need to
communicate with each other in order to complete the teams tasks.
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During the treatment groups intervention, each team created a communication strategy
plan to help them to better communicate with each other during the course development process.
The communication strategy planning intervention appears to have encouraged the treatment
group to communicate with greater frequency in the early stages of the study as compared to the
control group. The communication frequency means score of the treatment group changed little
from the first to the last time period. This finding is not surprising since the teams in the
treatment group had created their communication strategy plan which helped them to agree on
their communication schedule, such as: determining the frequently they would communicate
with each other and types of communication channels they would use during the course
development process. It is clear that the teams in the treatment group used their communication
strategy plan to guide them during the course development process.
Communication planning level.
As expected, the team communication planning level of the treatment group was
significantly greater than that of the control group. Furthermore, there was a large effect size on
the team communication planning level at all three times. The communication strategy planning
intervention influenced the treatment groups perception about the level of communication
planning. The teams in the treatment group agreed that the communication plan would help them
to communicate effectively. As noted by Stevens and Yarish (1998), team activities such as team
members ability to set goals, plan or coordinate tasks, monitor individual and team performance,
need to be organized through a team communication strategy.
Communication planning value.
The communication planning value for the treatment group was significantly greater than
the control group, as predicted. This suggests that the intervention also influenced the perception
of the teams value of communication planning in the process of working on the team projects.
By discussing several team aspects (e.g., team roles, team goals, team responsibility, potential
problems and solutions, team communication frequency) at the beginning of the project, the
teams in the treatment group believed that the communication plan was critical to team success
which in turn may have had some positive impact on the teams success. These results are
supported by the literature which shows that communication planning created by the teams helps
each team member to coordinate with the others (PMBOK, 2004). These findings are relevant to
the development of distance education course material. Institutions need to create working
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environments that enable good communication between team members, especially in course
material development. A course material development team developing distance education needs
to create a regular meeting schedule and a set of procedures to ensure that communication
between team members will occur even if the members are geographically separated. Strategy
formulation and planning is an important step in the achievement of team goals. It functioned as
the teams vehicle to build rapport and get to know each other better, which in turn may have led
to the better team performance.
Effect on Team SMM
Based on the theoretical framework, two hypotheses were postulated regarding the effect
of the communication strategy planning intervention on team-SMM. Given the two measures
related to the teams shared mental model, the data showed that the communication strategy and
planning intervention had a significant effect on team-SMM degree and team-SMM similarity
(see Table 5.2).
Table 5.2
Summary of the Results for the Effect of the Communication Strategy Planning on Team SMM
SMM Measure
Team Degree
Team Similarity
Effect
Time (WS)
Time * Group (WS)
Group (BS)
Time (WS)
Time * Group (WS)
Group (BS)
Significant
**
*
**
Note. denotes no statistically significant difference; * significant at unadjusted alpha p < .05; **significant at
adjusted alpha p < .0036
Team-SMM degree.
The treatment group was significantly greater on team-SMM degree than teams in the
control group over the three measurement points. There was also a significant interaction effect
between time and groups (treatment and control) suggesting that team members in the treatment
group developed a higher shared perception on team SMM than team members in the control
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group. These results show that a communication strategy plan led to a higher degree of SMM in
the treatment group. The communication frequency among team members, which started in the
early stage of the development process, was consistent over time and had a positive impact on
building the team-SMM degree.
The finding of this study parallels the findings of Espinosa and Carleys (2001) study that
focused on team interaction and SMM. They reported that communication frequency had a
significant and positive correlation with team SMM. Furthermore, in the communication strategy
plan, the teams in the treatment group not only scheduled their communication frequency and
identified the communication channels to be used during the course development process but
they also clarified the roles of each team member, clarified the goal of the team, and identified
potential problems and possible solutions Through their communication strategy plan they were
able to build a better understanding among the team members about their skills and
responsibilities in order to complete the tasks that led them to have a greater team-SMM degree.
The results of this study in team-SMM degree is similar to a study conducted by Mark et al.
(2000) which examined the effect of team interaction training (where the training focused on
clarifying the roles and responsibility of teammates). Marks et al. reported that the SMM level of
the teams that received the training was greater that of the control group.
A similar experimental study on the effect of TKS intervention (reflection, interaction
and self-correction) on team-SMM degree (Sikorsi, 2009) found no significant differences in
team-SMM degree between the teams who received a SMM building intervention and the teams
who did not receive the intervention. The possible explanation for the different result in this
study is that Sikorski examined teams of undergraduate students over a relatively short period of
time as compared to this study. The participants SMM degree in Sikorskis study were
measured every week, while in this study the measurement of team-SMM degree was carried out
every five weeks. In this study, a communication that occurred between team members within
the five weeks period might increase the team-SMM. As pointed out by Espinosa and Carley
(2001), a study that found no time effect on team SMM may be because the study task was too
short to register any significant difference, and the SMM is very stable and increases slowly over
time. Consequently, the measurement of team-SMM degree in this study, which was measured
within the five-week period, allowed the team members to build their team-SMM incrementally.
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This study tried to capture a SMM change if there was indeed one present. The results show that
the treatment group was significantly different from the control group.
Team-SMM similarity.
There was a significant difference between the treatment and control groups in relation to
the team-SMM similarity, as expected. The level of team-SMM similarity for the treatment
group was lower (less variability) than the control group (see Table 5.2). This means that the
teams in the treatment group had a greater team similarity. The communication and strategic
planning intervention they engaged in had an effect on their SMM development and enhanced
their team similarity. The primary intention of the intervention was to develop SMM and
enhance team communication. By communicating with each other, each member of the team in
the treatment group was able to share skills and expertise in order to complete their task (see
Figures 5.1 center section). Creating a communication strategy plan increased SMM similarity.
Team communication frequency may have a moderating effect, but the research design was not
setup to test this. What was found seem to be consistent with the findings of Klimoski &
Mohammed (1994) who reported that communication frequency among team members was
associated with team commonality. Team members will have more in common if they
communicate more with each other and they are more likely to develop shared mental models
among team members.
In the communication strategy plan, the teams not only identified the frequency and type
of communication they would use but they also identified team roles, team goals/objectives,
team challenges, and team responsibilities, as well as potential problems and possible solutions.
The interaction and agreement of team members on these aspects of team communication, which
were then considered when creating the team communication strategy plan, affected the teamSMM similarity. By having an agreement and understanding on these issues, each member of the
treatment group teams had shared knowledge and began to see the task in a similar way. This
parallels what Klimoski and Mohammed (1994) report, namely that as team members engage in
team coordination and team communication, they begin to share knowledge, and are able to
construct cues in similar ways.
The results were also consistent with findings discussed by Sikorski (2009) who also
used TADI scores to investigate similarity among team members. He reported that the TKS
intervention significantly enhanced the team-SMM similarity. In Sikorskis study, the
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intervention was created to enhance team reflection, communication, and planning. Although the
intervention was not exactly the same as the one in this study, both interventions resulted in
greater SMM similarity. There is therefore some evidence that when teams are given training on
the team task (e.g. goals/objectives of the task) or team process (e.g. team communication)
before they start working on the project, it gives the teams a better understanding about their task
and team members, which in turn will support higher levels of team-SMM similarity.
In considering the change of SMM similarity over time, there was no significant time
effect on team-SMM similarity for the treatment and control combined. Table 4.20 shows the
SMM-variance mean scores decreased over time which translates to an increase in SMM
similarity, even though not significant. This result matches the findings of Espinosa and Carley
(2001) who found that SMM is very stable and increases slowly over time. The result of this
study may have been different if it had been conducted over a longer period of time.
Effect on Team Psychological Components
In this study six hypotheses focused on the relationship between the communication
strategy planning intervention and the team-psychological components. Data showed that the
communication strategy and planning intervention had a significant effect on team satisfaction,
team frustration, and team efficacy but not for team motivation, team positive affect or team
negative affect (see Table 5.3).
Table 5.3
Psychological Components
Team Psychology Measure
Team Motivation
Team Satisfaction
Team Frustration
Effect
Significant
Time (WS)
Time * Group (WS)
Group (BS)
Time (WS)
Time * Group (WS)
Group (BS)
Time (WS)
Time * Group (WS)
Group (BS)
**
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Table 5.3 Summary of the Results for the Effect of the Communication Strategy Planning
on Team Psychological Components (Continued)
Team Psychology Measure
Team Efficacy
Effect
Time (WS)
Significant
+**
Time * Group (WS)
Group (BS)
+**
Positive Affect
Time (WS)
+*
Time *Group (WS)
+*
Group (BS)
Negative Affect
Time (WS)
+*
Time *Group (WS)
+**
Group (BS)
Note. denotes no statistically significant difference; + denotes statistically significant difference

* significant at unadjusted alpha p < .05; **significant at adjusted alpha p < .0036
Team motivation.
Contrary to the hypothesis, there was no significant effect between treatment groups on
team motivation (see Table 5.3). The means showed high level of motivation at both
measurement points (Time 1 and Time 2). The motivation in both groups was stable throughout
the project. The team communication strategy planning intervention had no measurable effect
on team motivation, and the means for team motivation between treatment group and control
group were similar. These findings are inconsistent with the finding reported by Lee (2001) who
found that faculty motivation could be boosted more if they received better instructional
support. In Lees study, the instructional support given to the treatment group was a support tool
that helps teams to coordinate with each other. In this study, the communication strategy
planning intervention that was given to the treatment group was similar to the support provided
for the treatment group in Lees study but there was no evidence that the treatment group
significantly boosted their team motivation.
Team satisfaction and team frustration.
There was a significant difference between the treatment and control groups on the
measure of team satisfaction, as hypothesized. Teams in the treatment group had to discuss and
create a communication strategy plan that included identifying eight important components
related to team process and team task (e.g., key team roles, team goals, team responsibilities).
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This planning activity provided them with a better understanding of team tasks and team
process. The intervention contribution to team satisfaction could have been caused by the team
having a greater SMM or by the team actually interacting in a way that was different from what
they would have done had they not completed the planning activity. This general effect from the
planning activity is consistent with research by Hamlyn, Hurst, Baggo, and Bayle (2006) who
reported a significant correlation between the rated usefulness of training and team satisfaction.
This was also supported by Bradley, White, and Mennecke (2003) who found that an active
intervention such as a workshop on team skills can be effective in increasing team satisfaction.
Similar findings are reported by Werner and Lester (2001) on the effect of team social support.
They found higher satisfaction for teams that received greater social support than for the teams
that received less support.
In terms of team frustration, the findings revealed a significant effect between the
treatment and control (see Table 5.3). The treatment group reported less frustration. The
mechanism causing this might have been related to the interactions that were brought about from
the planning activity. These findings are consistent with those reported by Wiggins (1965) who
found that perception of frustration in a team that works cooperatively was lower compared to a
team that works independently. The research conducted by Biggs (1975) on the impact of the
varying levels of information on group frustration showed a similar result. He reported that
teams given a moderate amount of information during a finance game experienced less
frustration then teams with more information or less information.
Team efficacy.
According to Bandura (1986) efficacy is not only important at the individual level but
also at the team level, and team efficacy is related to team performance. There was a significant
difference on team efficacy between the treatment and control groups (see Table 5.3). The
communication strategy plan created by the treatment group provided the basis for team
confidence. Providing clear instructions on how team members can communicate with each other
and giving them a better understanding about the tasks and the roles of each team member, built
the confidence to work on team tasks. This finding agrees with the findings of Locke and
Latham (1990) who reported a relationship between self-efficacy and strategies used to complete
the task. Having better strategies to complete the task will lead to high level of efficacy and build
confidence. Although the communication strategy planning intervention used in this study was
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not the same as the task strategies proposed by Locke and Latham, the strategies had a similar
value in helping individuals or teams to build their confidence.
Some studies of team efficacy and team performance showed that teams with higher
collective/team efficacy perform better than teams with lower collective efficacy (Gibson, 1999,
Knight, Durham, & Locke 2001). This study produced similar findings and showed a significant
difference between treatment group and control group in terms of product quality. While the
team performance in terms of the product submission rate was not significant, the mean score for
the product submission rate was higher for the treatment group than for the control group. Team
efficacy may have indirectly influenced the better performance of the treatment group. The
findings on team performance are discussed in more detail in the next section.
Positive affect.
Affect and performance in organizations are related to one another. As pointed out by
Cote (1999), positive affect leads to high performance and vice versa. The hypothesis predicted
that the positive affect of team members would be greater for teams that received the
communication strategy planning intervention than for teams that did not. The widely accepted
Positive and Negative Affect Scheduled (PANAS) diagnostic was used to measure the positive
and negative affect (Watson et al., 1988).
For the between subjects effects, the data failed to support the hypothesis that teams in
the intervention condition would score significantly higher than teams in the control condition.
Cote (1998) however reported that the positive affect of salespersons correlated with the number
of sales transactions and calls made to the customers. One possible explanation for these
different results is that the Cote study investigated the positive affect every day during a one
month period whereas this study measured positive affect only once, at the end of a five-week
period. This different time span might influence how the participants responded to the
instrument. The assessment of positive affect at the end of every work day would be easier than
for every five-week period. Participants would be able to remember at the end of a day how they
felt during the day, but this is less likely at the end of a five-week period, by which point they
may have forgotten some of the emotions they have experienced and instead tend to report on an
average of what was experienced during the assessment period.
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Negative affect.
Contrary to the hypothesis, there was no significant difference between the treatment
group and the control group for negative affect. The teams in the intervention condition did not
score significantly lower than the teams in the control condition (see Table 5.3), suggesting that
the communication strategy planning did not have a significant effect on team negative affect for
the treatment group. Despite the lack of significant difference between the treatment group and
the control group, the means scores of the treatment group were descriptively lower than the
control group at the measurement points of Time 1 and Time 2. The lower negative affect of the
treatment group if real, was expected. The study conducted by Olsen and Pracejus (2005)
differed from the current study; they implemented an intervention to influence team affect. Olsen
and Pracejus used music as stimuli to measure negative affect, whereas this study used the
communication strategy planning. The results of the two studies were similar. In this study, the
negative affect in the treatment group, which received the communication strategy planning, was
lower in the second measurement point although the mean differences were not statistically
significant. In the case of the control group, which did not get the communication strategy
planning, the negative affect increased in the second measurement point-Time 2.
Effect on the Team Performance
Three hypotheses focused on the relationship between the communication strategy and
planning intervention and team performance. Data from the three team performance measures
showed the intervention had a significant effect on overall team product quality. More
specifically, the effect was on the introduction and closing sections. But in relation to product
completion, the effect was significant for the content section only, and there was no significant
effect on product submission (see Table 5.4).
Table 5.4
Performance
Team Performance Measure
Product Quality
Effect
Product Quality of Sections (WS)
Product Quality of Sections * Group (WS)
Group (BS)
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Significant
Table 5.4 Summary of the Results for the Effect of the Communication Strategy Planning on
Team Performance (Continued)
Team Performance Measure
Product Quality (One-way ANOVA)
Task Completion (Chi-Square Test)
Effect
Significant
Introduction Section (BS)

