The Buddha's Teaching on Attachment and Karma

1
PREFACE
Over 2500 years ago, the Buddha lived in India and taught his priceless teachings in the Pli
language. Although Pli is no longer used for everyday communications, it is rigorously studied
by monastic and lay Buddhists around the world in particular in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
Many Pli words and phrases are also blended into local languages for daily Dhamma talks in the
East and West.
2500 years after the Buddha passed away, Pli is the purest way to access and understand the
Buddha's teaching. The Pli texts are a precious heritage passed down from the Buddha. To
maintain that heritage, our Buddhist ancestors, having no paper or pen, let alone modern devices
like computers or CDs, had to learn the texts by heart and transmit them orally. They took great
trouble to preserve the authentic teaching of the Buddha, one of the greatest treasures of the
world.
Therefore, we study Pli not for daily communication but for a deeper understanding of the true
teachings of the Buddha; we try to uncover our greatest heritage passed down to us by our
beloved noble ancestors.
The ancient Pli grammar is amazingly well organized and helps us understand the language of
the Buddha very precisely. The grammar was, however, designed for the Buddha's
contemporaries. With this in mind, I have created a Pli primer to make the grammar more
accessible for contemporary English speakers.
Of course, there are many varieties of Pli text translations available today. However, in the same
way that seeing a leader in person is significantly more inspiring than watching him speak on TV,
reading the authentic Pli text will far surpass reading any translations and will allow you to hear
the living Buddha speaking to you in person.
With much metta,
U Hla Myint
CONTENTS
PART-I
Preface
Contents
Chapter-I
1
2
Basic P i Syntaxes
The aphabet
Lesson-1:
Lesson-2:
Lesson-3:
Lesson-4:
Lesson-5:
Lesson-6:
Lesson-7:
Lesson-8:
Lesson-9:
Lesson-10:
Lesson-11:
Lesson-12:
Lesson-13:
Lesson-14:
Lesson-15:
Lesson-16:
Lesson-17:
Lesson-18:
Lesson-19:
Lesson-20:
Lesson-21:
Lesson-22:
Lesson-23:
Lesson-24:
Lesson-25:
Lesson-26:
Lesson-27:
Lesson-28:
3
4
Unique Feature of Pl i
1st Form (Nominative)
8
st
1 Form (Only-noun Sentences)
2nd Form (Accusative Case)
2nd Form (Adverb of Time/ Distance) 16
3rd Form (Instrumental Case)
3rd Form (Causative Case)
3rd Form (With-phrase)
4th Form (Dative Case)
4th Form (Purpose Case)
5th Form (Ablative Case)
6th Form (Possessive Case)
7th Form (Locative Case)
7th Form (Time Adverb Clause)
Verb Suffix-1
Verb Suffix-2
Verb Suffix-3
Verb Suffix-4/5/6
Verb Suffix-7
Verb Suffix-8
Passive Voice
Causative Verbs
Verb Participles
Definition / Translation of Participles60
Some More Participles
Functions / Tenses of a Participle
Two Kinds of Questions
Falling Particles / Prefixes
6
11
14
19
22
24
27
30
32
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
51
52
55
57
58
62
-65
69
PART TWO
Lesson-29:
Noun Groups
Lesson-30:
Pronoun Groups
77
78
97
THE ALPHABET
Pi (the language of the Buddha) does not have a special script of its own. In countries where
people study Pli, it is written in their indigenous scripts like Ngar in India, Sinhalese in Sri
Lanka, Burmese in Burma, and the Kamboja script in Thailand. The Pli Text Society in
England uses the Roman script for which it has gained international recognition. The Pli
Alphabet consists of 41 letters that include 8 vowels and 33 consonants. The following alphabet
is taken from the book Pli Primer, published by Vipassana Research Institute.
Vowes
a, , i, , u, , e, o
Consonants
Gutturals
Palatels
Cerebrals
Dentals
Labials
Miscellaneous
k, kh, g, gh, n
c, ch, j, jh,
t, th, d, dh, n
t, th, d, dh, n
p, ph, b, bh, m
y, r, l, v, s, h, l, m
The vowels a, i, u are short, and , , - are long. For e and o, they are of middle length, and
are pronounced short if they are before double consonants, e.g., mett, khetta, kottha, sotthi,
while they are long if they are before single consonants, e.g. deva, sen, loka, odana.
Pronunciation
a = u in cut
= a in father
i = I in mill
= ee in bee
u = u in put
= oo in cool
k = k in kite
g = g in good
n = ng in singer
c = ch in church
j = j in jam
= gn in signor
t = t in hat
d = d in good
n = n in now
t = th in thumb
d = th in they
n = n in now
p = p in put
b = b in but
m = m in mind
y = y in yes
r = r in right
l = l in light
v = v in vine
s = s in sing
h = h in hot
l = l in light
m = ng in sing.
LESSON-1
Unique Feature of P i
In English there are Eight Parts of Speech: noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition,
conjunction and interjection. In Pl i, however, there are only Four Parts of Speech:
1.
2.
3.
4.
noun (nma)
pronoun (sabba-nma)
verb (kriy)
clitics (nipta) that are equivalent to conjunctions and interjections. They include such
words as sace (if), eva (thus), ceva, ca (also, too), iva (like), puna (again), pana
(however), ve, have (indeed), vin (without), aatra (except), eva (only, just), saha,
saddhi (with), v (or else), idha (here), hura (there), and so on.
NOUNS
No Preposition: In Pl i, suffixes of a noun are called nma-vibhatti1, which are equivalent to
prepositions in English. So, there is no separate preposition in Pl i. In other words, all nouns
have built-in prepositions2 and can be regarded as ready-made phrases.
No Adjective and Adverb: In accordance with Pl i grammars, it is also a noun that serves as an
adjective and adverb. So, there are no separate forms of adjectives and adverbs. In other words,
adjectives and adverbs are just functions of a noun.
Noun Forms: Suffixes of a noun modify its forms and functions. Every noun has seven forms
such as 1st form, 2nd form, etc., and different functions, such as subject, object, etc. All nouns are
classified into 22 groups (see Part II) according to their suffixes and genders. We will call them
in serial number such as Noun Group-1 (NG-1), etc., to remember them easily. Nouns of NG-1,
for example, originally have the suffix (-a) that will be replaced with different suffixes for
different functions. Below is the model chart of NG-1.
Mode Chart
st
1:
2nd:
3rd:
4th:
5th:
6th:
1
Singuar
puriso (a man)
purisa (to a man)
purisena (with / by a man)
purisassa, (to/ for a man)
purisasm, -mh, - (from a man)
purisassa (of a man)
Pura
puris (men)
purise (to men)
purisehi, purisebhi (with / by men)
purisnam (to men)
purisehi, purisebhi (from men)
purisnam (of men)
Noun suffixes are called Nma-vibhatti because they modify a noun in terms of form,
genders (masculine, feminine or neuter), numbers (singular or plural), and functions
(subject, object, adjective, or adverb and so on).
2
Actually, there are a few separate prepositions such as saha, saddhi (with), vin, aatra (without) and so on.
7th:
purisasmi, -mhi, -e(in, on, a man) purisesu (in, on, at men)
Mode Sentence
Below is the model sentence, and all the nouns involved in it belong to NG-1. [In Pl i the verb
normally comes at the end of the sentence.]
Buddho dhamma saddena devna drasm samaye deseti.
Buddha preaches Dhamma with voice to devas from afar on occasion.
Subject
Verb
Obejct
Dative
Instrument
D. point
Occasion
Buddho
(Buddha)
deseti
(preaches)
dhamma
(a discourse)
devna
(to devas)
saddena (with
voice)
drasm
(from afar)
samaye
(on
occasion)
Buddho
Dhamma
saddena
devna
drasm
samaye
deseti
1st form subject (katt)