Content Section (BS)
Closing Section (BS)
Introduction Section (WS)
Content Section (WS)
Closing Section (WS)
Group (BS)
Product Submission (Chi-Square Test)

Note. denotes no significant difference ;
* significant at unadjusted alpha p < .05; **significant at adjusted alpha p < .0036
Product quality.
There was a significant difference between the treatment and control group scores
regarding product quality, as predicted. The communication strategy planning intervention was
effective in helping treatment group teams significantly improve their product quality. It seems
that the communication and interactions that occurred during the development process may have
contributed to the better product quality. As well as team communication frequency, the other
aspects in the team communication strategy plan, such as clarification of the teams
goals/objectives and team member roles, helped them to better understand their task and how to
share their skills. This resulted in the production of a higher quality team product when
compared to the control group. This finding is similar to that reported in a study on online course
material development by Clark and Fujimoto (1991). They found that communication within
team members in the course development process significantly contributes to a better
understanding about the product and its quality. Similar to the Clark and Fujimoto study, this
study found that the communication among team members increased the teams understanding
about the nature of the task so that each team member was able to contribute knowledge and skill
to ensure high product quality. These results are also consistent with Orasanus (1990) findings
that team communication, SMMs, and planning have a significant effect on enhancing team
performance.
In order to determine which product section(s) showed a significant effect in team
performance product quality, a one-way ANOVA was conducted to investigate the differences
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between treatment and control groups for the three product sections (introduction section,
content section, and closing section). The communication strategy planning intervention had an
effect on the quality of the introduction and the closing section, but not on the content section.
The intervention had an impact in product quality for project tasks that were team-centered tasks,
i.e., introduction and closing sections, as compared to non-team-centered tasks, i.e., content
section.
During the process of course material development at the Open University, it seems that
the communication was primarily focused on the introduction section and the closing section
which communication was only between the content experts (writers for the manuscript), who
were hired from conventional universities, and the instructional designers (who are from the
Open Universitys academic staff). The course material had to be developed according to the
Open University template which was divided into three sections: (1) introduction section,
including course description, course goals, course benefits; (2) content section, including content
description, examples, non examples, exercises such as questions, cases, and assignments; and
(3) closing section including a summary, formative tests, feedback, and follow-up.
It is very important in developing distance education course material that the course
objectives are clearly stated, easy to interpret, and can be achieved by the students in term of
measurable student behavior. Since the students have to study by themselves with limited help
from tutors, the introduction of the course material needs to be well written and clear to enable
students to study independently. The introduction in the course material outlines important
information about the course such as the objectives, an overview of the content, the various
stages of learning, and a general study guideline for the student. The quality of the introduction
section designed by the treatment group was significantly better than that of the control group. It
seems that the communication among team members was focused on this section of the work, as
the instructional designer and the subject matter expert had to ensure that the introduction was
well written and aligned with the course material template.
In distance education learning material, course assessment within the learning package is
important and has a significant impact on the students and their progress. The tests or
assignments in the course package must be consistent with the objectives and content. In distance
education, the students have to learn by themselves with limited help from tutors. This means the
course developer must provide guidelines and useful feedback on the assignments. The subject
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matter experts generally work in a face-to-face university setting and are not familiar with the
system. In the process of course development the instructional designer helps the subject matter
experts to develop tests and write test feedback. This may explain why the quality of the closing
section was better than the content section.
Product completion.
Another aspect of team performance examined in this study was the effect of the
communication strategy planning intervention on product completion. Data revealed a
statistically significant difference between groups (treatment and control) in completing the
content section. The result is partly consistent with the hypothesis that the product completion
would be greater for teams that receive the communication strategy planning intervention than
for teams that did not. On the other hand, there was no significant difference in the completion of
the product in the introduction section and in closing section. Whether the team had the treatment
or not, the team completed the introduction and closing sections at the same rate, however, the
treatment teams had higher quality submissions as was mentioned above.
The significant finding in regard to the content section is related to the nature of course
development for distance education, where the subject matter expert and course writer are
typically faculty members who are knowledgeable in the content. While the task of developing
the content section is primarily lead by the subject matter expert, they do consult with the
instructional designer on content structure. There is no study data describing the details of the
team interactions related to each section, but stronger team relations would be expected to
facilitate the development related to the content section of the course materials. This finding is
similar to a study conducted by Luck (2001), who states that with support from the instructional
designer or another member of the team, the faculty is able to concentrate on writing course
material. It appears that this happened in this study where the content expert was able to focus on
developing the content section. This may explain why the completion of the content section was
higher for the treatment group. In the introduction and closing sections, the content expert may
have had a discussion with the instructional designer resulting in these sections taking a longer
time to complete. This may explain why the completion of the introduction and the closing
sections for the treatment group was not significantly different from the control group. This
finding is interesting since it relates to the findings on the quality of the product as discussed
previously. The quality of the introduction section and the closing section by the treatment group
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was significantly higher than for the control group, indicating that the increased communication
among the team members improved the quality of those sections, and required more time to
complete.
Product submission.
One hypothesis postulated that the product submission would be greater for teams that
received the communication strategy planning intervention. There is not enough evidence to state
that the intervention condition had a different effect on product submission for the control group
(the p value was approaching significance (p = .071)). However, the means of the treatment
group were descriptively higher than for the control group. The treatment groups submission
rate was 93.3% while the control groups was 76.6%. Even though the difference was not
significant, the treatment group was slightly better than the control group. It seems that the
communication strategy planning intervention led to longer time product submission. This may
have been influenced by good communication planning within the treatment group as well as
better understanding of the task.
Limitation of the Study
Although this study generated a number of significant results in answering the research
hypotheses relating to the communication strategy and planning intervention on team
communication, team SMM, team psychological components, and team performance, there are a
number of limitations relating to the theoretical as well as a research design of this research.
Design limitations for this study include the size of the teams, the intervention, the
instrumentation, and the data collection process.
Team size is one of the limitations of this study. The number of team members ranged
between two to four people. In terms of how a team was defined, there were 39 teams,
consisting of two team members, 16 teams consisting of three team members, and five teams
with four team members. Each team included three roles: a faculty member/subject matter expert
(SME) who wrote the content of the learning material, an instructional designer who reviewed
the structure of the material, and a course manager who coordinated the development process.
For teams with only two members, the instructional designer also served as a course manager.
The difference in the number of teammates for a team may influence the communication within
the team as well as the development of the teams shared mental model. A small team (i.e. two
people) might have relatively less communication and more easily to build a shared mental
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model compared to a team that is medium sized (i.e. three or four people). Because this study
was conducted in an organizational setting in a workplace context, the researcher was not able to
control for the number of members in a team. It would be useful to undertake a similar study to
determine the effect of the intervention on a small size team compared to a medium size team in
terms of team communication, team SMM, team psychological components and team
performance. Controlling for team size would help to better understand the team communication
and mental model dynamics.
The second limitation of this study design concerns the instrumentation assessing team
communication. The instrument for collecting frequency data asked the participants to indicate
the frequency of communication among team members every week over a five-week period.
Collecting this amount of data seemed to be a difficult task for the teams. Some participants
responded that they forgot exactly when over the five weeks they had communicated with their
teammates. Even though the data of the team communication frequency for each week in the
five-week period was recorded, the accuracy of the data is questionable. To overcome this
limitation, analysis was based on the team communication frequency that occurred in a five
weeks period (each week data for five weeks period was pooled). In future studies of this nature
a more reliable and valid instrument for recording team communication frequency should be
considered.
Another limitation is the collection of data on team positive or negative affect. The time
span of the assessments may have influenced how the participants responded to the instrument.
The assessment of affect was conducted at the end of the five-week period and at the end of the
two and half month period but it is likely that respondents found it difficult to record how they
felt over that time frame, forgetting some of the emotions they had experienced and tending to
report an average of what was experienced. In such situations, stimuli that occur later in a
sequence may have a disproportionate impact (Olsen and Pracejus, 2004). The PANAS
instrument is used to record the positive affect and negative affect experienced by participants
within a specified time period. The PANAS instrument has been used in studies covering various
time-frames. In this study it seems that the longer frame (i.e. two and a half months) used to
measure the positive and negative affect was too long. It would be useful to do further research
in order to determine the most appropriate time-frame to assess the positive and negative affect
of participants in workplace teams.
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Future Research
This study provides several interesting results regarding team communication, team
SMM, team psychological components, and team performance for an organization whose
participants are carrying out doing normal work. It is very important that future studies replicate
this current study in the same organization, namely the Indonesia Open University in order to
increase our understanding of the factors that might influence team performance in developing a
course material or a similar organization. A follow on study could include questions such as: are
the communication channels important? Or, would different communication channels facilitate
communication frequency?
Any future replication study should also consider the instrumentation. The Team
Communication Tracking Instrument (TCTI) used in the current study to record the frequency of
team communication should be modified in order to record team communication frequency more
accurately. While the TCTI instrument as used in this study had many advantages because it
provided detailed data on a particular week within a five-week period, more detailed data on
team communication would provide insight on the trends within team communication. Another
area worth examining would be the content, quality, and quantity of the team communication.
Knowing the content shared within the team communication process would provide insight on
how a team works and this in turn could be used to enhance team performance. The quality and
the quantity of communication occur within team member would also provide essence of team
discussion and this will provide a better understanding of the depth of discussing a specific
content. Knowing the quality and the quantity of communication within team members could be
used to evaluate the exits system or could result in providing other kinds of support in the course
development process.
Another important factor that should be considered in future replication study regard to
the findings which was significant at the unadjusted alpha (p < .05) and not significant at the
adjusted alpha p<.0036, such as for team satisfaction (between subjects), team-SMM similarity
(between subjects), team frustration (effect of time), positive affect (effect of time), negative
affect (effect of time), team product quality (between subjects), and task completion content
section. For those areas, it would be very important for the researchers to pay attention and look
at them in depth and carefully. This current study was based on quantitative research, but future
studies could profitably incorporate qualitative research as well. A mixed methods study can
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provide in-depth data that may be more beneficial to an organization. The qualitative data can be
drawn from one or two teams considered best practice teams and can focus on issues of process
(communication and coordination) and performance (product quality and product completion).
The team psychological components (e.g. team motivation, positive affect and negative affect)
can be explored to identify information important in enhancing the team performance.
Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the communication strategy and
planning (CSP) intervention on team communication, team SMM, team psychological
components (i.e., motivation, team satisfaction, team frustration, team efficacy, and team
positive and negative affect), and team performance (i.e., product quality, task completion, and
task submission) during the development of course materials at the Indonesia Open University.
The communication strategy and planning intervention was designed to improve team
communication, team SMM, team psychology, and team performance.
There are findings of interest regarding the effect of the communication strategy and
planning intervention on team communication, team SMM, team psychology components, and
team performance. The intervention effects can be differentiated in two ways - by their effect on
team process, and by their effect on the team product. The intervention effects on team process
resulted in three effects of interest. These are an initial effect; a full project advantage but no
change over time; and a full project advantage and improvement over time. The intervention
effect on the product resulted in an effect which is a project advantage. Table 5.5 summarizes the
intervention effect on the team process
Table 5.5.
Team Communication Strategy and Planning Intervention Effect on Team Process
Intervention Effect
Team Process
Time
CSP Intervention
Effect
Initial effects
Full Project Advantage but with
no change over time
Communication Frequency
Communication Planning Level
SMM Similarity
Team Satisfaction
Initial Project Advantage

Full Project Advantage
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Table 5.5. Team Communication Strategy and Planning Intervention Effect on Team
Process (Continued)
Intervention Effect
Team Process
Time
CSP Intervention
Effect
Full Project Advantage and
Communication Planning Value
improvement over time

SMM Degree

Team Frustration
Team Efficacy
Note. denotes no changes over time; denotes changes increase over time; denotes changes decrease over time
Initial effects of the CSP intervention on team process occurred only for the team
communication frequency measure. The communication frequency of the treatment group at the
first measurement point differed significantly from the control group. The team CSP intervention
appears to have encouraged the members of the treatment group to communicate with greater
frequency in the early stages of the study as compared to the control group. In fact, the
communication frequency of the treatment group did not change much from the first
measurement point to the last measurement point. This suggests that the communication strategy
and planning intervention provided an initial project advantage to the treatment groups. This is a
valuable finding for the Indonesia Open University which can use the communication strategy
and planning intervention as a tool to enable improved communication between team members
beginning in early stages of the course material development process.
The second intervention effect on the team process is the full project advantage but with
no change over time. This intervention effect happened on three dependent variables, namely
team communication planning level, team-SMM similarity, and team satisfaction. For each of
these three variables, the effect in the treatment group was significantly greater than in the
control group throughout the process of course material development, although the changes did
not occur over time. In other words, the communication strategy and planning intervention
provided a full project advantage even though the changes did not occur over time.
The third intervention effect of interest on team process is the full project advantage and
improvement over time. The four variables in this category include team communication
planning value, team-SMM degree, team frustration, and team efficacy. The treatment group
scored higher on these variables than the control group over time, indicating that the
94
intervention had a positive influence on the course development process .This suggests that the
intervention led to a full project advantage and improvement over time. These were the
strongest results turned from the communication strategy and planning intervention in the study,
and highlight the potential for using the communication strategy and planning intervention at
the Indonesia Open University where the development of course materials should be done with
a team based approach even though some team members are not co-located.
The communication strategy and planning intervention also had a positive effect on the
team product, as shown in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6
Team Communication Strategy and Planning Intervention Effect on Team Product
Team Product
Quality
Overall
Conclusion Section
Completion
Content Section
TCSP Intervention Effect

Project Advantage
Project Advantage
Project Advantage
Project Advantage
The communication strategy and planning intervention positively affected the overall product
quality, introduction section, and conclusion section, thus improving the overall product quality
as well as the introduction and conclusion sections. The quality of the introduction and closing
sections developed by the treatment group was significantly better than the control group,
indicating that the increased communication among the team members improved the quality of
those sections. These findings strengthen the Indonesia Open Universitys decision to implement
the communication strategy and planning intervention in the development of learning materials.
This in turn will lead to improved communication between members of the development team
which will improve the quality of the product.
Content section completion also demonstrated a project advantage. The content section of
the treatment group was better than the control group. It appears that the communication strategy
and planning intervention led to good communication planning within the treatment group as
95
well as enabling the team members to have a better understanding of the task, and to finalize and
complete the product.
This study contributes to our understanding of the importance of a communication
strategy and planning intervention in enabling teams to build a shared mental model and
enhancing team performance. The strongest effect of the intervention was on team
communication value, team SMM, team frustration, team efficacy, and team product quality.
Specifically, since this research was conducted in the Indonesia Open University, the results
should enhance the existing system in the Open University through implementing the
communication strategy and planning intervention in the process of course development. This in
turn will ensure the course development teams have a better team SMM, team satisfaction, and
team efficacy as well as team product quality. These factors will enhance the process of course
development and lead to better team performance. Other organizations will be able to use the
study findings as a basis for related research to improve their understanding of the effect of team
communication on team SMM and team performance in their work environments.
Despite the study limitations, an improvement in some aspects of the study (such as the
intervention, the instrumentation, and the study design) will lead to better future research on
team communication, team-SMM, team psychological components, and team performance. It is
very important that research in these areas is conducted in a real-world environment rather than
in the academic laboratory, in order to have an impact on the improvement of the organization.
Researchers need to explore ways to support and facilitate the working environment, which
ultimately improves the performance. If team communication strategy and planning intervention
are tools to improve team performance in work environments, to enable employees to work more
successfully in teams, and to more effectively handle complex challenges encountered in their
work environment
.
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APPENDIX A
INTERVENTION TASK
This material is to be presented to the experimental group as a team intervention by the experimenter
or Assistants.
Instructions:
Participants will be given the following information and activities:
1. Give an introduction on the purpose of study and explain about the Consent Form (10 minutes)
2. Deliver the intervention which will be a short training on team communication plan and creating
a communication plan (15 minutes).
3. Ask the participants to do an exercise on creating a communication plan by using a prepared
form: team communication plan form (45 minutes). Distribute the form.
4. Ask the participant to fill in a demographic instrument (5 minutes).
5. Collect the consent forms which are already signed by the participants, collect the exercise
forms on creating the communication plan, and collect the demographic instrument.
Part I. Training or intervention on Team Communication Plan/Strategy
(PowerPoint presentation is provided)
Purpose of the communication strategy:
Create a communication plan that is agreed upon by all of team member in order to more
effectively communicate with each other for a period of time in the development process.
To remind and to encourage all of team member to be in schedule.
Provide feedback or input about the product from the team member to enhance the quality of
the product.
Aspects to be discussed in creating a communication strategy:

Team structure
Team goals and team challenges
Team roles and responsibilities
Potential problems
Solution to the potential problems/Appropriate corrective measures

97
The most appropriate communication channel will be used the team
Content that will be exchanged among teammates
Problems to be solved
Communication channel that will be used
Communication schedule
Team Communication Planning

Team communications team plan is a written document that explains the few things that need
didiskusi by the team, which includes:
What would be achieved by a team (team goals),
Efforts should be made to achieve the objectives or work program,
How your team will succeed in achieving the team (schedule tool),
How your team measures the success of the team / program.
98
Part II. Exercise

This Exercise is to be completed by the participants as a team (15-20 minutes)
Communication Strategy Plan (PMBOK, 2004)
Date: _____________________
Department: ________________________________________
Course Name and code: _______________________________
Course Development Team Member names: __________________________________________
Instructions:
As a team, please discuss and write down your teams communication plan. Be sure to reach a consensus on all
aspects of communication plan as the team. You have 45 minutes to complete this exercise.
Team structure
[Identify the roles of each members of your development team.]
Team goals and team challenges

[List your team's objectives and your team challenges.]
Team roles and responsibilities

[Identify the responsibilities of each member of development teamsroles]
99
Name
Roles
Responsibilities
Potential problems
[Identify problems that might emerge during the project, and identify solutions to the potential problems]
Potential problems
Causes/Symptoms
Consequences
Solution to the potential problems
Communication channel will be used by your team (Identify the most appropriate)
100
Communication channel
Frequency
Web-based telecommunication
Skype
Yahoo Messenger
Other (please specify)
Telephone
Cell Phone Texting
E-mail (computer & smart phone)
Faxes
Letters
Face to face /Team meetings
Other form of communication
Exchange of work documents (products)
Printed media
CD
101
Communication
Schedule
APPENDIX B
INTERVENTION TASK (Indonesian)
Materi ini akan disampaikan kepada kelompok eksperiment sebagai kegiatan tim intervensi
oleh peneliti atau asisten
Petunjuk:
Peserta akan diberikan informasi dan kegiatan sebagai berikut:
1. Memberikan pendahuluan tentang tujuan studi and menjelaskan tentang lembar persetujuan (10
menit).
2. Memberikan training singkat tentang tim komunikasi strategi dan perencanaan (15 minutes).
3. Meminta peserta untuk mengerjakan latihan untuk membuat perencanaan komunikasi tim dengan
menggunakan form yang telah disedikan (45 menit). Form disebarkan.
4. Meminta partisipan untuk mengisi demografi instrument (5 menit).
5. Mengumpulkan form persetujuan yang telah ditandatangani oleh peserta, dan mengumpulkan lembar
latihan perencanaan komunikasi yang telah dibuat oleh tim, serta mengumpulkan demografi
instrument.
Bagian I. Training tentang tim komunikasi strategi and perencanaan
(Presentasi PowerPoin disediakan)
Perencanaan Strategi Komunikasi
Tujuan perencanaan strategi komunikasi:
Menyusun perencanaan komunikasi yang disetujui oleh seluruh anggota tim dalam upaya
berkomunikasi satu dengan yang lain dalam proses pengembangan bahan ajar.
Upaya untuk saling mengingatkan dan menguatkan agar tim berjalan sesuai dengan rencana dan jadwal.
Memberikan feedback ataupun masukan terhadap produk yang dihasilkan oleh masing-masing anggota
tim agar mencapai kualitas produk yang diinginkan.
Aspek-aspek yang akan diskusi dalam menyusun perencanaan strategi komunikasi:

Struktur Tim
Tujuan tim dan tantangan tim pengembangan bahan ajar
Peranan dan tanggungjawab Tim
Masalah-masalah potensial
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Upaya pemecahan masalah-masalah yang potensial/ perbaikan-perbaikan yang dapat dilakukan.
Materi-materi yang akan dipertukarkan antara anggota Tim.
Masalah-masalah yang perlu dipecahkan.
Saluran komunikasi yang paling sesuai untuk digunakan oleh seluruh anggota Tim.
Frekuensi dan jadwal komunikasi
Apakah rencana komunikasi team?

Rencana team komunikasi tim adalah dokumen tertulis yang menjelaskan mengenai beberapa hal yang perlu
didiskusi oleh tim, yang meliputi:
Apa yang ingin dicapai oleh tim (tujuan tim),
upaya-upaya yang perlu dilakukan untuk mencapai tujuan ataupun program kerja,
bagaimana tim Anda akan berhasil mencapai tujuan tim (alat jadwal),
bagaimana tim Anda mengukur keberhasilan tim/program.
103
Bagian II. Latihan

Latihan ini diselesaikan oleh peserta bersama timnya (15-20 minutes)
Perencanaan Strategi Komunikasi
Tanggal : _____________________
Nama dan kode Matakuliah: _______________________________
Fakultas: ________________________________________
Nama anggota tim pengembang bahan ajar: __________________________________________
Tim struktur
[Identifikasi peran kunci dalam tim pengembangan bahan ajar dan pola komunikasi antar peran. Anda
dapat membuat diagram atau tabel untuk menggambarkan komunikasi antar anggota tim]
Tujuan UtamaTim dan Tantangan TIm

[Sebutkan tujuan kualitas tim Anda dan tantangan yang dihadapi oleh tim Anda dalam pengembangan
bahan ajar]
Peran dan tanggungjawab tim

[Identifikasi tanggungjawab untuk setiap peranan masing-masing anggota tim]
Nama
Peran
Tanggungjawab
104
Masalah potensial
[Sebutkan masalah potensial yang mungkin timbul selama proses pengembangan bahan ajar]
Masalah potensial
Penyebab
Konsekuensi
Upaya pemecahan masalah tim dalam pengembangan bahan ajar melalui tim komunikasi
Saluran komunikasi yang akan digunakan (tentukan yang paling sesuai)

Saluran Komunikasi
Frekuensi
Jadwal komunikasi
Web-based telekomunikasi
Skype
Yahoo Messenger
Lainnya, sebutkan
Telepon
Hand Phone (SMS)
E-mail (komputer atau smart phone)
Faxes
Surat
Pertemuan tatap muka
Bentuk komunikasi lain

Pertukaran dokumen kerja (produk)
Media cetakan
CD
Lainnya, sebutkan
105
APPENDIX C
CONTROL GROUP TASK
Communication Media in Distance Higher Education
Definition and Types of Media
Communication media in higher distance-education can be defined in many ways viewed from
different perspectives. The addition of the word communication to the word media is to emphasize
that this media is used as a mean to communicate. It can be said that communication media in HDE is a
mean of communication between students and teachers, and between students themselves.
If said media is associated with learning activities, then a communication tool used for bringing
information needed for learning (Heinich, et.al, 1996). Learning media, in addition to being used to
conduct learning activities as a whole, can also be utilized to deliver explicit components of learning,
such as remediation and the motivational elements. Considering the various types of media that can be
employed in learning activities, usually grouping is applied to make it easier to learn about these media.
In the context of utilizing these media in HDE, Rowntree (1996) proposed four media categories:
printed media, audio-visual media, practicum media, and interactive media. Printed media is a media
that has been known since centuries ago, and yet it remains the best and most superior media. In HDE
practice the use of printed media is very extensive, as mentioned by Rowntree (1996) printed media
that can be used include textbooks, specially designed books for delivering materials, workbooks that
help learners do their assignments, and handbooks that are used to give studying guidance to learners.
Other printed media that can also be used in HDE consist of posters, pamphlets, maps, charts which are
usually used to illustrate in terms of diagrams, pictures, and graphics that deliver messages symbolically.
In regards to audio-visual media, all tangible and display-capable and other media that have
audio and visual elements belong to this group, such as audio cassette, radio, television, video cassette,
films, and slides. These audio-visual media are still widely used in HDE, especially audio and video
cassette, which are improved further by CDs. Aside from that, radios and televisions are also still
commonly use, while films and slides are seeing a decline in their usage considering their inflexibility and
the fact that not many people own a projector for films and slides anymore.
Another group proposed by Rowntree is practicum media. The separation of these media into
their own category can be understood, seeing as these media are very purpose-specific and are very
different compared to other media. Practicum media are usually packages consisting of various tools
106
needed for students lab practice. For example, students in Biology, Chemistry, or Physics have to
conduct a number of simple lab practices by themselves or in groups using some practicum kits
accompanied by a guidebook. Another practicum media beside science practicum is internship, such as
teaching internship. Teaching internship also becomes media to gain teaching experience. In this case,
classrooms, teaching equipment, and the students are the media needed to achieve that experience.
Rowntree also mentioned about interactive media that have interactive characteristics, such as
telephone, audio and video conference, computers, interactive television, and of course, face-to-face
interaction. This interaction capability is the vocal point of this category, but the employment of these
media is not easy, taking into account the cost of providing the media. If the interaction is synchronous,
it would also be create timing problems. For HDE, whose students are mostly made of the working
people, the scheduling for synchronous interaction is a problem of its own. Even face-to-face time is not
an easy thing to implement, although it does not require any complex tools. In summary, media
groupings that can be used in HDE are laid out in the following table.
Table A.1.
Media Category
PRINTED
AUDIO-VISUAL
PRACTICAL WORK
INTERACTIVE
Books that have been

published
Specially designed books
Work book
Learning manual
Posters, pamphlets, maps,
charts
Kits
Field Works
At a distance
Audio cassettes
Audio disc
Radio broadcast
Slides/strip films
Films
Video cassettes
Video discs
Television programs
Computers
Interactive Videos
Telephone
Teleconference(Audio/video
/computer)
Computer/ interactive video
Interactive Television
Face-to-face
(Rowntree, 1994, page 97)

Characteristics of Communication Media
In using educational media, media characteristic is something that should be known and taken
into consideration. Many researches about utilizing media that are connected to those media
characteristics have been made. Each type of media has its own characteristics with their advantages
and drawbacks. These pros and cons have to be taken into account when choosing the media for HDE.
There is not a medium that is ideal and perfect. The aptness of media usage in HDE can only be
perfected by using the right combination of these media so that they can complement each other to
achieve the objective. The following table 3 gives a description of various types of medias strengths.
107
Table A.2.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Media
Types of Media
Strengths
Weaknesses
Printed
Able to present some information on facts,

knowledgeable concepts, skills or attitudes
High flexibility, can be used anytime and
anywhere
Easy to use
Radio
Stimulate the listeners imagination

Flexible in presenting information in the
various forms of presentations
Reach the big numbers of students in
simultaneously
Interact through telephone
Television
Reach the big numbers of students in

simultaneously
Information presented in the form of
audio, visual and movement
simultaneously
Reduce the loneliness which is generally
felt by the students in distance education
Interact through telephone
Expensive equipment and making TV

program
Long and not easy making program
Cannot be stopped or repeated
Limited broadcast time
Audio cassette
cheap
easy to develop
can be used any time without being tied to
schedule
flexible program duration as it does not tie
to particular duration
presentation of this kind of media can be
done in various ways: only listening,
listening and seeing, listening, seeing and
doing
requiring a player
Video cassette
able to present learning material in the

form of audio, visual and movement
does not depend on schedule
can be integrated into other form of
learning material
its control is in the hand of the students
flexible duration of video cassette/disc
program
make them study actively
Requiring video cassette/disc player

video cassette is expensive
High cost of production
Long time production
relatively expensive
Computer
Low interactivity
Once-listened media means it cannot be

listened again unless through repeating
program
Depending on broadcasting schedules or
program record for lecturers
High cost of telephone use and interaction
Difficult to manage live program
108
Types of Media
Strengths
Weaknesses
Assisted Media
(multimedia)
present voices, pictures and texts

can be used in accordance with the
students needs and pace
having high memory capacity
increase learning efficiency and
effectiveness
Audio
teleconference
high interactivity level

easy to use
Unable to present visual material

Not always good quality of audio
Requiring special equipment
Video
teleconference
audio visual presentation of the learning

material or information
Having two-ways of communication
Expensive cost of providing facility,

special equipment and doing it
Internet
fast
very high accessibility into the source of
information
high effectiveness
present information in the forms of texts,
visual and audio
limited access to computer and network