2nd form object (kamma)
3rd form instrument (karana)
4th form dative (sampadna)
5th form departing point (apdna)
7th form occasion (Oksa)
3rd Person
active voice
The Buddha
Dhamma
with voice
to devas
from afar
on an occasion
preaches
Using the different suffixes of the model noun in the chart, we should make a similar chart for all
the nouns involved in the model sentence so that we can understand their forms and functions.
For example:
st
1
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
st
1
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
Singuar
Buddho
Buddham
Buddhena
Buddhassa
Buddhasm, -mh, -
Buddhassa
Buddhasmim, -mhi, -e
Singuar
Dhammo
Dhamma
Dhammena
Dhammassa
Dhammasm, -mh, -
Dhammassa
Pura
buddh
buddhe
buddhehi, buddhebhi
buddhnam
buddhehi, -ebhi
buddhnam
buddhesu
Pura
dhamm
dhamme
dhammehi, dhammebhi
dhammna
dhammehi, dhammebhi
dhammna
7th
st
1
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
st
1
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
Dhammasmi, -mhi, -e
dhammesu
Singuar
saddo
sadda
saddena
saddassa
saddasm, -mh, -
saddassa
saddasmi, -mhi, -e
Pura
sadd
sadde
saddhehi, saddhebhi
saddna
saddhehi, saddhebhi
saddna
saddesu
Singuar
devo
deva
devena
devassa
devasm, -mh, -
devassa
devasmi, -mhi, -e
Pura
dev
deve
devehi, devebhi
devna
devehi, devebhi
devna
devesu
Note: Make the same chart for all the remaining nouns, for example, dro, dr--; samayo,
samay--, and so on. In the chart the 3 rd and the 5th have the same forms in plural, and the 4 th and
the 6th are all the same both in singular and plural but they have different functions. In other
words, they are the same form with different functions.
LESSON-2
1st FORM (Nominative Case)
1st form nouns have such suffixes as -o, -, -i, -, -u, -, according to their corresponding noun
groups (NG). The 1st form nouns serve as Subjects in Nominative Case (in active sentences).
The Story Background:
Look at the boy overthere, said the Buddha to Ananda, indicating a homeless boy beaten and
driven out of a mansion that belonged to Mla-sir, one of the multimillionaires in Savatthi city.
In his previous life, the Buddha continued, that boy was Mla-sirs father who had that very
mansion built. Then, Buddha related his entire past life.
Ananda-set t hi was one of the multimillionaires in Savatthi city, and Mla-sir was his only son.
He was so attached to his wealth that he had never given any cent to anybody in his life. He often
advised his only son and relatives to accumulate wealth instead of spending it with the analogy
of eye-drop that run out as it was used drop by drop, and anthills and been hides that became
bigger and bigger as they were built bit by bit. After his death, the selfish millionaire was reborn
to a homeless family. And later abandoned by his parents, he had to wander about begging for
food. One day, he happened to stop by the gate of Mla-sirs mansion. Then, with his vivid
memory of the past life he happened to intrude into the mansion, and got beaten brutally and
driven out unkindly.
To cut the long story short, the boy could prove that he had been Mla-sirs father by showing
Mla-sir i three gold pots that Ananda-set t hi put underground. From this incident, the Buddha
brought us a moral below:
Putt atthi. Ddhana atthi. Iti blo vihaati
Att pi attano natthi. Kuto putt? Kuto dhana? (Dhamma-pada, 298)
There are sons. There is wealth. Thus, a fool gets distress.
There is not even oneself for oneself. Where sons? Where wealth?
In the above passage, the verb atthi means there is/ are, and natthi there is/ are not. The
syntax only consists of subject and verb. See the table below:
Verb (V)
Subject (S)
Atthi (There are)

Atthi (There is)
Natthi (There is no)
Putt (sons)
Dhana (wealth)
Attpi (even oneself)
Noun Form: Putt, dhamma belong to NG-1; att to NG-8

Singuar
Pura
1. Putto
putt
2. Putta
putte
3. Puttena
puttehi, -bhi, and so on.
[Just follow puriso for the rest.]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Singuar
Pura
att
attna, atta
attan, attena
attano
attan
attano
attani
attno
attno
attnehi, -bhi
attna
attanehi, -bhi
attna
attnesu, attesu
Some More Exampes

During the Buddhas time there was a certain kind of doctrine called natthika-ditthi,
which
rejects the act of generosity, gratitude of ones parent, life after or before ones death, the law of
cause and effect (kamma), and so on. They professed a motto with word natthi (no), and were,
therefore, known as natthika (nihilists). Below is their famous motto:
1. Natthi dinna
2. Natthi yittha
3. Natthi huta
4. Natthi mt
5. Natthi pit
6. Natthi aya loko
7. Natthi paro loko
8. Natthi opaptik
9. Natthi kamma-vipko
10. Natthi saman a-brahman
There is no giving
There is no sacrificing
There is no gifting
There is no mother
There is no father
There is no this life
There is no that life
There is no spontaneous rebirth
There is no kammic result
There is no monk or Brahmin (who become enlightened)
This doctrine is one of the 62 wrong views mentioned in the Pl i, and used to be very popular
among people in old days. Probably, it may be similar in essence to the communism of today.
Noun Form: In the above motto, dinna, yittha
, huta and kamma belong to NG-2; mt,
pit to NG-9; loko, upaptik, vipko, saman a to NG-1; brahm to NG-8.
Below is the chart of dinna according to NG-2:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Singuar
Pura
Dinna
Dinna
Dinnena
Dinnassa
Dinnasm, mh, -
Dinnassa
Dinnasm, mhi, -e
dinn, dinnni
dinne, dinnni
dinnehi, -bhi
dinnna
dinnehi, -bhi
dinnna
dinnesu
Here, the noun brahm belongs to NG-8, but it has some unique forms in its chart:
Singuar
1. brahm
2. brahmna, brahma
3. bramun
Pura
brahmno
brhmano
brahmehi, -bhi
10
4.
5.
6.
7.
brahmna, brahmna
brahmehi, -bhi
brahmna, brahmna
brahmesu
brahmuno, brahmassa
brun
brahmuno, brahmassa
brahmani
LESSON-3
1st FORM (Ony-noun Sentences)
1st form nouns serve as Subjects and Complements in sentences which have no verb (although
verb-to-be is actually understood). Such sentences are called tulyatta/ ligattha
Story Background:
One day King Kosala visited the Buddha in Jetavana Monastery, Svatthi city. He was so heavy
that he had to sit down in a very uncomfortable manner in front of the Buddha. Knowing his
situation, the Buddha gave him a kind advice thus: Ever mindful and moderate in eating, one
can become healthy and slow down ageing process.
Having Followed Buddhas advice, the king later lost weight and looked better and healthier. On
his next visit, therefore, he proudly said to the Buddha that he felt so light that he thought he
could even chase a deer. He also mentioned two kinds of good news. First, he found the royal
diamond that he had lost long before. Second, he felt closer to monks and nuns than ever before.
In this regard the Buddha mentioned the motto below:
rogya parama lbha; satutthi
parama dhana;
Visss param ti; nibbna parama sukha.
Healthiness (is) paramount gain. Contentment (is) paramount wealth.
Friendship (is) paramount kinship. Non-attachment (is) paramount happiness.
Subject (S)
Compement (C)
rogya (healthiness)
Santutthi
(contentment)
Visss (friendship)
Nibbna (non-attachment)
Parama lbha (paramount gain)

Parama dhana (- wealth)
Param ti (- kinship)
Parama sukha (- happiness)
11
Forms and Functions: Nouns in the 1st column are subjects and those in the 2 nd column are
complement. They all are in their 1 st forms. However, they have different suffixes because they
belong to different NGs.
Ony-noun Sentences: In these sentences there is no verb (verb-to-be understood), and
therefore these sentences are called Only-Noun Sentences (ligattha). They are also called
Single-entity Sentences (tulyattha) because all the nouns involved in each sentence refer to
single entity. For example, healthiness is paramount gain, and paramount gain is healthiness.
Noun Group: Here six nouns such as rogya, nibbna, parama, lbha, dhana,
sukha belong to NG-2. Visss belongs to NG-3; Santutthi
and ti to NG-10. [Normally
subjects and complements agree in terms of gender and number.]
Some More Exampes with Story Background:
One day the Buddha was with his monks on the bank of Ganger River near Ayujjh village,
Branasi city. Pointing to the bubbles on the surface of the river, the Buddha said to the monks,
Look at those pieces of bubble on the surface of the river. They are fragile and insubstantial. So
are the five aggregates, i.e., body, sensation, perception, mental formation and consciousness.
Then, the Buddha made analogy with each aggregate:
Phen apin dpama
rpa. Vedan babbulakpam
Marcikpam sa. Sakhr kadalpam

Mypama vin a (sayutta-2, 116)
Subject
Rpa (body)
Vedan (sensation)
Sa (perception)
Sakhr (mental formations)
vin a (consciousness)
Compement
Phen apin d pama (fizz-like)
babbulakpam (bubble-like)
Marcikpam (mirage-like)
kadalpam (banana-like)
Mypama (illusion-like)
Word Combination (Sandhi): In the 2nd column we can see Combination of Words (sandhi).
Words naturally combine when they are read or spoken quickly as in the case of Its, Im, and so
on. Below is how they combine:
12
Phen apin d a (fizz) + upama (like) = phen apin d pama