requiring special skill
media development needs special skill

requiring special skill to operate it
Source: Padmo,D. (2006).
109
Date: _____________________
Department: ________________________________________
Based on the information about communication media in HDE, discuss with your group members and
answer the following questions.
1. According to your team, do the learning materials that are being developed require other media
as supplement?
2. If yes, which media will support or facilitate students to understand the materials that are
delivered by the textbooks (modules)? Explain your reasoning.
3. According to your team, who is the ideal developer of the media that you choose?
Explain the reason.
110
APPENDIX D
CONTROL GROUP TASK (Indonesian)
Media Komunikasi dalam Pendidikan Tinggi Jarak Jauh
Pengertian dan Jenis Media
Media komunikasi dalam pendidikan jarak jauh (PJJ) dapat diartikan dalam berbagai pengertian ditinjau
dari berbagai sudut pandang. Penambahan kata komunikasi sebagai satu rangkaian kata dengan media
dimaksudkan untuk menekankan bahwa media atau sarana ini digunakan untuk maksud berkomunikasi.
Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa media komunikasi dalam PJJ adalah sarana yang digunakan untuk
berkomunikasi antara pengajar dengan pembelajar, dan antara pembelajar dengan pembelajar lainnya.
Apabila media ini dikaitkan dengan kegiatan pembelajaran maka dapat diartikan bahwa media adalah
alat komunikasi yang digunakan untuk membawa informasi yang dimaksudkan untuk pembelajaran
(Heinich, et.al, 1996). Media pembelajaran selain digunakan untuk menghantarkan kegiatan
pembelajaran secara utuh juga dapat dimanfaatkan untuk menyampaikan bagian tertentu dari kegiatan
pembelajaran, seperti untuk memberikan penguatan maupun motivasi. Mengingat banyaknya ragam
media yang dapat dimanfaatkan dalam kegiatan pembelajaran, maka untuk memudahkan mempelajari
media-media tersebut pada umumnya dilakukan pengelompokan.
Dalam pemanfaatan media dalam pendidikan jarak jauh, Rowntree (1996) mengemukakan empat
kategori media yang pada umumnya digunakan yaitu media cetak, media audio-visual, media praktikum
dan media interaktif. Media cetak merupakan media yang telah dikenal berabad-abad yang lalu, tetapi
tetap merupakan media yang paling unggul dan tidak terkalahkan. Dalam penyelenggaraan PJJ
pemanfaatan media cetak sangat luas, seperti yang dikemukan oleh Rowntree (1996) media cetak yang
digunakan dapat berupa buku teks yang sudah diterbitkan, buku yang secara khusus dirancang untuk
keperluan penyampaian materi, buku kerja yang dirancang untuk memudahkan peserta didik
mengerjakan tugas-tugas, pedoman belajar yang digunakan untuk memberikan bimbingan belajar
kepada peserta didik. Media cetak jenis lain yang juga dapat digunakan dalam PJJ dapat berupa poster,
pamflet, peta, chart yang umumnya digunakan untuk memberikan penjelasan dalam bentuk diagram,
gambar, grafik yang memberikan pesan secara simbolik.
111
Pada kelompok media audio-visual, segala bentuk media yang berwujud atau mampu menampilkan atau
memiliki unsur audio dan atau visual dimasukkan dalam kelompok ini, seperti; audio kaset, radio,
televisi, video kaset, film, slide. Dalam PJJ pemanfaatan media audio-visual masih cukup tinggi terutama
untuk media kaset audio dan kaset video, yang keduanya saat ini dapat pula dikemas dalam bentuk CD.
Selain itu media radio dan televisi masih juga menjadi media yang cukup banyak digunakan, sedangkan
film dan slide jarang digunakan mengingat keduanya kurang fleksibel penggunaannya, disamping
peralatan putar untuk kedua media tersebut pada umumnya hanya dimiliki oleh orang-orang tertentu
saja.
Pengolongan media lain yang dikemukakan oleh Rowntree adalah media praktikum. Pemisahan media
ini dalam kelompok tersendiri dapat dipahami, mengingat media yang digunakan untuk praktikum
sangat spesifik dan berbeda dengan media lain. Media praktikum biasanya merupakan paket yang terdiri
dari berbagai peralatan yang diperlukan untuk keperluan praktek mahasiswa. Misalnya untuk
mahasiswa yang mengambil program studi biologi, kimia, atau fisika harus melakukan sejumlah
praktikum sederhana yang dapat dilakukannya sendiri atau bersama kelompok belajar dengan
mengunakan kit praktikum yang dilengkapi dengan buku panduan. Jenis media praktikum lain selain
praktikum yang berkaitan dengan sains adalah praktek lapangan seperti praktek mengajar. Kegiatan
praktek mengajar juga merupakan media untuk pencapaian sebuah keterampilan mengajar, dalam hal
ini ruang kelas, peralatan mengajar, dan siswa-siswa adalah media yang diperlukan untuk mencapai
keterampilan tersebut.
Kelompok media lain yang dikemukan oleh Rowntree adalah media interaktif yang dilihat dari
karakteristiknya memang memiliki kemampuan interaksi seperti media telepon, tele-konferensi audio,
video, ataupun komputer, dan media televisi interaktif, serta tentunya tatap muka. Kemampuan
interaksi ini merupakan keunggulan kelompok media ini, namun pelaksanaan interaktif dalam PJJ
merupakan sesuatu yang tidak mudah karena berkaitan dengan masalah biaya untuk mengadakan
perangkat media tersebut dan, apabila interaksi bersifat sinkronus makan berkaitan dengan masalah
waktu. Pada PJJ yang sebagian besar peserta didiknya adalah mereka yang telah bekerja, penjadwalan
interaksi sinkornus merupakan masalah tersendiri. Penggunaan media tatap muka sekalipun, yang sama
sekali tidak membutuhkan perlengkapan yang kompleks, pelaksanaannya dalam PJJ tidak mudah. Secara
lengkap, pengelompokan media yang dapat dimanfaatkan dalam SPJJ dapat terlihat dalam tabel berikut.
112
Tabel A.1.
Pengelompokan media
CETAK
AUDIO-VISUAL
PRAKTIKUM
INTERAKTIF
Buku yang sudah

diterbitkan
Buku yang dirancang
khusus
Buku kerja
Pedoman belajar
Poster, pamflet, peta,
chart
Kit praktikum
Praktek lapangan
Jarak jauh
Kaset audio
Piring audio
Siaran radio
Slide/film strip
Film
Kaset video
Piring video
Siaran televisi
Kompute
Video interaktif
Telepon
Konferensi tele
(Audio/video/komputer)
Komputer/video interaktif
Televisi interaktif
Tatap muka
(Rowntree, 1994, hal 97)

Karakteristik Media Komunikasi
Dalam penggunaan media pendidikan, karakteristik media merupakan hal yang perlu diketahui dan
menjadi pertimbangan. Berbagai penelitian mengenai pemanfaatan media yang dikaitkan dengan
karakteristik media itu sendiri telah banyak dilakukan. Setiap jenis media memiliki karakteristik yang
berbeda dengan keunggulan maupun keterbatasannya. Keunggulan dan keterbatasan yang melekat
pada masing-masing media dapat dijadikan pertimbangan untuk memilih media yang akan digunakan
dalam penyelenggaraan PJJ. Walaupun demikian, tidak ada satu mediapun yang ideal dan sempurna.
Kesempurnaan pemanfaataan media dalam PJJ hanya didapatkan dari kombinasi yang tepat antara
penggunaan satu media dan media yang lain sehingga dapat saling melengkapi untuk mencapai tujuan
yang diharapkan. Tabel 3 berikut memberikan gambaran garis besar keunggulan dari berbagai jenis
media.
Tabel A.2.
Keunggulan dan Keterbatasan Media
Jenis Media
Cetak
Keunggulan
mampu menyampaikan berbagai informasi
fakta, konsep yang bersifat pengetahuan,
keterampilan ataupun sikap
fleksibilitas tinggi, digunakan kapan saja dan
dimana saja
penggunaannya sangat mudah
Keterbatasan
interaktivitas rendah
113
Jenis Media
Keunggulan
Keterbatasan
Radio
menstimulasi imaginasi pendengar

fleksibel dalam menyajikan informasi dalam
beragam bentuk sajian
menjangkau sasaran didik dalam jumlah yang
besar secara bersamaan
interaksi melalui telepon
media sekali dengar artinya tidak dapat

didengar ulang kecuali melalui siaran
ulangan
tergantung pada jadual siaran atau
rekaman program bagi para pengajar
biaya penggunaan telepon untuk
interaksi tinggi
sulit mengatur siaran langsung
Televisi
menjangkau sasaran didik dalam jumlah yang

besar secara bersamaan
informasi disajikan bentuk audio, visual dan
gerak sekaligus
mengurangi rasa kesendirian yang umumnya
dirasakan oleh peserta didik dalam PJJ
interaksi melalui telepon
murah
mudah dikembangkan
digunakan kapan saja tanpa terikat pada
jadwal
durasi program fleksibel karena tidak terikat
pada acuan durasi tertentu
penyajian media audio kaset ini dapat
dilakukan dalam beberapa cara yaitu: hanya
mendengar; mendengar dan melihat;
mendengar, melihat dan melakukan.
peralatan dan pembuatan program

televisi relatif mahal
pembuatan program relatif tidak mudah
dan lama
tidak dapat dihentikan atau diputar
ulang
waktu penayangan terbatas
memerlukan alat putar
Video Kaset
mampu menyampaikan materi belajar dalam

bentuk audio, visual dan gerak
tidak bergantung pada jadwal
dapat diintegrasikan dengan bahan ajar
bentuk lain
kendali terdapat pada peserta didik
durasi program video kaset/piringan fleksibel
diperlukan alat pemutar kaset

video/video disc , video cassettet/disc
player
biaya pengganti kaset video relatif lebih
mahal
biaya produksi tinggi
waktu produksi lama
Media
berbantuan
komputer
(multimedia)
membuat peserta didik secara aktif

menampilkan suara, gambar dan teks
dapat digunakan sesuai dengan keinginan dan
kecepatan peserta didik
memiliki kapasistas memori tinggi
meningkatkan efisiensi dan effektifitas
pembelajaran.
relatif mahal
pengembangan media memerlukan
keahlian khusus
memerlukan keterampilan khusus untuk
memanfaatkannya
Telekonferensi
audio
tingkat interaktiitas tinggi

mudah penggunaannya
Audio kaset
tidak mampu menyajikan materi yang

bersifat visual
kualitas audio tidak selalu baik
114
Jenis Media
Keunggulan
Keterbatasan
memerlukan peralatan khusus
Telekonferensi
video
Internet
penyajian materi atau informasi yang bersifat

audiovisual
memiliki kemampuan komunikasi dua arah
cepat
akses terhadap sumber informasi sangat
tinggi
interaktifitas tinggi
menyajikan informasi bersifat teks, visual dan
audio
biaya pengadaan fasilitas dan peralatan

khusus dan penyelenggaraan relatif
mahal
akses terhadap peralatan komputer dan
jaringan terbatas
membutuhkan keterampilan khusus
Sumber: Padmo,D. (2006).
115
Tanggal : _____________________
Fakultas : ________________________________________
Nama anggota tim pengembang bahan ajar: _______________________________________________
Berdasarkan informasi mengenai media komunikasi dalam pendidikan jarak jauh,

mohon diskusikan dalam Tim Anda beberapa pertanyaan berikut dan kemudian jawab pertanyaan
tersebut.
1. Menurut Tim Anda, apakah bahan ajar cetak yang saat ini dikembangkan memerlukan bantuan
media lain sebagai suplemen?
2. Bila ya, media apa yang akan menunjang atau mempermudah mahasiswa untuk memahami
materi yang telah disampaikan dalam bahan ajar cetak (modul)? Jelaskan alasan pemilihan
media tersebut?
3. Menurut Tim Anda, siapakah yang paling tepat untuk mengembangkan naskah untuk media
yang dipilih? Jelaskah alasannya.
116
APPENDIX E
DEMOGRAPHICS
Date: _____________________
Department: ________________________________________
Instruction:
Please fill in this instrument briefly and clearly or check () to the most proper answer.
1. Name: ___________________________________________
2. E-mail Address: __________________________________________
3. Age: ___________________________________
4. Gender: Male
Female
5. Ethnicity: Indonesian
Other (please specify) _______________
6. Department: ____________________________________________
7. Program: _________________________________________
8. Area concentration: ____________________________________ (If applicable)
9. University: ____________________________________
10. How long have you worked for the university?
Years: ________ Months: _________
11. What is your current position? ___________________________________________________

12. How long have you worked in your current position? Years: ____ Months: _____
13. What is your highest education level?
High School Diploma
Masters Degree
Associates Degree
Doctorate Degree
117
Bachelors degree
14. What is your role in the team?

Writer
Reviewer
Program coordinator
15. How long have you served in that role?
Other (please specify) ______
_____ Months
16. Do you have any previous experience with course development beyond this team?
Yes
No
If yes, briefly explain your experience(s) with course development
17. In general, what is your skill level related to course development tasks?
Very low
Low
Medium
High
Very High
18. In general, what is your team members skill level related to the course development tasks?
Very low
Low
Medium
High
Very High
19. Do you have any previous experience working with your teammates prior to this course
development project?
Yes
No
If yes, briefly explain the extent or your prior experience(s) working with your teammates
__________________________________________________________________________________
20. How long have you been working with your team on this course development project?
______Months
21. In general, what is your ability level to successfully work in this course development team?
Very low
Low
Medium
High
Very High
22. In general, what is your teammatesability level to successfully work in this course development?
team?
Very low
Low
Medium
High
Very High
23. How will you communicate with your teammates during the course development process?
Face-to-face
Telephone
E-mail
Other (please specify)_____________
=== Thank you ===
118
APPENDIX F
DEMOGRAPHICS (Indonesian)
Tanggal : _____________________
Fakultas: ________________________________________
Nama anggota tim pengembang bahan ajar : _______________________________________________
Petunjuk:
Mohon dapat mengisi instrumen ini dengan singkat dan jelas atau memberikan tanda centang () pada
pilihan yang sesuai.
1. Nama: ___________________________________________
2. Alamat e-mail: _______________________________________________
3. Umur: ___________________________________
4. Jenis Kelamin: Laki-laki
5. Etnis: Indonesia
Perempuan
Lainnya (sebutkan) _______________
6. Fakultas: ____________________________________________
7. Jurusan: _________________________________________
8. Program Studi: ____________________________________ (Jika ada)
9. Asal perguruan tinggi? ___________________________________
10. Sudah berapa lama Anda bekerja di perguruan tinggi Anda? Tahun: ________ Bulan: _________
11. Apakah posisi Anda sekarang? ___________________________________________________
12. Sudah berapa lama Anda berada dalam posisi tersebut? Tahun: ________Bulan: _________
13. Apakah tingkat pendidikan Anda terakhir?
SLTA
Sarjana Muda
Sarjana (S1)
14. Peran Anda dalam Tim?
Penulis Bahan Ajar
Penelaah Materi
Master (S2)
Doktor (S3)
Penelaah Media Koordinator Program
Lainnya (mohon sebutkan) ______________________________________________