Bubbul aka (bubble) + upama (like) = bubbul ukpama
Marcika (mirage) + upama (like) = marcikpama
Kadal (banana) + upama (like) = kadalpama
My (illusion) + upama (like) = mypama
Forms and Functions: Nouns in the 1st column are subjects and those in the 2 nd column are
complements. All the nouns are 1st forms. However, they have different suffixes because they
belong to different NGs.
Noun Forms:
Two nouns rpa and vin a belong to NG-2; vedan and sa to NG-3; sakhr to
NG-1. [Normally, subjects and complements agree in terms of gender and number.]
LESSON-4
2nd FORM (Accusative Case)
The 2nd form nouns have such suffixes as -a, -i, -u, etc., according their corresponding
Noun Groups (NG). They are equivalent to objects in the Accusative Case (active voice).
Story Background:
Not allowed to do any business for living, Buddhist monks and nuns depend on their lay
supporters for four requisites, namely, robe, food, shelter and medicine. In their day-to-day life,
therefore, they have to collect alms food from house to house except when they are invited to
peoples houses for meals. So, giving food to monks and nuns is honored as great merit. When
the Buddha was in Jetavana monastery, Savatthi city, he gave a talk on how beneficial it was to
offer food to the monks and nuns. Below is what he said then:
Dyako yu deti; van n a deti; sukha deti; bala deti; patibhna
deti. (A-2,
35)
The food-donor offers longevity; offers beauty; offers happiness; offers strength; offers
wit.
Subject
Verb
Object
Dyako (food-donor)
Deti (offers)
yu (longevity)
van n a (beauty)
Sukha (happiness)
Bala (strength)
13
Patibhna
(wit)
Forms and Functions:

Column-1: dyako is 1st form with -o suffix in Nominative Case (Subject).
Column-2: The verb has suffix -ti that means the verb is 3 rd Person, Singular and
Present Tense.
Column-3: All nouns are 2nd forms with- suffix in Accusative Case (object).
Noun Groups:
Column-1: dyako NG-1;
Column-2: yu NG-14; van n a, sukha, bala, patibhna
NG-2.
The Unique Features of P i Syntaxes:

The syntax (S. V. O.) mentioned above is originally (S. O. V.), as a Pl i sentence generally takes
the subject first, and the verb last. Here, however, we follow the English syntax for better
understanding of a Pl i sentence in comparison with English. A Pl i syntax is determined by
particular forms of the words involved, but not by their locations and separate prepositions like
an English one. So, it is possible for (S. V. O.) to become (O. S. V.), (V. S. O.) or (V. O. S.). The
same will be true with any other syntaxes to come.
Some More Exampes of (S. V. O.):
The Pl i text called patthna
(the law of conditionality) describes evil mental states as powerful
natural conditions (pakatpa-nissaya) for evil deeds such as killing, stealing, etc. Below is a
sentence taken from that Pali text:
Blo pn a hanati; adinna diyati; mus bhan ati; pisun a bhan ati; pharusa
bhan ati; sampha palapati. (Pat t hna-1, 148)
A fool kills a being; takes what not given; tells untruth; tells slander; speaks harsh words;
talks frivolous speech.
Subject
Verb
Object
Blo (a fool)
Hanati (kills)
diyati (takes)
Gacchati (goes)
Bhan ati (tells)
Bhan ati
Bhan ati
palapati
Pn a (a being)
Adinna (what not given)
Paradrame (to others wife)
Mus (untruth)
Pisun a (slander)
Pharusa (harsh word)
Sampha (frivolous speech)
14
Column-1: the noun is 1st form with -o suffix in the Nominative Case (Subject).
Column-2: All the verbs have suffix -ti that indicates that they are 3rd Person, Singular
and Present Tense.
Column-3: All the nouns are 2nd forms with -a suffix in the Accusative Case. But they
belong to different noun groups (NG).
Noun Groups:
Column-1: blo NG-1.
Column-3: pn a, para-dra NG-1. Adinna NG-2; pisun a, pharusa and
sampha NG-3. mus is a unique word called nipta which belongs to no NG.
Some More Exampes of (S + V + O):
Ariya-svako attna (mt-pitaro, putta-dra-dsa-kammakra-porise) sukheti.
(aguttara-2, 38)
A noble disciple delights oneself, (parents, sons and daughters, wife, slaves, servants and
workers).
Subject
Verb
Object
Ariya-svako (a noble Sukheti (delights)

disciple)
Attna (oneself)
Mt-pitaro (father and mother)
Putta-dra (children and wife)
Dsa-kammakra-porise
(slave,
servants, workers)

Column-1: ariya-svako is 1st form with -o suffix in Nominative Case (Subject).
Column-2: sukheti has suffix -ti that indicates that the verb is 3rd Person, Singular and
Present Tense.
Column-3: All the nouns are 2nd forms in Accusative Case (Object), but have different
suffixes because they belong to different NGs.
Noun Group:
Column-1: ariya-svako NG-1.
Column-3: attna NG-8; mat-pitaro NG-9; ariyasvako, putta-dra, dsakammakra-porise NG-1.
LESSON-5
15
2nd FORM (Adverb of Time/ Distance)

Time Adverb:
There are words that show time such as aho, diva, divasa (day), ratti (night), msa (month),
savacchara (year) vassa (rainy season), hemanta (winter), gimha (summer), and so on. These
words take 2nd form when they modify a verb to mean the verb (an event or action) takes place
continuiously for some time, like eka-divasa (for one day), eka-ratta (for one night),
vassa (for entire rainy season) and so on.
Story Background:
Having taught the group of five ascetics until they became fully enlightened, Buddha returned to
the Gaya area, and met Kassapa and his 1500 ascetics in Uruvel a forest on the bank of Nerajar
river just three miles away from Bodh Gaya. Initially, he was cautiously welcomed, and told that
there was no place for him to stay overnight. Then, he requested them to let him stay in the
kitchen for one night as follows:
Sace te, Kassapa, agaru, vaseyyma eka-ratta agygre (Mahavagga-32)
If, Kassapa, not troublesome to you, I would like to stay one night in the kitchen.
Conditiona
Cause
Subject
Verb
Locative
Time Adverb
Sace te agaru (If

not troublesome
to you)
Aha (I)
Vaseyyma
(would like to
stay)
Agygre (in
the kitchen)
Eka-ratta (for one

night)
Column-1: Sace is nipta meaning if; te is the 4th form of the personal pronoun, PG2; agaru is 1st form, NG-17, meaning not troublesome.
Column -2: Aha belongs to PG-1.
Column -3: Vaseyyma has V-3 suffix -eyyma , which expresses ones request.
Column -4: Agygre belongs to NG-2, and its 7th form suffix -e verifies its locative
case.
Column -5: Eka-ratta ( NG-10) is 2nd form (with suffix -) and modifies the verb in
terms of the continuity of time. So, for one night means his stay would be continuous
for the whole night without going anywhere.
Beow Are Some More Exampes:

Bhagav sattha eka-pallakena nisdi.
16
Buddha seated with sole posture for seven days.

Subject
Verb
Instrumenta
Time Adverb
Bhagav (Buddha)
Nisdi (seated)
Eka-pallakena (with
sole posture)
Sattha (for seven

days)
Bhagav tattheva Rjagahe vassa vasi, tattha hemanta, tattha gimha.

Buddha stayed there in Rjagaha city for rainy season, for winter there, for summer there.
Subject
Verb
Locative
Time Adverb
Bhagav (Buddha)
Vasi (stayed)
Tattheva Rjagahe
(there in Rjagaha)
Vassa (for rainy

season), etc.
Yaso cattro mse na hetth-psda

orohati.
Mr. Yaso does not descend the pavilion for four months.
Subject
Verb
Object
Time Adverb
Yaso (Mr. Yaso)
Na Orohati (doesnt
descend)
Hetth-psda
(downstairs of the
pavilion)
Cattro mse (for four

months)
2nd FORM (Distance Adverb)

Distance Adverb:
There are words that show the measurement of distance such as usabha3 (about 500 feet), gvuta
(about two miles), yojana (about 8 miles), and so on. These words take 2 nd form when they
modify a verb to mean the verb (an even or an action) takes place all the way to a certain
distance, like eka-gvuta (for one gvuta), eka-yogana (for one yojana), and so on.
Story Background: (Mahvagga 379)
3
One yojana is four gvutas which have twenty usabhas each. The word usabha literally means a bull, which here
refers to the distance we can hear a bull roars if it does. Ten usabhas is approximately one mile.
17
Jvako was the very well-known physician of the Buddha. Right after he was born, he was
thrown onto the heap of trash, as his mother, Slavat, a high-class prostitute of Rjagaha city,
wanted no child. Fortunately, however, Prince Abhaya found and adopted him in the palace.
Thus, he became a member of the royal family. When he came of age, he devoted his time and
energy to the medical study at the Takkasla University. He studied very detail and very fast
remembering every thing he was taught. After seven years of study, he asked his teacher how
long he was going to take to accomplish his medical study. Then, the teacher asked him to walk
one yojana (about eight miles) around the university to find any plant non-medicinal. He did, but
found no such a plant. Below is what he said:
hin d antomhi, cariya, takkaslya samant yojana. Na kici abhesajja addasa.
Teacher, (I) have walked one yojana around the University. (I) found no plant non-medicinal.
Subject
Verb
Distance Adverb
Locative
Aha (I)
hin danto
amhi (have gone)
yojana (for one yojana)
takkaslya samant
(around University)
Column -1: Aha (understood) is PG-1

Column -2: hin danto
is a participle with -anta suffix that belongs to NG-0. It is
equivalent to -ing in English. So, the combination of this participle and verb-to-be
(amhi) means that the verb is present perfect tense.
Column -3: Yojana belongs to NG-2. It is 2nd form that modifies the verb in terms of
distance.
Column -4: Takkaslya belongs to NG-2. It is 6th form in the possessive case. Samant
is nipta meaning nearby area. So, this phrase is literally translated thus: In the
surrounding area of the university.
LESSON-6
3rd FORM (Instrumenta Case)
The 3rd form nouns have such suffixes as ena, -ya, -y, etc., according to their corresponding
Noun Groups (NG). They are often equivalent to with in the Instrumental Case.
Story Background:
When Buddha gave Rhulo, his only son, a talk on how horrible it was to tell a lie, he used
several different analogies. One of them was a military elephant. For a military elephant, the
Buddha said, There is no single part of its body that is not used to defeat its opponent. In the
18
same way, for a liar there is nothing he or she cannot do to meet his or her purpose. Below is the
original passage that mentions how a military elephant works in a battleground:
Ngo pdehi pi, kyena pi, ssena pi, kan n ena pi, dantena pi, nagutthena
pi, son d ya pi
kammam karoti. (Majjhima-pan n sa 70) [Pi here means also.]

The (military) elephant does its work with its feet, with its body, with its head, with its
ear, with its tusks, with its tail, and with its trunk.
Subject
Verb
Object
Instrument
Ngo (elephant)
Karoti (does)
Kamma (job)
Pdehi (with feet), Ssena (with

head), Kan n ena (with ear),
Dantena (with tusk),
nagutthena
(with tail), son dya
(with trunk) [pi means also.]

Column-1: ngo is 1st form with suffix -o in Nominative Case (Subject).
Column-2: karoti has suffix -ti that means the verb is 3rd Person, Singular and Present
Tense.
Column-3: kamma is 2nd form with -a suffix in Accusative Case (Object).
Column-4: All the nouns are 3rd forms in Instrumental Case, but have different suffixes
because they belong to different NGs.
Noun Groups:
Column-1: ngo NG-1

Column-3: kamma NG-2
Column-4: pdehi, ssena, kan n ena, dantena, nagutthena
NG-2; son d ya NG-3.
Some More Exampes of (S.V. O.I.):

The Buddha once said that if people were overwhelmed by unwholesome mental states, they
would oppress each other by all means available. Below are original sentences:
Te aamaa pn hi pi, ledd hi
pi, dan dehi
pi, satthehi pi upakkamanti.
Te ushi pi, sattiy pi aamaa vijjhanti; asin pi ssa chindanti.
They persecute one another with hands, with stones, with sticks and with weapons.
They shoot each other with arrow, spear. They cut each others head with sward.
19
Subject Verb
Object
Instrument
Te
(They)
Upakkamanti
(persecute)
aamaa (each other)
Vijjhanti (shoot)
aamaa (each other)
Chindanti (cut)
Ssa (each others head)
pn hi (with hands)
Led d hi (with stones)
Dan dhehi
(with sticks)
Satthehi (with weapons)

Ushi (with arrows)
Sattiy (with spear)
Asin (with a sward)

Column-1: the word Te is a pronoun, 1st form in Nominative Case (Subject).
Column-2: all the verbs have the suffix -anti that indicates that the verbs are 3rd Persons,
Plural and Present Tense.
Column-3: all nouns are 2nd forms with -a suffix in Accusative Case (Object).
Column-4: all the nouns are 3rd forms in Instrumental Case, but have different suffixes
Noun Groups:
Column-1: te PG-6.
Column-3: aamaa NG-1; ssa NG-2.
Column-4: pn hi, asin NG-13; led d hi NG-0; dan d hehi NG-1; satthehi NG-2; ushi
NG-17; sattiy NG-10.
Story Background:
One day, Ms. Suman, the youngest daughter of Antha-piiko 4, asked the Buddha: Suppose,
there are two persons of similar virtues such as devotion, morality and knowledge, but one is
generous, the other not. Is there any difference between them in their lives after death? As a
result of their virtues, the Buddha answered, they might be reborn to the same blissful realm,
but the generous always excels the ungenerous with five things, such as longevity, beauty, and so
on. Below is the original passage:
Dyako adyaka pacahi thnehi
adhigan hti: yun, van n ena, sukhena, yasena,
dhipateyyena. (Aguttara-2, 27)

A generous one exceeds an ungenerous one with five things: with longevity, with beauty,
with happiness, with popularity, and with power.
4
Anthapiiko is one of the most generous supporters of the Buddha. He is the one who
had a monastery called Jetavana built for the Buddha, and served meal for 2,000 monks
every day.
20
Subject
Verb
Object
Instrument
Dyako (The
generous one)
adhigan hti
(surpasses)
adyaka (the
ungenerous)
pacahi thnehi
(With five things):
yun (with longevity) van n ena

(with beauty) sukhena (with
happiness) yasena (with popularity)
dhipateyyena (with power)

Column-1: the noun is 1st form with -o suffix in Nominative Case (Subject).
Column-2: the verb has suffix -ti that indicates that the verb is 3rd Person, Singular and
Present Tense.
Column-3: the noun is 2nd form with - suffix in Accusative Case (Object).
Column-4: all the nouns are 3rd forms in Instrumental Case, but have different suffixes
because they belong to different NG.
Noun Groups:
Column-1: dyako NG-1

Column-3: adyaka NG-1
Column-4: yasena NG-1; pacahi PG-27; van n ena, thnehi,
sukhena, dipateyyena NG
2; yun NG-18
LESSON-7
3rd FORM (Causative Case)
The 3rd form nouns are sometimes equivalent to because or for in the Causative Case.
Story Background:
A baby boy later known as Ghosako was abandoned by his prostitute mother into a trash on the
day he was born. Fortunately, however, he was taken away by a passerby to adopt. Lucky was his
date of birth on which whoever was born, predicted by a prophet reading the stars shining in the
sky at that moment, would be the richest person of those days. Knowing that prophecy, a rich
merchant bought the baby from the passerby for one thousand rupees. Later, however, the
merchant wanted to dispose of the baby when his wife gave birth to a son. So, the merchant tried
seven times to kill the baby without success. Thus, the poor baby grew up illiterate. In one of the
21
several attempts to get rid of him, the merchant sent him to another city to give one of his
managers a letter that told the manager to kill his adopted son.
Fortunately, however, on his way to that city, Gosako stayed one night at the house of his
adoptive fathers business partner who had a young and pretty daughter. Seeing the boy falling
asleep in the room, the girl fell in love with him at first sight. She saw the letter in his pocket,
and read it out of curiosity. Poor guy, she told to herself. Being illiterate he does not even
know what the letter in his pocket says. So, she rewrote a letter telling the manager to make all
the arrangements for the boy to marry her. To cut the long story short, they got married and
eventually became the richest couple of those days thanks to the girl who played many more
smart tricks on his adoptive father.
Regarding their love at first sight, the Buddha reveals the remote reason on top of the immediate
for one to fall in love with another. Below is the original passage:
Pubbeva sannivsena, paccuppanna-hitena v
Eva ta jyate pema, upala va yathodake.
For having lived together before, and for caring each other in the present,
There arises love like a lily in the water, (which grows depending on water and mud).
Subject
Verb
Causative
Pema (Love)
Jyate (Arises)
Pubbe sannivsena (for having lived together before)

Paccuppanna-hitena (for caring each other at present)

Column-1: the noun is 1st form with - suffix in Nominative Case (Subject).
Column-2: the verb has -te suffix that indicates that the verb is 3 rd Person, Singular and
Present Tense.
Column-3: all nouns are 3rd forms with -ena suffix in Causative Case. But they have
different NG.
Noun Group:
Column-1: pema NG-2
Column-3: pubbe, sannivsena NG-1; paccuppanna, hitena, uppala, udake NG-2.
Beow are some more exampes with their story backgrounds:
During the Buddhas time, there was a monk by the name of Lakun d aka-bhaddiya. He was so
short that young novices often teased at him by pulling his ears, and rubbing his head, and asking
22
embarrassing questions like Are you going to marry, or stay as a monk for life? However, he
was never found to feel angry or humiliated, but always calm and peaceful. Hence, his fellow
monks often talked about him in appreciation of his wonderful personality. Regarding this, the
Buddha said that an arahant (a fully enlightened person) never got negative emotion. His or her
mind is unshakable like a rocky mountain. Below is the original passage:
Selo yath ekagghano vten na samrati
Eva nind-pasashi na samijanti pan d it. (Dham-1, 25)
Just as a solid rocky mountain never shakes because of wind,
So also the wise never shakes because of praise or censure.
Subject
Verb
Causative Case
Ekagghano selo (rocky mountain)