119
15. Sudah berapa lama Anda dalam peran tersebut? _____ Bulan
16. Apakah Anda memiliki pengalaman mengembangkan bahan ajar selain dalam tim ini?
Ya
Tidak
Jika ya, jelaskan secara singkat pengalaman Anda dalam pengembangan bahan ajar
____________________________________________________________________
17. Secara umum, seberapakah tingkat ketrampilan Anda dalam menyelesaikan tugas pengembangan
bahan ajar?
Sangat rendah
Rendah
Sedang
Tinggi
Sangat tinggi
18. Secara umum, seberapakah tingkat ketrampilan anggota tim Anda dalam menyelesaikan tugas
pengembangan bahan ajar?
Sangat rendah
Rendah
Sedang
Tinggi
Sangat tinggi
19. Apakah Anda memiliki pengalaman bekerja sama dengan anggota tim Anda sebelumnya selain dari
pengembangan bahan ajar ini?
Ya
Tidak
Jika ya, jelaskan secara singkat pengalaman Anda bekerja sama dengan anggota tim Anda.
____________________________________________________________________________
20. Sudah berapa lama Anda bekerja sama dengan tim Anda dalam pengembangan bahan ajar ini?
______bulan.
21. Secara umum, seberapakah tingkat kemampuan Anda dalam kesuksesan tim pengembangan bahan
ajar ini?
Sangat rendah
Rendah
Sedang
Tinggi
Sangat tinggi
22. Secara umum, seberapakah tingkat kemampuan anggota tim Anda dalam mensukseskan tim
pengembangan bahan ajar ini?
Sangat rendah
Rendah
Sedang
Tinggi
Sangat tinggi
23. Bagaimanakah Anda akan berkomunikasi dengan team selama proses pengembangan bahan ajar?
Tatap muka
Telepon
E-mail
= = = Terima kasih = = =
120
Lainnya (sebutkan)_____________
APPENDIX G
MANIPULATION CHECK
Date: _____________________
Department: ________________________________________
Instructions: The purpose of the instrument is to assess how you feel about the communication strategy
plan. Please answer question number 1 prior to training, while questions number 2 and 3 after the
training.
Consider the items below as they reflect on your team attitude on the communication strategy plan.
Please circle the response that best represents your teams.
1. Prior to training, what is the level of communication strategy plan level of your team?
Not developed
Minimally developed
Moderately developed
Strongly developed
Extremely developed
2. The communication strategy plan develops during this training will help my team to communicate
more effectively in the future.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Not sure
Agree
Strongly Agree
3. Following todays training, what is the level of communication strategy plan developed by your
team??
Not developed
Minimally developed
Moderate
Strongly developed
Extremely developed
121
APPENDIX H
MANIPULATION CHECK (Indonesian)
Tanggal : _____________________
Fakultas : _______________________________________
Nama anggota tim pengembang bahan ajar: _______________________________________________
Petunjuk:
Instrumen ini dimaksudkan untuk mengetahui pendapat Anda mengenai rencana strategi komunikasi.
Pertanyaan pertama dari instrument mohon Anda jawab sebelum mengikuti training, sementara
pertanyaan kedua dan ketiga mohon Anda jawab setelah mengikuti training mengenai strategi
komunikasi.
Pertimbangkan pernyataan di bawah ini yang merefleksikan sikap tim Anda terhadap rencana strategi
komunikasi. Beri tanda check (v) pada jawaban yang paling sesuai yang mewakili sikap tim Anda.
1. Sebelum mengikuti training, seberapakah tingkat perencanaan strategi komunikasi tim Anda?
Belum dikembangkan
Dikembangkan secara minimal
Dikembangkan secara cukup memadai
Dikembangkan dengan baik
Dikembangkan secara sangat baik
2. Rencana strategi komunikasi yang dikembangkan dalam training ini akan membantu tim saya
untuk berkomunikasi secara lebih effektif di masa mendatang.
Sangat tidak setuju
Tidak setuju
Tidak yakin
Setuju
Sangat setuju
3. Setelah mengikuti training, seberapakah tingkat perencanaan strategi komunikasi yang telah
dikembangkan oleh tim Anda?
Belum dikembangkan
Dikembangkan secara minimal
Dikembangkan secara cukup memadai
Dikembangkan dengan baik
Dikembangkan secara sangat baik
122
APPENDIX I
TEAM COMMUNICATION TRACKING INSTRUMENT
Date: _____________________
Department: ________________________________________
Course Development Team Member names: ________________________________________
Part I: The purpose of the instrument is to identify what kind of communication channels and how frequently you
use them among your team members during the first 5 weeks period of learning material development process.
Write estimate number of times per week. This instrument will take approximately 3 minutes to complete.
Communication Channels
A.
Estimate number of times of communication

Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Not Sure
Week 4
Week 5
Spoken language and Text language

Web-based telecommunication-audio and text
(Skype, Yahoo Messenger, etc.)
Telephone
Cell phone (texting)
E-mail (computer or smart phone)
Faxes
Letters
Face to face /Team meetings
B.
Other form of communication

Exchange of work documents (products)
Exchange of work documents (CD or other
form of media)

Part II: Rate the following statement
1.
My team usually makes plan on how to

effectively communicate.
2.
My team believes that a communication plan is

critical to team success.
123
Agree
Strongly
Agree
APPENDIX J
TEAM COMMUNICATION TRACKING INSTRUMENT (Indonesian)
Tanggal : _____________________
Fakultas: ________________________________________
Nama anggota tim pengembang bahan ajar : ________________________________________________
Bagian I: Instrumen ini dimaksudkan untuk mengidentifikasi saluran komunikasi yang Anda gunakan selama
periode lima minggu pertama pengembangan bahan ajar. Estimasi jumlah kontak yang Anda lakukan untuk setiap
jenis saluran komunikasi yang Anda gunakan per minggu. Pengisian instrumen ini membutuhkan waktu 3 menit.
Saluran Komunikasi
1.
Perkiraan jumlah komunikasi yang dilakukan

Mg 1
Mg 2
Mg 3
Mg 4
Mg 5
Sangat
Tdk
Setuju
Tdk
Setuju
Tidak
Yakin
Setuju
Sangat
Setuju
Bahasa Lisan dan Tulisan

Komunikasi melalui internet_audio dan teks (Skype,
Yahoo Messenger)
Telepon
Hand phone (sms)
E-mail (komputer atau smart phone)
Faxes
Surat
Pertemuan tatap muka
Lainnya (sebutkan)
2.
Bentuk komunikasi lain

Pertukaran dokumen kerja (produk)
Pertukaran CD atau format media lain
Lainnya (mohon disebutkan)
Part II: Berikan peringkat untuk statement berikut:
3.
Team saya biasanya membuat perencanaan untuk

berkomunikasi secara effektif
4.
Team saya percaya bahwa rencana komunikasi

sangat kritikal dalam pencapaian sukses tim kami.
124
APPENDIX K
TEAM PROGRESS TRACKING INSTRUMENT
Code/ Course: .................../ .................................................................
Number/ Module title: .................. / ......................................................................
Name of Writer / Institution: ............................................../ .............................................................
Name of Instructional Designer/Institution:............................................./....................................................
Course manager/Institution:........................................................./...........................................................................
Instruction
1. This form is use to record a progress of course material development.
2. Please follow the instructions
Please write done/complete in each column which represented a progress of course
development (planning stage, concepts on paper, or e-document)
.
Development Progress
No.
Course Components
Intial
Conceptualization
General introduction to the

course
Course description
Course benefits
Course goals
Module Introduction
C1
Learning Activity 1
Content description
Formative Test 1
C2
Learning Activity 2
Content description
Formative Test-2
C3
Learning Activity 3
Content description
Formative Test 3
C4
Learning Activity 4
Content description
Formative Test 4
125
Developed
Conceptualization
(draft not
complete)
Complete Draft
Component
Final
APPENDIX L
TEAM PROGRESS TRACKING INSTRUMENT (Indonesian)
Kode / Nama Matakuliah: ............. / .................................................................
Nomor / Judul Modul: ......... / ......................................................................
Nama Penulis / Instansi: .............................................. / .................................
Nama Instruksional desainer/Instansi:............................................./....................................................
Nama course manager / Instansi:................................................../..............................................................
Petunjuk:
1. Lembar ini terutama digunakan untuk merekam/mencatat perkembangan penulisan bahan ajar
2. Ikuti petunjuk berikut untuk mencatat perkembangan penulisan bahan ajar.
Tulis selesai pada kolom yang sesuai dengan perkembangan penulisan bahan ajar (dalam
perencaan, atau konsep diatas kertas atau dalam bentuk e-dokumen
No.
Komponen Modul
Progres Pengembangan
Konsep Awal
Tinjauan Mata Kuliah

Deskripsi MK
Kegunaan MK
TIU Mata Kuliah
Pendahuluan Modul
C1
Kegiatan Belajar 1
Uraian (penjelasan isi materi)
Tes Formatif 1
C2
Kegiatan Belajar 2
Tes Formatif 2
C3
Kegiatan Belajar 3
Tes Formatif 3
C4
Kegiatan Belajar 4
Tes Formatif 4
126
Konsep Sudah
dikembangkan
Draf Selesai
Komponen Final
APPENDIX M
TEST ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC INSTRUMENT
Team Assessment and Diagnostic Instrument
v9 090601
Date: _____________________
Course Name and code : _______________________________
Department : ________________________________________
Course Development Team Member names: _______________________________________________________
Instructions: The purpose of the instrument is to have each teammate assess their team as a whole.
This survey should take approximately 5 minutes to complete. Consider the items below as they reflect on
your team for your specific setting. Please circle the response that best represents your team. [Johnson, T.,
Lee, Y., Lee, M., OConnor, D., Khalil, M., & Huang, X. (2007) Measuring Sharedness of Team-related Knowledge: Design and Validation of a Shared
Mental Model Instrument, Human Resource Development International. 10(4)]
Item
1
2
3
Item
4
5
6
Item
7
8
9
Item
10
11
12
Item
13
Factor 1General Task and Team Knowledge

My team usually discusses our goals and attains
the agreement of each other. (1.7*)
My team knows specific strategies for completing
our tasks. (1.8*)
My team knows the general process involved in
carrying out our tasks. (1.9*)
Factor 2General Communication Skills
My team communicates effectively with each
other while performing our tasks. (2.11*)
My team consistently demonstrates effective
listening skills. (2.16*)
My team strives to express their opinion. (2.24*)
Factor 3Attitude Toward Teammates and Task
My team likes to do various team tasks. (3.17*)
My team encourages each other in order to
improve our outcomes. (3.18*)
My team takes pride in our work. (3.19*)
Factor 4Team Dynamics and Interactions
My team is likely to make decisions together.
(4.29*)
My team understands how we can exchange
information for doing our tasks. (4.32*)
My team solves problems that occur while doing
our tasks. (4.33*)
Factor 5Team Resources and Working
Environment
My team creates a safe environment to openly
discuss any issue related to the teams success.
127
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Not
Sure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Not
Sure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
1
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
3
Not
Sure
3
Agree
4
5
Strongly
Agree
5
1
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
3
Not
Sure
Agree
5
Strongly
Agree
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Not
Sure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
(5.36*)
14
15
Item
16
17
My team has the right experience so that a

critical mass of experienced people is available
on the team. (5.41*)
My team knows the environmental constraints
when we perform our tasks. (5.42*)
Team Satisfaction & Frustration
Given the most current team tasks, what is your
satisfaction level with your team?
Given the most current team tasks, what is your
frustration level with your team?
128
None
Low
Medium
High
Complete
APPENDIX N
TEST ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC INSTRUMENT (Indonesian)
Instrument Penilaian dan Diagnostik Tim
v9 090601
Tanggal : _____________________
Nama dan kode Matakuliah : _______________________________
Fakultas : ________________________________________
Nama anggota tim pengembangan bahan ajar :________________________________________________
Petunjuk: Instrument ini bertujuan untuk menilai tim secara menyeluruh oleh setiap anggota tim.
Pengisian instrument ini dapat diselesaikan dalam waktu 5 menit. Pertimbangkan item-item dibawah ini
yang merefleksikan tim Anda sesuai dengan kondisi tim. Lingkari respons yang paling sesuai
merepresentasikan kondisi tim Anda. [Johnson, T., Lee, Y., Lee, M., OConnor, D., Khalil, M., & Huang, X. (2007) Measuring
Sharedness of Team-related Knowledge: Design and Validation of a Shared Mental Model Instrument, Human Resource Development International.
10(4)]
Item
1
2
3
Item
4
5
6
Item
7
8
Item
Faktor 1Informasi umum tentang tugas dan

team
Tim saya biasanya mendiskusikan tujuan kami dan
mencapai kata sepakat. (1.7*)
Tim saya mengetahui strategi khusus untuk
menyelesaikan tugas kami . (1.8*)
Tim saya mengetahui proses secara umum cara
melaksanakan tugas. (1.9*)
Faktor 2Informasi umum tentang ketrampilan
berkomunikasi
Tim saya berkomunikasi satu dengan lainnya selama
melaksanakan tugas . (2.11*)
Tim saya secara konsisten melaksanakan kemahiran
mendengarkan yang efektif. (2.16*)
Tim saya berupaya untuk mengekspresikan opini
mereka. (2.24*)
Factor 3Sikap terhadap anggota tim dan tugas

Tim saya senang melakukan berbagai tugas tim.
(3.17*)
Anggota tim saya saling menguatkan satu dengan
yang lain untuk meningkatkan kualitas produk.
(3.18*)
Tim saya bangga dengan hasil kerja kami. (3.19*)
Factor 4Dinamika dan Tim interaksi
129
Sangat
Tdk
Setuju
Tdk
Setuju
Tidak
Yakin
Setuju
Sangat
Setuju
Sangat
Tdk
Setuju
Tdk
Setuju
Tidak
Yakin
Setuju
Sangat
Setuju
Sangat
Tdk
Setuju
Tdk
Setuju
Tidak
Yakin
Setuju
Sangat
Setuju
1
Sangat
Tdk
Setuju
Tdk
Setuju
Tidak
Yakin
Setuju
Sangat
Setuju
10
11
12
Item
13
14
15
Item
16
17
Tim saya cenderung mengambil keputusan bersama.

(4.29*)
Tim saya memahami bagaimana cara kami bertukar
informasi dalam melaksanakan tugas . (4.32*)
Tim saya mampu mengatasi masalah yang terjadi
selama mengerjakan tugas. (4.33*)
Factor 5Sumber daya dan lingkungan kerja tim.