Pan d t (the wise)
Na samrati (never shakes)

Na samijanti (never distress)
Vtena (due to wind)

Nind-pasasahi (due to
praise or censure)

Column-1: All the nouns are 1st forms in Nominative Case (Subject). Both belong to the
same NG, but have -o, and - suffixes that are respectively singular and plural.
Column-2: The verbs have -ti and -anti' suffixes, which means they are 3rd Persons,
Present Tense, and respectively singular and plural.
Column-3: The noun vtena is 3rd form with -ena suffix, and nind-pasashi is 3rd
form (plural) with -hi suffix. Both are in Causative Case.
Noun Groups:
Column-1: selo, ekaggano NG-1

Column-3: vtena NG-1; nind, pasas NG-3.
LESSON-8
3rd FORM (With-Phrase)
The 3rd form nouns are sometimes equivalent to With-Phrases in English.
With-Phrase: 3rd form nouns here are called with-phrase (sahdi-yoga) because they go along
with such clitics as saha, sahdi (together with), samanngato (endowed with), aatra,
nn, vin (without, or except).
23
Story Background:
During the Buddhas time, there were many different diversities of views and believes. Some
religious denominations encouraged people to live a naked life, and others taught people how to
sacrifice animals or even human beings to so-called mighty gods and goddesses. Ganga was
glorified to be the holy river to bathe in for protection and blessing. Deep-seated cast system
caused horrible discrimination in the human society. Thus, people got a lot of dispute and
confusions. Any way, good people went well along with those of good nature, and bad ones with
those of bad nature. The Buddha illustrates this point by analogy with opposite things like urine
vs. honey. Below is the original passage:
Hn-dhimuttik hndhimuttikena saddhi sasandanti. Kalyn a-dhimuttik kalyn dhimuttikena saddhi sasandanti.
Gtho gthena sasandati. Mutta muttena sasandati. Khelo khelena
sasandati.
Pubbo pubbena sasandati. Lohita lohitena sasandati.
Khira khirena sasandati. Tela telena sasandati. Sappi sappin sasandati.
Madhu madhun sasandati. Phn ita phn itena sasandati.
Subject
Verb
Hn-dhimuttik (people Sasandanti

of inferior tendency)
(mix)
Kalyn a-dhimuttik
(people
of
superior
tendency)
Gtho (feces)
Sasandati
(mixes)
Mutta (urine)
Khelo (saliva)
Pubbo (pus)
Lohita (blood)
Khra (milk)
Tela (cooking oil)
Sappi (butter)
Madhu (honey)
Phn iita (molasses)
With-phrase
Hn-dhimuttikena saddhi (with those of
inferior tendency)
Kalyn a-dhimuttikena saddhi (with those
of superior tendency)
Gthena (with feces)
Muttena (with urine)
Khelena
(with saliva)
Pubbena (with pus)
Lohitena (with blood)
Khrena (with milk)
Telena (with cooking oil)
Sappin (with butter)
Madhun (with honey)
Phn itena (with molasses)

Column-1: All the nouns are 1st forms in Nominative Case (Subject), but have different
24
Column-2: The verb suffixes -ti and -anti are 3rd Person, Present Tense, and
respectively Singular and Plural
Column-3: All the nouns are 3rd forms in the case of With-phrase. But they have different
Noun Groups: Column-1: Hn-dhimuttik, kalyn a-dhimuttik, gtho, khelo, pubbo, these five
nouns belong to NG-1; mutta, lohita, khra, tala, phn ita to NG-2; sappi to NG-14;
madhu to NG-18.
Some More Exampes:
Subject
Verb
With-phrase
Aha (I)
Rjino (kings)
Khattiy (sakya people)
Gahapat (house-holders)
Mt (mother)
Putto (son)
Pit (father)
Putto (son)
Bht (brother)
Bht (brother)
Bhagin (sister)
Sahyo (friend)
Na vivadmi (not argue)

Vivadanti (argue)
Lokena (with the world)

Rjhi (with kings)
Khattiyehi (with sakya people)
Gahapathi (with householders)
Puttena (with son)
Mtar (with mother)
Puttena (with son)
Pitar (with father)
Bhtar (with brother)
Bhaginiy (with sister)
Bhtar (with brother)
Sahyena (with friend)
Vivadati (argues)

Column-2: The -mi suffix indicates 1st Person, Singular; the -anti suffix 3rd Person,
Plural; and -ti suffix 3rd Person, Singular. All are Present Tense.
Column-3: All the nouns are 3rd forms in the case of With-phrase. They have different
Noun Groups: Aha belongs to PG-1; rjno to NG-8; khattiy, putto, sahyo to NG-1;
gahapat to NG-13; mt, pit, bht to NG-9; bhagin to NG-21.
Understood: In the above cases, the prepositions saddhi or saha (meaning together with) are
omitted, but understood.
LESSON-9
4th FORM (Dative Case)
25
The 4th form nouns have such suffixes as -ssa, -no, -ya, -y, -na etc., (equivalent to to or
for) according to their corresponding NG. The 4th form nouns by the name of Dative
(sampadna) serve as special objects for certain kinds of verbs (shown in the examples).
Story Background:
Once up on a time Venerable Kassapo5 went out for alms in Rjagaha city right after having
arisen from a seven-day meditative absorption. Donation to such a meditative monk at such a
unique moment is so rewarding that even devas (divine beings) fight over this opportunity. So,
Ven. Kassapo wanted to give this opportunity to someone in need. But the divine king in disguise
of a laborer offered divine food to Ven. Kassapo, and exclaimed with great pleasure Great dna!
Noble dna! I have done to Kassapa. Hearing that, the Buddha uttered the following verse
(Udna-Pl i 111). In this verse, there are seven nouns (underlined) in the 4th form for us to study.
They all have the same functions but belong to different noun group.
Pindaptikassa bhikkhuno
Atta-bharassa anaa-posino
Dev pihayanti tdino
Upasantassa sad satmato
alms-seeker monk
self-sufficient and independent
devas love such a stable one
tranquil and ever mindful
Subject
Verb
Dative
Dev (divine beings)
Pihayanti (love)
Pindaptikassa bhikkhuno (for alms-seeker

monk) Atta-bharassa (for self-sufficient one),
anaa-posino (for independent one), tdino (for
mentally stable one)
Upasantassa (for tranquil oe) sad satmato (for
ever-mindful one)

Column-1: the noun is 1st form with - (plural) suffix in Nominative Case.
Column-2: the verb suffix -anti indicates 3rd Person, Plural, Present Tense.
Column-3: all the nouns are 4th forms in Dative Case. But they have different suffixes
Noun Groups:
Column-1: dev NG-1
Column-3: pin d aptikassa, atta-bharassa, upasantassa NG-1; bhikkhu NG-17; anaaposino, tdino NG-15; satmato NG-5.
5
Kassapo known as Mah-kassapo (Great Kassapo) was the most senior monk who led the
first Buddhist council just one month after the Buddha passed away. In that very council the Pl i
text was recorded.
26
Below are some more verbs that require the special object called Dative:
Subject
Verb
Dative
nando (nando)
Yaso (Yaso)
Aha (I)
Kamma (the action)
Sdhu (delicious food)
Maya (we)
Aha (I)
Paccassosi (Replied)
Kathesi (tell)
Namo (pay homage)
Khamati (is agreeable)
Ruccati (is satisfying)
Dassma (will offer)
mantaymi (will talk)
Bhagavato (to the Buddha)

Mt-pitna (to Parents)
Bhagavato (to the Buddha)
Saghassa (to the sangha)
Sabbesa (to everybody)
Dasanna (to ten peoples)
Vo (to you)

Column-1: All the nouns are 1st forms in Nominative Case (Subject), but they have
different suffixes because they belong to different NGs/ PGs.
Column-2: There are verbs of different tenses and persons. Paccassosi and Kathesi have
(-) suffix, 3rd Person, Singular, Past Tense. Namo is what is called Nipta. Khamati and
ruccati have -ti suffix, 3rd Person, Singular, Present Tense. Dassma has -ma suffix, 1st
Person, Plural, and Present Tense. mantaymi has -mi suffix, 1st Person, Singular, and
Present Tense.
Column-3: All the nouns are 4th forms in Dative Case. But they have different suffixes
Noun Groups:
Column-1: nando, Yaso, NG-1; aha, maya PG-1; kamma NG-2; sdhu NG-17.
Column-3: saghassa, NG-1; bhagavato NG-5; sabbesa PG-29; dasanna PG-27;
vo PG-2.
Subject + Verb + Object + Dative
(S + V + O + D)
Subject
Verb
Object
Dative
Smvat (Lady
Smvat)
Pan d ito (a wise)
Sahayo (friend)
Tva (you)
Aha (I)
Ekacco (some)
Tumhe (you)
Deti (gives)
Ovda
(admonishment)
Magga (path)
Guyha (secret)
Kopa (anger)
Patti (share)
sana (seat)
Iddhi (psychic
power)
Itthina (to women)
cikkheyya (can tell)

cikkheyya (may tell)
M karittha (dont show)
Dammi (give)
Deti (gives)
M dassetha (should not
show)
Mlhassa
(to a ditherer)
Sahyassa (to a friend)

Kassa-ci (to anybody)
Te (to you)
Saman na (to monks)
Gihna (to lay people)
27

Column-1: All the nouns and pronons are 1st forms in Nominative Case (Subject), but
have different suffixes because they belong to different NGs/ PGs.
Column-2: Verbs are special verbs that require the 4th form nouns in Dative Case. They
have different suffixes such as -ti, -eyya, -ttha, -mi, -ti, -etha because they have different
Persons and belong to different Verb Groups which we will study later.
Column-3: All the nouns are 2nd forms with - in Accusative Case.
Column-4: All the nouns are 4th forms in Dative Case. But they have different suffixes
Noun Groups:
Column-1: Smvat (name of a lady) NG-3. Pan dito,

sahyo, ekacco NG-1. Aha PG1. Tva, tumhe PG-2.
Column-3: ovda, magga NG-1. Guyha, kopa, sana NG-2. Patti, iddhi
NG-10.
Column-4: itthna NG-21. Mlhassa, sahyassa, saman na NG-1. Kassaci PG-18;
te PG-2. Gihna NG-15.
LESSON-10
4th FORM (Purpose Case)

The 4th form nouns are also used in Purpose Case. In this case they have the particular suffix ya no matter whatever NG they belong to. -ya is equivalent to for or for the sake of.
Story Background:
A few months after Buddha was utterly self-enlightened, he got sixty monks 6 who had renounced
worldly life and practiced under his guidance until they had been fully enlightened. Having had
no attachment to anything or anybody in the world, they owned nothing except one set of robe
and an alms-bowl each. The ground was their bed; the sky was their roof; the whole world served
as their home. Thus, they had nothing or nobody to worry about, or to be jealous of. Thus, they
were no longer liable to suffer in the cycle of rebirths. To share such sublime freedom with
others, the Buddha instructed his monks to take a missionary tour. Below is the original passage:
Caratha bhikkhave crika bahu-jana-hitya, bahu-jana-sukhya, lok-nukampya,
atthya, hitya, sukhya deva-manussna.
6
Seven weeks after Buddha had been fully enlightened, he left for Deer Park, Baran as about
three hundred miles from Bodh Gaya. He taught the group of five hermits there, and then
Youth Yasa and his 54 friends until they were all fully enlightened. So, there were 60 arahats
when he first instructed his monks to take a missionary tour.
28
Monks, take a missionary tour for peoples welfare, for peoples happiness, for caring the
world, and for the interests, wellbeing and delight of human and divine beings.
Subject
Verb
Object
Purpose
Tumhe (you)
Caratha (take)
Crika
(missionary
toury)
Bahu-jana-hitya (for peoples welfare)

Bahu-jana-sukhya (for peoples delight)
Loknukampya (for caring the world)
Atthya (for the interests)
Hitya (for the wellbeing)
Sukhya (for the happiness)
Deva-manussna (of human and divine)

Column-1: Tumhe (you) is a pronoun, 1st form in Nominative Case (Subject).
Column-2: The verb Caratha has -tha suffix that means the verb is 2 nd Person, Plural,
Present Tense.
Column-3: Crika is 2nd form with -a suffix in Accusative Case (Object).
Column-4: All the nouns are 4th forms in Purpose Case. They belong to different NGs,
but have same suffix -ya which is, Pi Grammar says, transformed from the 4th form
suffixes such as -ssa, -ya, -y, etc.
Noun Groups:
Column-1: tumhe PG-2.
Column-3: crika NG-2
Column-4: All the nouns in the column-w are NG-2 except atthya and devamanussna that belong to NG-1.
Some More Exampes of Purpose
The Buddha himself spent 45 years going missionary tours around today geographical region
that includes India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh. He taught Three Trainings, namely,
morality, concentration and wisdom. Regarding wisdom training, he taught how to practice
Insight Meditation by establishing mindfulness on four objects. Development of mindfulness is,
he said, sure way for purifying beings of mental defilements, for overcoming worry and anxiety,
for putting an end to mental and physical distress, for attaining insight knowledge, and for
experiencing the ultimate peacefulness of nibbna. Below is the original passage:
29
Ekyano aya bhikkhave maggo sattna visuddhiy, soka-paridevna

samatikkamya, dukkha-domanassna atthagamya, yassa adhigamya,
nibbnassa sacchi-karan atthya.
Oh monks, this is the sure way (1) for purifying beings of mental defilements, (2) for
overcoming worry and anxiety, (3) for putting an end to the mental and physical distress,
(4) for attainment of insights, and (5) for experiencing the nibbna.
Subject
Verb
Compement
Aya maggo
(This way)
Hoti (is)
Ekyano (the sure route)
Purpose
1. Sattna visuddhiy
2. Soka-paridevna
samatikkamya
3. Dukkha-domanassna
atthagamya
4. yassa adhigamya
5. Nibbnassa sacchikaran atthya

Column-1: Aya is a pronoun, and maggo is a noun. They both are 1st forms in
Nominative Case (Subject).
Column-2: The -ti suffix indicates that the verb is 3rd Person, Singular, Present.
Column-3: Ekyano is 1st form with -o suffix in Complement Case.
Column-4: All the nouns are 4th forms with -ya suffix in Purpose Case.
Noun Groups: Aya belong to PG-5; maggo, ekyano, sattna, soka-paridevena,
samatikkamya, atthagamya, yassa, adhigamya NG-1; visuddiy NG-10; dukkhadomanassna, nibbnassa, sacchikriyya NG-2.
LESSON-11
5th FORM (Abative Case)
The 5th form nouns have such suffixes as -to, -, -sm, -hi, -bhi, etc., according to corresponding
NGs. They are equivalent to from in the Ablative Case (Starting/ Departing Point).
Story Background:
30
One day, Visk7 with tear in her eyes visited the Buddha who asked why she looked so sad.
Venerable Sir, she replied to the Buddha, My beloved granddaughter, Sudatt, passed away
last night. She was a wonderful girl who took great care of everything for me. I love her so much
that I cant replace her with anyone at all. Then, the Buddha asked her, What is the population
of Svatthi city? Seven millions, sir, she answered. If they all were as wonderful as your
granddaughter, you would love them all, wouldnt you? Yes, sir, she replied. How many
people, do you think, die every day in Svatthi? asked the Buddha. So many, sir, she replied.
Then, it would not be possible for you to get freed from sorrow even for a single moment. You
would have to spend all days and nights crying ceaselessly. And then, the Buddha concluded his
talk with the following motto.
Pemato jyati soko. Pemato jyati bhaya
Pemato vippamuttassa natthi soko kuto bhaya.
From love arises worry. From love arises danger.
For the one freed from love there is no worry. Where the danger from!
[Here, love means self-centered love but not unconditional love, metta.]
Subject
Verb
Abative
Soko (worry)
Bhaya (danger)
Bhaya (danger)
Jyati (arises)
Pemato (from love)

Pemato (from love)
Kuto (from where)
Suffix -to: The suffix -to in the 3rd column is equivalent to from in the case of Starting Point.
This -to suffix, the grammar says, is transformed from normal 5 th form suffixes such as -sm,
-mh, -y, -hi, -bhi, etc. [The suffix (-to) should be pronounced as go.]
Column-2: The -ti suffix indicates that the verb is 1st Person, Singular, and Present
Tense.
Column-3: All the nouns are 5th forms with -to suffix in Ablative Case.
Noun Groups: soko, vipamuttassa belong to NG-1; bhaya, piyato NG-2; kuto PG-15.
Some More Exampes:
7
Viskh was one of the most dedicated female devotees of the Buddha. She had
Pupphrma monastery built for the Buddha in the east of Svatthi city, in which the Buddha
spent six rains.
31
The noble disciples (enlighteners) are rather believed to naturally observe Eight Precepts (instead
of Five Precepts) with reference to the Pi tax, Vibha~ga (111) that says as follows:
Ariya-svako pn tipt viramati
Ariya-svako adinndn viramati.
Ariya-svako kmesu micchcr viramati.
Ariya-svako mus-vv viramati.
Ariya-svako pisun ya vcya viramati.
Ariya-svako pharusya vcya viramati.
Ariya-svako samphappalp viramati.
Ariya-svako micch-jv viramati.
Subject
Verb
Ariya-savako (a Viramati (refrains)

noble disciple)
A noble disciple refrains from killing.