Tim saya menciptakan lingkungan yang aman untuk
mendiskusikan segala macam hal yang berhubungan
dengan kesuksesan tim. (5.36*)
Tim saya berpengalaman karena banyak orang yang
berpengalaman berada dalam tim saya . (5.41*)
Tim saya mengetahui hambatan dalam lingkungan
kerja pada saat kami menyelesaikan tugas. (5.42*)
Kepuasan & Frustrasi Tim
Seberapa puas Anda terhadap tim Anda.
Seberapa kecewa Anda terhadap tim Anda.
130
Sangat
Tdk
Setuju
Tdk
Setuju
Tidak
Yakin
Setuju
Sangat
Setuju
Tidak
ada
1
5
Rendah
2
4
Sedang
3
3
Tinggi
4
2
Sempurna
5
1
APPENDIX O
TEAM PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPONENTS INSTRUMENT
Date: _____________________
Department: ________________________________________
Course Development Team Member names: _______________________________________________________
Instructions: The purpose of the instrument is to have each teammate assess their team as a whole. This survey
should take approximately 5 minutes to complete. Consider the items below as they reflect on your team for your
specific setting. Please circle the response that best represents your team
Item
1
Internal Work Motivation

I feel a real of personal satisfaction when our team does well
2
3
I feel bad and unhappy when our team has performed poorly
My own are not affected one way or the other by how well
our team performs
When our team has done well, I have done well
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Not Sure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
(Hackman, & Wageman, 2005)
Part II. Rate your confidence in your ability to contribute to your teams success.
Item
Not at all
Confident
Very
Confident
Carry out your specific tasks related to

your team project
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Get feedback about specific task to

team project from other teammates
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Providing feedback to other

teammates about their specific task
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Provide meaningful contributions to the

team project
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Interact professionally with teammates
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
10
Communicate with teammates about

working as a team about the team
project
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Coordinate your effort with your

teammates
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
11
131
Item
Not at all
Confident
Very
Confident
12
Plan how to communicate and

coordinate with my team
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
13
Use the team communication and

strategy plan
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Part III. This scale consists of different feelings and emotions. Read each item and put a check mark () in the
appropriate space next to that word. Indicate to what extent you feel this way about the team and team project
over the past periods.
Feelings and emotions
very slightly or not all

1
little
2
Interested
Distressed
Excited
guilty
enthusiastic
proud
irritable
alert
ashamed
inspired
attentive
jittery
(Watson & Mark, 1988)
132
moderately
3
quite a bit
4
Extremely
5
APPENDIX P
TEAM PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPONENTS INSTRUMENT (Indonesian)
Tanggal : _____________________
Nama dan kode Matakuliah : _______________________________
Fakultas : ________________________________________
Nama anggota tim pengembangan bahan ajar :________________________________________________
Petunjuk: Instrument ini bertujuan untuk menilai tim secara menyeluruh oleh setiap anggota tim. Pengisian
instrument ini dapat diselesaikan dalam waktu 5 menit. Pertimbangkan item-item dibawah ini yang merefleksikan
tim Anda sesuai dengan kondisi tim. Lingkari respons yang paling sesuai merepresentasikan kondisi tim Anda.
Item
Motivasi kerja internal
Saya merasa puas bila tim kami bekerja dengan baik
Saya merasa buruk dan tidak senang bila tim kinerja kami tidak
baik
Motivasi saya tidak terpengaruh oleh kinerja anggota tim kami
yang lain
Bila tim kami berhasil dengan baik artinya saya bekerja dengan
baik pula
3
4
Sangat
Tdk
setuju
Tidak
Setuju
Tidak
yakin
Setuju
Sangat
Setuju
(Hackman, & Wageman, 2005)
Part II. Berikan peringkat rasa percaya diri terhadap kontribusi Anda untuk mensukseskan Tim Anda.
Item
Sangat
tidak
Konfiden
Sangat
Konfident
Melaksanakan tugas khusus Anda yang

terkait dengan pengembangan bahan
ajar
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Menerima masukan tentang hal-hal

khusus terkait dengan pekerjaan Tim
dari anggota tim
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Memberikan masukan tentang hal-hal

khusus terkait dengan pekerjaan Tim
kepada anggota tim
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Memberikan kontribusi yang berarti

untuk Tim
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Berinteraksi secara professional dengan

anggota tim lain
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
10
Berkomunikasi dengan anggota tim

mengenai bagaimana bekerja sebagai
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
133
Item
Sangat
tidak
Konfiden
Sangat
Konfident
tim
11
Berkoordinasi dengan anggota tim
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
12
Merencanakan bagaimana
berkomunikasi dan berkoordinasi
dengan anggota tim
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Menggunakan rencana dan strategi

komunikasi tim
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
13
Part III. Berikut ini adalah sejumlah kata yang mengambarkan perasaan dan emosi Anda selama proses pengembangan bahan
ajar . Baca dan perhatikan setiap item dan berikan jawaban Anda sesuai dengan perasaan yang Anda rasakan terhadap tim
Anda dan tim pada saat proses pengembangan bahan ajar hingga saat ini.
Perasaan dan emosi
Sangat sedikit/tidak
sama sekali
1
sedikit
2
tertarik
tertekan
semangat
kecewa
bersalah
antuasias
bangga
terganggu
malu
terinspirasi
penuh perhatian
kuatir
(Watson & Mark, 1988)
134
sedang
3
agak
4
Sangat
5
APPENDIX Q
TEAM PERFORMANCE: TASK COMPLETION INSTRUMENT (TP-TCI) AND PRODUCT QUALITY INSTRUMENT (TP-PQI)
General Information
1. This form will be used to assess the completeness and product quality of the module (learning material).
2. Read the module (learning material) that you should assess then use this form to record your assessment. Please follow the instructions:
a. Check () the right statement in each column
b. Write down your comments for every aspect that you assess (if any)
c. At the end of your assesment, please provide your general impression about the module and provide feedback for improvement.
Code / Course: ............. / .................................................................

Number/ Module title: ......... ...../ ......................................................................
Name of Writer / Institution: .............................................. / .................................
Name of evaluator / Institution : .............................................. / .................................
No.
Course Components
Poor
A
1
2
3
B
B1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Not
Good
Quality
Moderate
Good
Module Introduction
Course description
Course goals
Course benefits
Course Presentation
Learning Activity 1
Title
Content description
Example, non example
Exercise (questions, cases,
assignments)
Summary - 1
Formative Test- 1
Feedback and follow-up
135
Very
Good
Not
Available
Comments
No.
Course Components
Poor
B2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
B3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
B4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
C
10
11
12
Not
Good
Quality
Moderate
Good
Learning Activity 2
Title
Content description
assignments)
Summary 2
Formative Test- 2
Learning Activity 3
Title
Content description
assignments)
Summary 3
Formative Test- 3
Learning Activity 4
Title
Content description
assignments)
Summary 4
Formative Test-4
Closing
Answer key for Formative Tests
1, 2, 3, and 4
Glossary(if any)
References
136
Very
Good
Not
Available
Comments
General Impression:
Feedback for improvement:
(If necessary, you can use another piece of paper)
137
APPENDIX R
TEAM PERFORMANCE: TASK COMPLETION INSTRUMENT (TP-TCI) AND PRODUCT QUALITY INSTRUMENT (TP-PQI)
(Indonesian)
Kelengkapan dan Kualitas Produk Instrument (Indonesian)
Penjelasan Umum
1.
2.
Lembar ini terutama digunakan untuk mengecek kualitas dan kelengkapan isi modul
Baca dengan cermat modul yang akan diceck, lalu gunakan format ini untuk merekam hasil pengecekan, dengan cara berikut.
a. Tuliskan tanda ceck () pada kolom yang sesuai
b. Tuliskan komentar Anda tentang aspek yang dicek (dalam bentuk pointer, dan diluar dari indikator pada rubrik)
c. Pada akhir pengecekan tuliskan kesan umum Anda terhadap modul yang diceck serta tuliskan saran-saran perbaikan
Kode / Nama Matakuliah: ............. / .................................................................
Nomor / Judul Modul: ......... / ......................................................................
Nama Penulis / Instansi: .............................................. / .................................
Nama Pemeriksa (evaluator) / Instansi: .............................................. / .................................
No.
Komponen Modul
Buruk
1
A
1
2
3
B
1
2
3
4
5
6
Tidak
Baik
2
Bagian Pendahuluan
Deskripsi modul
Rumusan tujuan/kompetensi khusus
Relevansi/ kegunaan Materi modul
Bagian Penyajian
Kegiatan Belajar 1
Judul Kegiatan Belajar
Penyajian/uraian materi (penjelasan isi materi)
Contoh dan Noncontoh
Latihan (pertanyaan, kasus, tugas)
Rangkuman - 1
Tes Formatif - 1
138
Kualitas
Sedang
Baik
Sangat
Baik
5
Tidak
Tersedia
Komentar
No.
Komponen Modul
Buruk
1
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
C
1
2
3
Tidak
Baik
2
Umpan Balik dan Tindak Lanjut

Kegiatan Belajar 2
Penyajian/ uraian materi (penjelasan isi materi)
Rangkuman - 2
Tes Formatif - 2
Kegiatan Belajar 3
Rangkuman - 3
Tes Formatif - 3
Kegiatan Belajar 4
Rangkuman - 4
Tes Formatif - 4
Bagian Penutup
Kunci Jawaban Tes Formatif 1, 2, 3, dan 4
Glosarium (jika ada)
Daftar Pustaka
139
Kualitas
Sedang
Baik
Sangat
Baik
5
Tidak
Tersedia
Komentar
Kesan Umum:
Saran Perbaikan:
(Gunakan kertas lain bila perlu)
140
APPENDIX S
COURSE COMPONENT EVALUATION RUBRIC
Evaluation Criteria
Component
1 (Poor)
2 (Not Good)
3 (Moderate)
4 (Good)
5 (Very Good)
INTRODUCTION
Module
description
There is no
description of the
module
A description of the
contents of the
module are unclear
and inconsistent with
the competencies of
the module
brief but provide a

comprehensive explanation
of the modules content
Information on the modules
contents consistent with the
competencies of the module
Written in a less coherent
and not straightforward
brief but provide a

comprehensive
explanation of the
modules content
Information on the
modules contents
consistent with the
competencies of the
module
brief but provide a

comprehensive explanation of
the modules content
Information on the modules
contents consistent with the
competencies of the module
Written coherently and
straightforward
Written in a less coherent

and straightforward
Well written and describe the

relationship with the content
covered by other module in
the package but there is no
description on it relation to the
practices in the field.
Objectives are present

Objectives imply
expected outcome and
clearly state expected
learner outcomes
Well written and describe
the relationship with the
content covered by other
module in the package and it
relation to the practices in
the field.
Objectives clearly state

expected student or learner
outcomes
Objectives clearly identify
performance criteria
Very well written and describe
the relationship with the
content covered by other
module in the package and it
relation to the practices in the
field.
Description of the content
Description of the material
Description of the material
Formulation of
objectives or
competencies
Objectives are
vague
Objectives do not
identify expected
outcomes or
performance
Objectives imply expected

outcome
Objectives do not clearly
identify expected outcomes
Relevance or
Benefit of the
content
There is no
explanation on the
benefit of the
material
Explanation does not

cover the relationship
with the content
covered by other
module in the package.
Presentation of the
Description of the
PRESENTATION
Presentation /
141
Evaluation Criteria
Component
1 (Poor)
2 (Not Good)
3 (Moderate)
4 (Good)
5 (Very Good)
description of the
content
content is just a
outline form.
content is not
presented clearly, and
not considers students
abilities, less consistent
with the demands of
students. Presentation
content is not meet wih
any other criteria.
presented in straightforward
and clear, and with regard to
complete the following criteria:
Consider students' ability
consistent with the modules
competency(ies)
valid and current
The learning process: logic,
systematic, communicative and
interactive
Presentation of the content
attractive and motivate
complete the following
criteria:
consistent with the
modules competency(ies)
valid and current
systematic, communicative
and interactive
Presentation of the
content is attractive and
motivate
Include different type of
illustrations e.g. charts, or
graphs, or narrative. The
illustration not supported
by an adequate description
provide an opportunity to
learn actively
.
complete the following criteria:
consistent with the modules
competency(ies)
valid and current
systematic, communicative and
interactive
Presentation of the content is
attractive and motivate
Include different type of
illustrations e.g. charts, or
graphs, or narrative. The
illustration supported by an
adequate description
provide an opportunity to
learn actively
Examples and
non-examples
No examples and
non-examples
Provide only a
examples and less
relevant to the content
descriptions.
Provide only an example that

follow the criteria:
Relevant and consistent with
the content
Logic, according to reality,
current and meaningful that
help reader understanding the
content
Provide an example and nonexamples that follow the

criteria:
Relevant and consistent with
the content
help reader understanding the
content
adequate in terms of number
and function
Exercises
Exercise not
Exercises are given that

follow the six criteria:
Exercises are given that follow

the six criteria:
Provide an example and

non-examples that follow
the criteria:
Relevant and consistent
with the content
help reader understanding
the content
But:
inadequate in terms of
number and function
Exercises are given that
follow the six criteria:
142
Exercises are given that follow

the six criteria:
Evaluation Criteria
Component
1 (Poor)
provided
2 (Not Good)
3 (Moderate)
4 (Good)
5 (Very Good)
Relevant to the
content presented
Consider students'
ability
varies
less meaningful
Relevant to the content

presented
varies
meaningful
But
Forms of exercise are less
variable, less challenging
students to think and be
critical and,
key answers or guidance is less
clear

presented
varies
meaningful
Challenge the students to be
a critical thingking
Equipped moderate
answer key

presented
varies
meaningful
Challenge the students to be
a critical thingking
Equipped a clear and
coherent answer key
Summary is very well written

in a clear and straightforward,
consider the following
criteria.
Contains important key
points that have been
presented
Consistent with objectives
or competencies
Systematic, concise and
communicative
CLOSING
Summary
No summary
Summary Contains only

important key points
which have been
presented
Summary is well written in a

clear and straightforward,
consider the following criteria.
points which have been
presented
Consistent with objectives or
competencies
But:
less systematic and less
concise, less clear.
Summary is well written in a

clear and straightforward,
consider the following
criteria.
points that have been
presented
Consistent with objectives
or competencies
Systematic, concise and
communicative
Formative Test
There is no
formative test
Formative test was

developed not
relevant to the
objectives or
competencies
Formative test was developed

under the following criteria.
Refers to the objectives or
competencies
The content is true and logical
provide an answer key
without an explanation for the
correct or incorrect answer
choice.
Formative test was

developed under the
following criteria.
competencies
The content is true and
logic
complete with an
explanation only for the
143
Formative test was developed

under the following criteria.
competencies
The content is true and logic
complete with an explanation
for the correct and incorrect
Evaluation Criteria
Component
Feedback and
follow-up
1 (Poor)
Feedback and
follow-up was not
provided
2 (Not Good)
There is only feedback

without given the
follow-up.
3 (Moderate)
Feedback and follow-up given

but it is unclear
4 (Good)
correct choice.
choice of the answer

Description of the test answer
keys are equipped with the
guidelines (marking scheme)
The feedback was written

straightforward, provide a
clear response to the
learning progress
The feedback was written

straightforward, provide a
clear response to the learning
progress
Follow-up activities were

written straightforward,
Follow-up activities were

written straightforward,
provide information about
what s to be done following
completion of learning
activities.
Information about what to

be done following
completion of learning
activities was not provided.
Bibliography
There is no
bibliography
The bibliography is
incorrect and does not
follow the rules
The bibliography, meet the

following criteria.
true
refers to a steady system.
Books and references are less
sophisticated and less
systematic and not alphabetical
144
5 (Very Good)

following criteria.
true
Contains the latest books
and reference
But
Not systematic and
alphabetical

following criteria.
true
Systematic and alphabetical
Contains the latest books and
reference
APPENDIX T
COURSE COMPONENT EVALUATION RUBRIC (Indonesian)
Kriteria Penilaian
Komponen
1 ( Buruk)
2 (Kurang Baik)
3 (Sedang)
4 (Baik)
5 (Sangat Baik)
Penjelasan tentang isi

modul tidak jelas dan
tidak konsisten
dengan tuntutan
kompetensi modul
Berisi penjelasan yang

singkat tapi
komprehensif tentang isi
modul

singkat tapi komprehensif
tentang isi modul

singkat tapi komprehensif
tentang isi modul
Informasi tentang isi

modul konsisten dengan
tuntutan kompetensi
modul

tuntutan kompetensi
modul
Ditulis secara runtut

tetapi tidak lugas
Ditulis secara runtut dan

lugas
Tujuan pembelajaran
menjelaskan tentang
output atau ketrampilan
yang akan dicapai.
Tujuan pembelajaran
kurang jelas
mengidentifikasi secara
jelas kemampuan yang
akan dicapai.
Tujuan pembelajaran
dituliskan dengan baik
dan menjelaskan tentang
dan kemampuan yang
akan dicapai.
Tujuan pembelajaran
jelas kriteria kemampuan
yang akan dicapai.
Ditulis secara lugas
menggambarkan
keterkaiatan antar materi
BAGIAN PENDAHULUAN
Deskripsi modul
Tidak terdapat
deskripsi modul