A noble disciple refrains from stealing.
A noble disciple refrains from sexual misconduct.
A noble disciple refrains from telling a lie.
A noble disciple refrains from slandering.
A noble disciple refrains from harsh word.
A noble disciple refrains from frivolous speech.
A noble disciple refrains from evil livelihood.
Abative
Pn tipt (from killing)
Adinnadn (from stealing)
Kmesu micch-cr (from sexual misconduct)
Mus-vd ( from telling a lie)
Pisun ya vcya (from slandering)
Pharusya vcya (from harsh word)
Samphappalp (from frivolous speech)
Micch-jv (from wrong livelihood)

Column-1: Ariya-svako is 1st form with -o suffix in Nominative Case (Subject).
Column-2: -ti suffix means the verb is 3rd Person, Singular, and Present.
Column-3: All the nouns are 5th forms with different suffixes in Ablative Case.
Noun Groups: ariya-svako, pan tipt, kmesu belong to NG-1; adinndn, micchcr,
samphappalp, micchjv NG-2, Mus vd, pisun ya vcya, pharusya NG-3.
Some More Exampes:
There are certain kinds of verbs that require this Starting Point. Below are some of them in bold:
Saman gm apeti.
Monks go away from the village.
Mt-pithi antaradhyati putto
A son hides (himself) from his parents.
Viskh Sketa-nagar nigacchati.
Viskh goes out of Sketa-city.
Drako rukkh patati.
A boy falls from the tree.
Buddho Tvatis orohati.
The Buddha descends from Tvatis.
Pan dit
Wise people stay away from evil.
pp uttasanti.
Mah-nadyo Himavat pabhavanti.
Great rivers originate from the Himalayas.
Aha pn tipt virammi.
I refrain from killing.
32
Gmo nagarasm yojana dro.

Gmo nagarasm sanno.
The village (is) one yojana far from city.

The village (is) near to the city.
Subject
Verb
Abative
Saman (monks)
Putto (son)
Viskh (Lady Viskh)
Drako (a boy)
Buddho (Buddha)
Pan d it (the wise)
Mah-nadyo (Great rivers)
Gmo (the village)
Apenti (go away)

Antaradhyati (hides)
Niggacchati (goes out)
Patati (falls down)
Orohati (descends)
Uttasanti (stay away)
Pabhavanti (start to arise)
Dro (far)/ sanno (near)
Gm (from the village)

Mt-pithi (from parents)
Sket (from the Sketa city)
Rukkh (from the tree)
Tvatis (from Tvatis)
Pp (from evil)
Himavat (from the Himalayas)
Nagar (from the city)

Column-2: The verbs have -ti suffix that means that they are 3 rd Person, Singular, and
Present Tense. And dro and sanno are nouns, but serve as verbs here.
Column-3: All the nouns are 5th forms with different suffixes in Ablative Case. Here, -
suffixes are, the Pl i grammar says, transformed from the normal 5th form suffix -sm.
Noun Groups:
Column-1: saman , putto, drako, buddho, gmo belong to NG-1.
Column-3: rukkho NG-1; Sket, pp, nagar NG-2; tvatis NG-2; Mt-pithi NG9; himavat NG-5.
LESSON-12
6th FORM (Possessive Case)
The 6th form nouns have such suffixes as -ssa, -ya, -ya, -y, -na, etc., according to
corresponding NGs. They are equivalent to of, -s, etc., in Possessive Case.
Story Background:
When the Buddha dwelt in Svatthi city, a monk named Ludy was so careless that he
often gave people wrong talks. On a funeral ceremony, for example, he would give a talk on 38
kinds of blessing, and on a wedding ceremony a talk on what a dead person usually expects from
us. He was still careless even when he became older. In this regard, the Buddha said: Being illinformed one gets old like a cow that builds up muscles, but not knowledge.
33
Masni tassa vudd hanti.
Pa tassa na vadd hati.
His muscles build up.

His wisdom does not build up. (Dhammapada-2, 79)
Possessive
Subject
Verb
Tassa (His)
Tassa (His)
Masni (Muscles)
Pa (Knowledge)
Vadd hanti
(Build up)
Na vad d hati (Does not build up)

Column-1: tassa is a pronoun, 6th form in Possessive Case.
Column-2: masni and pa are 1st forms in Nominative Case. They have different
suffixes because they eblong to different NGs.
Column-3: Verbs have -ti suffix that means they are 3rd Person, Singular, and Present
Tense.
Noun Groups:
Column-1: tassa belongs to PG-6.
Column-2: Masni NG-2; Pa NG-3.
(S. V. P. O.)
Story Background:
One day, the Buddha was giving a Dhamma talk to a lady in appreciation of her offering of lunch
to the monks. Then, her adopted son named Pveyyo and his friends of other religious
denomination came in and scolded the lady in front of the Buddha for her devotion to his
Holiness. The Buddha was as calm as always, but the lady was so humiliated and so agitated that
she could no longer pay attention to the Buddhas talk. Knowing the situation Buddha said that
one should only mind ones own business by considering how one spends ones days and nights,
but not others business, and what they did or did not. Below is the original passage:
Na paresa vilomni,
na paresa katkata
Attanova avekkheyya
Katni akatni ca
Not others misconducts

Not others (business) done or not done
But mind ones own (business)
Done or not done (Dhammapasa-1, 239)
Subject
Verb
Possessive
Object
Pan d ito (A wise

one)
Na Avekkheyya (should not

consider)
Paresa (others)
Avekkheyya (should
Attanova ( ones
Vilomni (mistakes)
Katkata (what
done or not done)
Katni akatni (done
34
consider)
own)
or not done)

Column-1: Pan dito
is 1st form with -o suffix in Nominative Case (Subject).
Column-2: The verb avekkheyya has -eyya suffix that means the verb is 3rd Person,
Singular and Tense-free (kla-vimutta).
Column-3: Paresa is a pronoun, and attano is a noun. Both are 6th form in
Possessive Case.
Column-4: All the nouns are 2nd forms with -ni and -a suffixes in Accusative Case.
Noun Groups:
C-1: puriso belong to NG-1.
C-3: paresa PG-12; Attano NG-8.
C-4: vilomni, katkata, katni akatni NG-2.
Some More Exampes in Possessive Case:
Below are sentences which Pl i scholers often quote or use as proverbs. The words underlined
show the nouns in Possessive Case.
Sukh saghassa smagg

Sukho Buddhana uppdo
Sukho puassa uccayo
Dukkho ppassa uccayo
Kiccha maccna jvita
Kiccho buddhana uppdo
Pamdo maccuno pada
Mala van n assa kosajja
Pleasant (is) sanghas unity. (Dham-2, 162)

Pleasant (is) emergence of Buddhas.
Pleasant (is) growth of merit.
Painful (is) growth of demerit.
Rare (is) beings life (Dham-2, 152)
Rare (is) Buddhas emergence.
Ignorance (is) cause of death.
Laziness (is) defect of (ones) look.
Noun Groups: Among the nouns in Possessive Case mentioned above, saghass, Buddhna,
maccna, buddhna belong to NG-1; puassa, ppassa, van n assa NG-2; maccuno NG-17.
LESSON-13
7 FORM (Locative Case)
th
The 7th form nouns have such suffixes as -smi, -mhi, -e, -y, -ya, -su, etc., according to
corresponding NG. They are equivalent to in, on, at, while, when, by, because of, among, etc., in
the Locative Case.
Story Background:
35
In a shipwreck, a sailor named Bhiya managed to swim clinging onto a piece of driftwood and
washing ashore at a harbor called Suppraka (near Bombay, India). Being naked, he covered
himself with dried sticks, and wandered around (for alms) with a bowl he took from a spirit
house. His strange appearance made the people of those days think he was someone holy. So, the
people honored him and he thus enjoyed the fruits of their false impression.
Later, however, he was informed by a deva about the Buddhas appearance in Savatthi, more
than one thousand kilometer away from the Suppraka harbor. Having been very excited to see
the Buddha, he rushed to there right away, and met the Buddha on his alms round in Savatthi
city. Right on the street, he humbly requested the Buddha teach him how to reach liberation.
Then the Buddha gave him a very brief but very profound talk, one of the most well-known ones
in the Buddhist texts. In this Sutta, there are four 7th forms (underlined) for us to study.
Tasmtiha te, Bhiya, eva sikkhitabba:
So, Bhiya, you should practice this way:
ditthe
bhavissati:
dittha-matta
sute suta-matta bhavissati:
On seeing, there would be just seeing.