tuntutan kompetensi
modul
Ditulis secara kurang
runtut dan tidak lugas
Rumusan
Tujuan/kompete
nsi khusus
Tujuan
pembelajaran
kurang jelas
Tujuan
pembelajaran tidak
menjelaskan
tentang output
atau ketrampilan
yang akan dicapai.
Relevansi/
manfaat materi
Tidak terdapat
penjelasan
tentang
Penjelasan tidak
menggambarkan
keterkaitan antar
Tujuan pembelajaran
secara implicit
menjelaskan tentang
yang akan dicapai.
Tujuan pembelajaran
kurang jelas
jelas kemampuan yang
akan dicapai.
Ditulis secara lugas
menggambarkan
145
Penjelasan menggambarkan
yang dibahas dengan materi
Kriteria Penilaian
Komponen
1 ( Buruk)
2 (Kurang Baik)
3 (Sedang)
4 (Baik)
5 (Sangat Baik)
relevansi/manfa
at materi
materi yang dibahas

dalam BMP
yang dibahas dengan

materi lainnya dalam BMP
tetapi tidakmengaitkannya
dengan bidang pekerjaan
lulusan nantinya.
lainnya dalam BMP serta

mengaitkannya dengan
bidang pekerjaan lulusan
nantinya tetapi
penulisannya kurang lugas.
yang dibahas dengan materi

lainnya dalam BMP serta
mengaitkannya dengan
bidang pekerjaan lulusan
nantinya.
Penyajian
materia hanya
berupa garis
besar materi
Penyajian/uraian
materi disampaikan
dengan tidak jelas,
kurang
mempertimbangkan
kemampuan
mahasiswa, kurang
konsisten dengan
tuntutan mahasiswa.
Penyajian materia
juga tidak
memperhatikan
Kkriteria lainnya.
Penyajian/uraian materi
disampaikan secara lugas
dan jelas, tetapi hanya
memperhatikan 5 dari 7
kriteria lengkap penyajian
materi:
Mempertimbangkan
kemampuan mahasiswa
konsisten dengan
tuntutan kompetensi,
isinya valid dan
mutakhir
Proses pembelajarannya
logis, sistematis,
komunikatif dan
interaktif
Penyajian materi
menarik dan memotivasi
pembaca
disampaikan dengan
memperhatikan kriteria
berikut:
Mempertimbangkan
kemampuan mahasiswa
konsisten dengan
isinya valid dan mutakhir
logis, sistematis,
komunikatif dan interaktif
Penyajian materi menarik
dan memotivasi pembaca
Terdapat ilustrasi dalam
bentuk gambar/ bagan/
grafik tetapi tidak
diberikan penjelasan.
Memberi kesempatan
mahasiswa untuk belajar
internal secara aktif
.
disampaikan secara lugas
dan jelas, serta
lengkap berikut:
Mempertimbangkan
kemampuan mahasiswa
konsisten dengan
isinya valid dan mutakhir
logis, sistematis,
komunikatif dan interaktif
Penyajian materi menarik
dan memotivasi pembaca
Dilengkapi ilustrasi dan
bentuk: gambar atau
bagan, atau grafik, atau
naratif yang sesuai
dengan paparan materi
dan terdapat
penjelasannya.
Memberi kesempatan
mahasiswa untuk belajar
BAGIAN PENYAJIAN
Penyajian/ uraian
materi
146
Kriteria Penilaian
Komponen
1 ( Buruk)
2 (Kurang Baik)
3 (Sedang)
4 (Baik)
5 (Sangat Baik)
internal secara aktif
Contoh dan noncontoh
Tidak diberikan
contoh dan noncontoh
Hanya terdapat
contoh dan kurang
relevan dengan isi
uraian.
Hanya terdapat contoh

yang memperhatikan
kriteria berikut:
Relevan dan konsisten
dengan isi uraian
Logis, sesuai realita,
mutakhir, serta
bermakna sehingga
membantu pemahaman
pembaca akan materi
yang dipelajari
Latihan
Tidak terdapat
latihan
Latihan yang diberikan

hanya memperhatikan
2 dari 6 kriteria
lengkap berikut.
Relevan dengan
materi yang
disajikan
Mempertimbangkan
kemampuan
mahasiswa

hanya memperhatikan 3
dari 6 kriteria lengkap
berikut.
Relevan dengan materi
yang disajikan
Mempertimbangkan
kemampuan mahasiswa
Bermakna dalam proses
pembelajaran
Tetapi:
Bentuk latihan kurang
147
Terdapat contoh dan non

contoh yang
berikut:
dengan isi uraian
mutakhir, serta bermakna
sehingga membantu
pemahaman pembaca
akan materi yang
dipelajari
Tetapi:
kurang memadai dalam
jumlah dan fungsi
memperhatikan 6 kriteria
lengkap berikut.
yang disajikan
Mempertimbangkan
kemampuan mahasiswa
Bentuknya bervariasi
pembelajaran
Menantang mahasiswa
untuk berpikir dan
Terdapat contoh dan non

contoh yang
berikut:
dengan isi uraian
mutakhir, serta bermakna
sehingga membantu
pemahaman pembaca
akan materi yang
dipelajari
Memadai dalam jumlah
dan fungsi
memperhatikan 6 kriteria
berikut.
yang disajikan
Mempertimbangkan
kemampuan mahasiswa
Bentuknya bervariasi
pembelajaran
Menantang mahasiswa
untuk berpikir dan
Kriteria Penilaian
Komponen
1 ( Buruk)
2 (Kurang Baik)
3 (Sedang)
bervariasi,kurang
menantang mahasiswa
untuk berpikir dan
bersikap kritis serta,
kunci jawaban atau
panduan pengerjaanya
kurang jelas
BAGIAN
PENUTUP
Rangkuman
Tes Formatif
Tidak terdapat
rangkuman
Rangkuman hanya
berupa buti-butir garis
besar materi yang
telah disajikan
Tidak terdapat
tes formatif
Tes formatif
dikembangkan tidak
mengacu pada
tuntutan kompetensi
dan materi yang
ditanyakan benar dan
logis
Rangkuman ditulis dengan

berikut.
Berisi pokok-pokok materi
yang telah dipaparkan
Konsisten dengan KU dan
KK
Tetapi:
kurang sistematis dan
kurang ringkas, kurang
jelas.
Tes formatif
dikembangkan dengan
berikut.
Mengacu pada tuntutan
kompetensi
Materi yang ditanyakan
benar dan logis
Dilengkapi kunci
jawaban tetapi tanpa
penjelasan jawaban
yang benar atau salah
148
4 (Baik)
5 (Sangat Baik)
bersikap kritis
Dilengkapi kunci jawaban
atau panduan pengerjaan
tetapi kurang jelas.
bersikap kritis
atau panduan
pengerjaanya yang jelas
dan runtut

lengkap berikut.
KK sistematis, ringkas.
Tetapi:
kurang jelas dan lugas.

jelas dan lugas,
lengkap berikut.
KK
Sistematis, ringkas dan
komunikatif
Tes formatif dikembangkan

dengan memperhatikan
kriteria berikut.
kompetensi
benar dan logis
Tetapi kunci jawaban tes
pilihan ganda hanya
dilengkapi dengan
penjelasan yang benar saja.
Tes formatif dikembangkan

dengan memperhatikan
kriteria lengkap berikut.
kompetensi
benar dan logis
Kunci jawaban tes pilihan
ganda dilengkapi dengan
penjelasan benar salahnya
pilhan jawaban
Kriteria Penilaian
Komponen
1 ( Buruk)
2 (Kurang Baik)
3 (Sedang)
4 (Baik)
5 (Sangat Baik)
Kunci jawaban tes uraian
dilengkapi dengan
pedoman penskorannya
(marking scheme)
Umpan balik dan

tindak lanjut
Daftar Pustaka
Tidak terdapat
umpan balik dan
tindak lanjut
Tidak terdapat
daftar pustaka
Hanya terdapat
umpan balik tanpa
diberikan tindak
lanjut.
Penulisan daftar
pustaka tidak benar
dan tidak mengikuti
aturan
Umpan balik dan tindak

lanjut diberikan tetapi
tidak jelas
Penulisan daftar pustaka,

memenuhi kriteria berikut.
benar
mengacu pada sistem
yang ajeg.
Buku dan referensi
kurang mutakhir serta
kurang sistematis dan
tidak alphabetis
149
Umpan balik ditulis

dengan lugas, memberikan
tanggapan yang tegas
terhadap kemajuan belajar
mahasiswa
Umpan balik ditulis

tanggapan yang tegas
terhadap kemajuan belajar
mahasiswa
Tindak lanjut ditulis

dengan lugas tetapi tidak
memberikan informasi
tentang hal-hal apa saja
yang perlu dilakukan
mahasiswa setelah selesai
melakukan satu kegiatan
belajar.
Tindak lanjut ditulis

informasi tentang hal-hal
apa saja yang perlu
dilakukan mahasiswa
setelah selesai melakukan
satu kegiatan belajar.

benar
mengacu pada sistem yang
ajeg.
Berisi buku dan referensi
yang mutakhir
Kurang Sistematis dan
tidak alphabetis

benar
mengacu pada sistem yang
ajeg.
Sistematis dan alphabetis
Berisi buku dan referensi
yang mutakhir
APPENDIX U
HUMAN SUBJECTS APPROVAL AND INFORMED CONSENT FORM
Human Subject Approval
Office of the Vice President For Research

Human Subjects Committee
Tallahassee, Florida 32306-2742
(850) 644-8673 FAX (850) 644-4392
APPROVAL MEMORANDUM
Date: 7/8/2010
To: Dewi Padmo Putri
Address:
Dept.: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING SYSTEMS
From: Thomas L. Jacobson, Chair
Re: Use of Human Subjects in Research
The Effect of Communication Strategy Intervention on Development Learning Material Teams' Processes
and Outcomes
The application that you submitted to this office in regard to the use of human subjects in the proposal
referenced above have been reviewed by the Secretary, the Chair, and two members of the Human
Subjects Committee. Your project is determined to be Expedited per 45 CFR 46.110(7) and has been
approved by an expedited review process.
The Human Subjects Committee has not evaluated your proposal for scientific merit, except to weigh
the risk to the human participants and the aspects of the proposal related to potential risk and benefit.
This approval does not replace any departmental or other approvals, which may be required.
If you submitted a proposed consent form with your application, the approved stamped consent form is
attached to this approval notice. Only the stamped version of the consent form may be used in
recruiting research subjects.
If the project has not been completed by 7/6/2011 you must request a renewal of approval for
continuation of the project. As a courtesy, a renewal notice will be sent to you prior to your expiration
date; however, it is your responsibility as the Principal Investigator to timely request renewal of your
approval from the Committee.
150
You are advised that any change in protocol for this project must be reviewed and approved by the
Committee prior to implementation of the proposed change in the protocol. A protocol
change/amendment form is required to be submitted for approval by the Committee. In addition,
federal regulations require that the Principal Investigator promptly report, in writing any unanticipated
problems or adverse events involving risks to research subjects or others.
By copy of this memorandum, the Chair of your department and/or your major professor is reminded
that he/she is responsible for being informed concerning research projects involving human subjects in
the department, and should review protocols as often as needed to insure that the project is being
conducted in compliance with our institution and with DHHS regulations.
This institution has an Assurance on file with the Office for Human Research Protection. The Assurance
Number is IRB00000446.
Cc: Tristan Johnson, Advisor
HSC No. 2010.4575
151
Human Subject Approval (Renewal)

Office of the Vice President For Research
Human Subjects Committee
Tallahassee, Florida 32306-2742
(850) 644-8673 FAX (850) 644-4392
RE-APPROVAL MEMORANDUM
Date: 4/22/2011
To: Dewi Padmo Putri
Address:
Dept.: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING SYSTEMS
From: Thomas L. Jacobson, Chair
Re: Re-approval of Use of Human subjects in Research
The Effect of Communication Strategy Intervention on Development Learning Material Teams' Processes
and Outcomes
Your request to continue the research project listed above involving human subjects has been approved
by the Human Subjects Committee. If your project has not been completed by 4/20/2012, you must
request a renewal of approval for continuation of the project. As a courtesy, a renewal notice will be
sent to you prior to your expiration date; however, it is your responsibility as the Principal Investigator
to timely request renewal of your approval from the committee.
If you submitted a proposed consent form with your renewal request, the approved stamped consent
form is attached to this re-approval notice. Only the stamped version of the consent form may be used
in recruiting of research subjects. You are reminded that any change in protocol for this project must be
reviewed and approved by the Committee prior to implementation of the proposed change in the
protocol. A protocol change/amendment form is required to be submitted for approval by the
Committee. In addition, federal regulations require that the Principal Investigator promptly report in
writing, any unanticipated problems or adverse events involving risks to research subjects or others.
By copy of this memorandum, the Chair of your department and/or your major professor are reminded
of their responsibility for being informed concerning research projects involving human subjects in their
department. They are advised to review the protocols as often as necessary to insure that the project is
being conducted in compliance with our institution and with DHHS regulations.
Cc: Tristan Johnson, Advisor

HSC No. 2011.6289
152
APPENDIX V
INFORMED CONSENT
Florida State University Consent Form:
The Effect of Communication Strategy Intervention
on Developing Learning Material Teams Processes and Outcomes
Principle Investigator: Dewi Padmo
Learning Systems Institute, Florida State University
Faculty Supervisor: Dr. Tristan E. Johnson
____________, _____
Dear Sir/Madam,
You are invited to participate in a research study about academic teams. You were selected as a
potential participant because of your employment with the Universitas Terbuka where teams are often
employed to complete job tasks such as in developing of learning materials.
Dewi Padmo, a doctoral candidate, from Florida State University, will conduct the study.
Background Information:
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of communication strategy intervention on
developing learning material teams processes and outcomes.
We will be studying the perceptions you have of your team, team processes, communication, team and
task knowledge, and teams performance.
Procedures:
If you agree to this study, we would ask you to complete an anonymous survey about your team;
including, but not limited to, questions about roles and responsibilities, communication, team
knowledge, task knowledge, your satisfaction and frustration levels. The survey will be administered a
minimum of three to six times over a period three to six months. In addition to the survey you may be
asked some interview questions.
Participants will be asked to complete the following data collection activities:
Introduction, Study Information, Consent Form (10 minutes)

Demographic Survey (5 minutes)
Training and group activities (45 minutes)
Complete a series of questionnaires once per month for six months (10 minutes each)
153
Team members may be asked to participate in an interview or focus group. The interviews will
take approximately one hour. These interviews will be recorded and transcribed but will be
destroyed after the study has been completed.
Risks:
The data collection methods and procedures only have minimal risk. A participant may feel
uncomfortable answering questions about their team.
Benefits:
Participants will be able to reflect on their team experiences including communication patterns, team
processes, and team goal alignment. When teams reflect upon their experiences they will recognize
their strengths and weaknesses. Participants also get experience creating a better communication
strategy to perform better in the working environment. Inputs which related to content or media will
benefit to enhance the quality of the product.
Confidentiality:
The data collected for this study will be kept private and confidential to the extent permitted by law.
Participants names and identifiable information will be kept private and confidential. Any publication,
report, or printed articles will not identify individuals by name nor will they allude to an individual
person. Participants will be asked to initially put their names on the surveys. This is only for the
researchers purpose of making sure follow-up data is attributed to the correct person. Any paper and
digital artifacts and recordings will be locked up or password protected to maintain privacy. After the
study has concluded, all identifiable information will be destroyed.
Voluntary Nature of the Study:
Your participation in the study is voluntary. If you decide not to participate there will be no retribution.
If you decide to participate, you are free to decline to answer any question or withdraw from the stud at
any time.
Contacts and Questions:
The principle investigator and lead researcher of this study is Dewi Padmo. Please feel free to ask any
questions now or anytime during the study. You are encouraged to contact her by phone, e-mail, or in
person (phone:, e-mail: office:).
If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study and would like to talk to someone other than
the researcher(s), you are encouraged to contact the FSU IRB at 2010 Levy Street, Research Building B,
Suite 276, Tallahassee, FL 32306-2742, or 850-644-8633, or by email at
humansubjects@magnet.fsu.edu.
You will be given a copy of this information to keep for your records.
154
If you choose to participate in this study, please confirm your consent by signing and dating below. If
you have questions or concerns please contact Dewi Padmo or Dr. Tristan Johnson
Statement of Consent:
I have read the above information. I have asked questions and have received answers. I consent to
participate in the study.
________________________________________________
Signature
____________________
Date
_________________________________________________
Signature of Investigator
Date
155
____________________
APPENDIX W
Persetujuan Human Subjects dan Formulir Persetujuan (Indonesian)
Florida State University
Penelitian tentang Efek Intervensi Strategy Komunikasi Terhadap Proses and Keluaran Tim
Pengembangan Bahan Ajar
Peneliti Utama: Dewi Padmo
Dosen Pembimbing: Dr Johnson Tristan
______________,_______
Bapak / Ibu yang terhormat,
Anda diundang untuk berpartisipasi dalam studi penelitian tentang tim akademis. Anda terpilih sebagai
peserta karena pekerjaan Anda di Universitas Terbuka dimana tim sering digunakan untuk
menyelesaikan tugas seperti tim penulisan bahan ajar.
Kajian akan dilakukan oleh Dewi Padmo, kandidat doktor, dari Florida State University.
Informasi Latar Belakang:
Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui pengaruh intervensi strategi komunikasi pada proses dan
keluaran tim dalam pengembangan bahan ajar. Kami akan mengkaji persepsi yang anda miliki mengenai
tim Anda, proses tim, komunikasi, pengetahuan mengenai tim dan tugas Anda.
Prosedur:
Jika Anda bersedia membantu penelitian ini, kami akan meminta Anda untuk mengisi survei tentang tim
Anda, termasuk, namun tidak terbatas, pertanyaan tentang peran dan tanggung jawab, komunikasi,
pengetahuan tim, pengetahuan tugas, dan tingkat kepuasan dan kekecewaan Anda. Survei ini akan
dilaksanakan sebulan sekali selama periode enam bulan. Selain survei, Anda mungkin akan diminta
menjawab beberapa pertanyaan wawancara.
Anda akan diminta untuk melengkapi data berikut melalui serangkaian aktivitas:
Pendahuluan, pemberian informasi tentang kajian ini, pengisian formulir persetujuan (10 menit)
Survei demografis (5 menit)
Training dan aktivitas kelompok (45 menit)
Mengisi 1 set kuesioner sekali sebulan dalam jangka waktu 6 bulan (@ 10 menit)
Anggota tim mungkin akan diminta untuk berpartisipasi dalam sebuah wawancara atau ikut
dalam diskusi kelompok terarah (fokus group). Wawancara akan memakan waktu sekitar satu
156
jam. Wawancara ini akan direkam dan ditranskrip namun akan dimusnahkan setelah penelitian
selesai.
Kemungkinan Resiko:
Metode dan prosedur pengumpulan data hanya memiliki resiko minimal. Peserta mungkin merasa
kurang nyaman menjawab pertanyaan tentang tim mereka.
Manfaat:
Peserta akan dapat merefleksikan pengalaman tim mereka termasuk pola komunikasi, proses tim, dan
keselarasan tujuan tim. Ketika tim merefleksikan pengalaman mereka, mereka akan mengenali kekuatan
dan kelemahan. Peserta juga akan memperoleh pengalaman menciptakan strategi komunikasi yang
untuk meningkatkan kinerja. Masukan yang berkaitan dengan materi maupun media akan bermanfaat
meningkatkan kualitas produk yang dihasilkan oleh tim.
Kerahasiaan:
Data yang dikumpulkan untuk penelitian ini akan bersifat rahasia sesuai dengan batasan hukum yang
berlaku. Nama-nama peserta dan informasi yang teridentifikasi akan dijaga kerahasiaannya secara
penuh. Setiap publikasi, laporan, atau artikel cetak tidak akan mengidentifikasi individu dengan nama
mereka dan tidak pula menyinggung mereka. Peserta hanya akan diminta pada awalnya menuliskan
nama mereka pada survei. Ini hanya bertujuan untuk memastikan tindak lanjut data tersebut diberikan
kepada orang yang tepat. Setiap kertas dan artifak digital dan rekaman akan dikunci dengan sandi untuk
menjaga kerahasiaan. Setelah penelitian selesai semua informasi dan identitas akan dimusnahkan.
Sifat Sukarela Studi:
Partisipasi Anda dalam penelitian ini adalah sukarela. Jika Anda memutuskan untuk tidak berpartisipasi
maka tidak akan ada akibat yang harus Anda tanggung. Jika Anda memutuskan untuk berpartisipasi,
Anda bebas untuk menolak menjawab pertanyaan atau menarik diri dari penelitian ini setiap saat.
Bila Anda ingin menghubungi atau mengajukan pertanyaan:
Peneliti utama dan pemimpin penelitian ini adalah Dewi Padmo. Silakan Anda bertanya kapan saja
berkaitan dengan penelitian ini. Anda dapat menghubungi Dewi Padmo melalui telepon, email, atau
secara pribadi (telepon:, email:, kantor:).
Jika Anda memiliki pertanyaan atau keluhan mengenai penelitian ini dan ingin membicarakannya
dengan orang lain selain peneliti, Anda disarankan untuk menghubungi IRB FSU di 2010 Levy Street,
Research Building B, Suite 276, Tallahassee, FL 32306-2742, atau 850-644-8633, atau melalui email ke:
humansubjects@magnet.fsu.edu.
Anda akan mendapatkan informasi salinan ini untuk Anda simpan.
Jika Anda memilih untuk berpartisipasi dalam studi ini, silakan konfirmasi persetujuan Anda dengan
menandatangani dan membubuhkan tanggal di bawah ini. Jika Anda memiliki pertanyaan atau keluhan
silakan menghubungi Dewi Padmo atau Dr. Tristan Johnson
157
Pernyataan Persetujuan:
Saya telah membaca informasi di atas dan saya telah mengajukan pertanyaan dan telah menerima
jawaban. Saya bersedia untuk berpartisipasi dalam penelitian ini.
________________________________________________ ____________________
Tanda tangan
Tanggal
_________________________________________________ ____________________
Tanda tangan Peneliti
Tanggal
158
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171
BIOGRAPHICAL SKECTH
EDUCATION
PhD in Instructional Systems: Florida State University
Departement of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems
College of Education, Tallahassee, FL
Focus Area: Learning Science and Technology
Minor: Communication
M.A. in Educational Technology: Concordia University,
Department of Education
Montreal, Canada
PUBLICATION AND PRESENTATION
Publication
Luchei, T., Padmo, D., Spector, M. (2009). The Open University of Indonesia and Florida State
University: Communication, collaboration, and the important work of training teacher. Tech
Trends Vol 53(1), 20-22.
Luchei, T., Surachman, D., Padmo,D. (2008). Maintaining e3-learning while transitioning to
online instruction: The case of the Open University of Indonesia. Distance Education, 29 (2), p.
165-174. Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group.
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Guidebook 1st edition. PAN Asia Networking.
Padmo, D, & Julaeha.S. (2007). Tingkat Pemanfaatan E-Learning Mahasiswa Universitas Terbuka
(The use of e-learning at the Indonesia Open University). Majalah Ilmiah Pembelajaran. 1(3),
Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
Padmo, D, & Julaeha.S. (2007). Tingkat kepedulian dan self efficacy mahasiswa Universitas
Terbuka terhadap E-Learning (Awareness Levels and self efficacy of the Indonesia Open
University students toward E-Learning). Jurnal Pendidikan Terbuka dan Jarak Jauh, 8 (1). LPPM
UT
Padmo, D (2006) Media Komunikasi dan Informasi dalam Pendidikan Tinggi Jarak Jauh (Media
Communication and Information in Higher Distance Education), Lembaga Penelitian dan
Pengabdian Masyarakat, Universitas Terbuka
Belawati, T., Padmo, D. & Sinar,E. (2005). Application of Educational Media at Universitas
Terbuka. Monograph In Book of Distance Education. Commonwealth of Learning: Bristish
Columbia, Canada.
172
Padmo, D., Sinar, E.& Belawati, T (2004). Quality Assurance of the learning process: A case of
Universitas Terbuka. Paper submitted for presentation to the 21st Asean Association of Open
Universities (AAOU) Annual Conference Sanghai, 28-30 November 2004.
Padmo, D (2004). Sistem jaminan kualitas pada sistem pendidikan tinggi jarak jauh (Quality
assurance system on distance learning for higher education. Monograf Dalam Pendidikan Tinggi
Jarak jauh (Monograph in Distance Learning for Higher Education) (pp.61-79). Universitas
Terbuka.
Zuhairi, A., Isman, S. M., Padmo, D. & Purwanto, A. J. (2004). Quality assurance as management
strategy in open and distance learning: the experience of Universitas Terbuka. Paper submitted
for presentation to the 21st World Conference of the International Council for Open and
Distance Education (ICDE) Lifelong Learning in the Networked World, Hong Kong, 17-21
February 2004.
Padmo, D. & Belawati, T. (2004). Quality of online tutorial a case of Universitas Terbuka. Paper
submitted for presentation to the 21st World Conference of the International Council for Open
and Distance Education (ICDE) Lifelong Learning in the Networked World, Hong Kong, 17-21
February 2004.
Zuhairi, A, Padmo, D. & Suciati (2002). Quality assurance system in open and distance learning.
(Sistem jaminan kualitas dalam pendidikan terbuka dan jarak jauh). Paper presented to National
Seminar of Educational Technology. Jakarta, Indonesia.
Presentation
Padmo, D., Johnson, E. T. (2011). The effect of communication strategy planning intervention on
team process and performance. Presented at the Association for Educational Communications
and Technology Convention (2011). Jacksonville, FL.
Mendenhall, A., Padmo, D., Johnson, T.(2011) How shared mental models and team processes
influence team performance in faculty teams. Roundtable session at the Association for
Educational Communications and Technology Convention (2011). Jacksonville, FL.
Suparman, A., Belawati, T., Luchei, T., Padmo, D., Spector, M.J. (2010). Distributed basic
education and the Open University of Indonesia. Presented at the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology Convention (2010). Anaheim, CA.
Suparman, A., Belawati, T., Luchei, T., Padmo, D., Mendenhall, A. (2009). Distributed basic
education in Indonesia. Presented at the Association for Educational Communications and
Technology Convention (2009). Louisville, Kentucky.
Padmo, D., Sinar, E. & Belawati, T (2004). Quality assurance of the learning process: A case of
Universitas Terbuka. Presented at the 21st Asean Association of Open Universities (AAOU)
Annual Conference Sanghai, November 28-30, 2004.
173
Padmo, D. & Belawati, T. (2004). Quality of online tutorial: A case of Universitas Terbuka.
Presented at the 21st World Conference of the International Council for Open and Distance
Education (ICDE) Lifelong Learning in the Networked World, Hong Kong, February 17-21, 2004.
AWARD
Finalist for the Liliana Mulhman Masoner Award for: Excellent Peformance as an International
Student in the Instructional Systems Program Florida State University. Academic Year 20102011.
Dr.R.W. Buddy Bruniske Award for Outstanding Contribution to the ICT International Column
of Tech Trends. Luschei, T., Padmo, D., Spector, M.J. For The Open University of Indonesia and
Florida State University: Communication, Collaboration, and the Important Work of Training
Teachers. 2009
Government of Indonesia Scholarship for Ph.D program at Florida State University USA 2008
2012
PROFFESIONAL MEMBERSHIPS
Association for Educational Communications and Technology
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

THE EFFECT OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGY AND PLANNING INTERVENTION

A Dissertation submitted to the

UMI Number: 3519429

All rights reserved

Dewi A. Padmo Putri defended this dissertation on February 2, 2012

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................ix

Effect on team frustration ..........................................................................................60

APPENDIX H: MANIPULATION CHECK (Indonesian) ...............................................................122

Working in teams is a strategy used to develop products or perform services. Marks,

strategy planning intervention in a course development team setting is introduced. This

Course development teams.

communication between team members as well as do the scheduling (Foster, 1992).

communication needs of the project stakeholders and information distribution which

(across both conditions)

Team SMM Team psychological

team efficacy, team

positive and negative

Treatment and Control Conditions

Identify key team roles

Identify team goals and team challenges

Identify the responsibilities of each team members

Identify problems that might emerge

Identify solutions to the potential problems

Select communication channels and the media to be used

Identify the types of information to be shared

Team Communication Frequency

Team Communication Planning Level

Team Communication Planning Value

Equality of variance for team-SMM degree.

Team-SMM Degree (TADI overall mean)

Task and Team Knowledge

Attitude Toward Teammates and Task

Team Dynamics and Interactions

Team Resources and Working Environment

Equality of variance for team-SMM similarity.

Team-SMM Similarity (TADI overall SD)

Task and Team Knowledge

Attitude Toward Teammates and Task

Team Dynamics and Interactions

Team Resources and Working Environment

Equality of variance for team psychological components.

Equality of variance for team performance.

Testing for Sphericity

Testing for sphericity for team-SMM degree.

Testing for sphericity for team SMM similarity.

Testing for sphericity for team psychological components.

Time * Group (WS)

Summary of the communication channel usage.

Effects on team communication (planning level and planning value).

Time * Group (WS)

Communication Planning Level

Effects on communication planning value.

Time * Group (WS)

Communication Planning Value

Effect on Team SMM

Time * Group (WS)

Team SMM Degree

Team SMM Degree Overall

Team and Task Knowledge

Effect on team-SMM similarity.

Time *Group (WS)

Effect on Team Psychological Components