On hearing, there would be just hearing.
mute muta-matta bhavissati:
On experiencing, there would be just experiencing.
Vite vita-matta bhavissati: On perceiving, there would be just perceiving.
Locative
Verb
Subject
Ditthe
(on seeing)
Bhavissati (there would be)
Dittha-matta
(just seeing)
Sute (on hearing)
Suta-matta (just hearing)
Mute (on experiencing)
Muta-matta (just experiencing)
Vite (on perceiving)
Vita-matta (just perceiving)
Column-1: ditthe,
sute, mute, vite are 7th form with -e suffix in Locative Case.
Column-2: bhavissati has -ssati suffix that means the verb is 3rd Person, Singular and
Future Tense.
Columa-3: All the nouns are 1st forms with - suffix in Nominative Case (Subject)
Noun Groups: All the nouns in column 1 and 3 belong to NG-2.
36
According to the Pl i grammar, these sentences can be translated in several ways because:
1. The words, ditthe,
sute, etc., can be active or passive, and their suffix e is equivalent to
8
on/ when . So, they can be translated on seeing in an active sense, or on being
seen, or whatever is seen in a passive sense. The same is true with hearing, etc.
2. The word matta has two meanings: just and that moment, and its suffix - is
equivalent to for. So, the words, dittha-matta
, etc., can be translated as just seeing,
or (for/ at) that moment of seeing.

3. The verb bhavissati can be translated as there would be or let it be.
BAHIYA SUTTA
Tasmtiha te, Bhiya, eva sikkhitabba. Ditthe
bhavaissati; sute suta dittha-matta
matta bhavissati; mute muta-matta bhavasati; vite vita-maatta bhavissati.

Yato kho te Bhiya ditthe
bhavissati, --, tato tva Bhiya na tena. Yato
dittha-mattam
tva Bhiya na tena, tato tva Bhiya na tattha. Yato tva Bhiya na tattha, tato
tva Bhiya nevidha, na hura, na ubhayamantarena. Esevanto dukkhassa
Transation-1: Thus, Bhiya, you should practice this way: On seeing, that would be just
seeing. On hearing, that would be just hearing. On experiencing, that would be just
experiencing. On perceiving, that would be just perceiving.
Transation-2: Thus, Bhiya, you should practice this way: Whatever is seen, that would
be that seeing moment. Whatever heard, that would be that hearing moment. Whatever
experienced, that would be that experiencing moment. Whatever perceived, that would be
that perceiving moment. [Here, the verb bhavissati is translated as would be; and
matta as moment.]
Transation-3: Thus, Bhiya, you should practice this way: Whatever is seen, let it be
just as it is. Whatever is heard, let it be just as it is. Whatever is experienced, let it be just
as it is. Whatever is perceived, let it be just as it is. [Here, the verb bhavissati is
translated as let (it) be, and matta as just as.]
When you practice that way, Bhiya, you will be no longer with them. When you are no
longer with them, you will be no longer there. Then, Bhiya, you will be no longer over
here, no longer over there, no longer anywhere else. Thats the end of suffering.
The 7th form (the suffix e here) normally indicates Occasion (kal-dhara), Location
(des-dhara), or Domain (visay-dhara). So, the words, ditthe,
sute, etc. can be
translated as: On / when seeing (occasion), or In the case of seeing (domain).
37
LESSON-14
7TH FORM (Time Adverb Cause)
Story Background:
One day, Buddha stopped by a jungle on his way back from Brn as to Gaya area, and sat under
a tree for a while. Then, thirty young men of royal family approached him and asked whether he
had seen a young woman around. They were there on vocation having a good time with their
beloved wives. They brought with them a prostitute for a brother of theirs, as he had no wife.
They told Buddha that she took their valuable things away while they were relaxing. Below is
the original passage:
S ves amhesu pamattesu bhan d a dya palyittha.
That prostitute ran away taking our belongings when/ while we were careless.
Syntax In Engish
Subject
Verb
Pharase
Time Adverb Cause
S ves (that
prostitute)
palyittha (ran
away)
bhan d a dya (taking

our belongings)
amhesu pamattesu (When

we were careless)
Column-1: S (that) ves (prostitute) respectively belong to PG-8, and NG-21.

Column-2: The suffix ttha verifies that palyittha is 3rd person, singular and past tense.
Column-3: Bhan da
(belonging) dya (taking) is the adverb phrase.
Column-4: Amhesu pamattesu is the adverb clause which modifies the verb to verify
what time the main verb (an action of running away) took place. So, the suffix -su of
the participle is equivalent to when. The clause like this mainly includes a participle
and its subject which both take 7th form, and agree in number and gender. [A participle is
a verbal noun that serves both as a verb and as a noun, too. For details, see Lesson 23.]
Beow Are Some More Exampes:
Bodhi-satte jyamne mt pamodati

Bhikkhsu bhuttesu puriso pacch-gacchati
Tasmi pabbajite bhatta-patipt
i khyittha
Upajjhyamhi vutthite
sana
uddharitabba
Mayi sammukhi-bhte sagho m bhijji

Vinaye avinatthamhi
puna titthati
ssana
38
Time Adverb Cause
Subject
Verb
Bodhi-satte jyamne (when would-be Buddha

was born)
Mt (Mother)
Pamodati (delights)
Bhikkhsu bhuttesu (when monks have eaten)
Puriso (a man)
Pacch-gacchati
(comes back)
Tasmi pabbajite (when he ordained)
Bhatta-patipt
i
(food-allotment)
Khyittha (was gone)
Upajjhyamhi vutthite
(when the guiding teacher
gets up)
sana (the seat)
Uddharitabba
(should be kept away)
Mayi sammukh-bhte (when I am present)
Sagho (sangha)
M bhijji (let not

break)
Vinaye avinatthamhi
(when vinaya is not ruined)
Ssana (sasan)
Puna titthati
(recuperate)
LESSON 15
VERB FORMS
96 Forms of a Verb:
Technically, a verb is modified by 96 suffixes (khyta-vibhatti) that are classified into eight
groups according to their tenses and expressions. Each group includes 12 suffixes because a verb
39
has three Persons, two Numbers, and two Voices. So, technically, every verb has 96 forms
although they all may not be in use.
The Suffix Groups have official names such as Vattamna, etc., but will be called here as S-1, S2, etc., by their serial numbers to make them easy to remember.
VERB FORM-1 (V-1)

In V-1 case, a verb is modified by 12 suffixes called Vattamna (mentioned below) according
to three Persons, two Numbers and two Voices9. They are used in Simple Present Tense10 .
-mi, -ma; -si, -tha; -ti, -anti

-e, -mhe; -se, vhe; -te, -ante
Among these 12 suffixes, the first six are generally used in the active voice, and the second six in
the passive. Again, the first two suffixes (in both voices) are for the 1 st person (I, we), the second
two for the 2nd person, (you), and the last two are for the 3 rd person (that includes all the nouns
and pronouns other than I, we, and you).
Story Background:
Under the sword of the executioner on the burial ground, Temiyo, a young and handsome prince,
confided that he pretended to be a disabled mute because he, having the painful memory of his
past life in the hell due to misdeeds he had done as a king before, wanted to renounce worldly
life. Thus, he made his father feel so ashamed of him that the executioner was ordered to get rid
of him on the burial ground. Fortunately, the executioner let him go into the forest where he
spent the rest of his life having become accomplished in loving kindness meditation (metta).
Later the king visited his son in the forest, and was very impressed with his peaceful, demeanor
and clear and radiant complexion. The king then asked his son why his son became even more
handsome in the forest than in the royal palace where hundreds of attendants waited on him with
9
Unique to Pl i is functionalvoice (bhva), which indicates only action, but not action-doer or
action-receiver. Therefore, it has only one form, similar to the 3 rd singular form of the passive
forms. This type of verb form is not mentioned here as it is rarely used.
10
Actually, a verb in the V-1 case can express several kinds of present tenses as follows:
Ever-present (nicca-pavatti vattamna)

Ongoing present (suddha vattamna)
Narrative present (ta-kl-pekkha vattamna)
Near-future or near-past present (sampa vattamna), and so on.
40
luxurious things. The prince replied with the following verse in which we can study four verbs of
V-1 form:
Atta nnusocmi,
na pajappmi ngata
Paccuppannena ypemi
tena van n o pasdati
I dont regret for the past

I dont expect for the future
Im just content with the present
So, my skin is so brilliant.
In the above verse there are four verbs (in bold) of V-1 form. For the first three there is no
subject, but their suffix (-mi) undoubtedly indicates their subject (aha = I).
(S. V. O.)
Subject
Aha (I)
Verb
nnusocmi (dont regret)
Object
atta (for the past)
na pajappmi (dont expect)
angata (for the future)
Verb
Ypemi (am content)
Instrument
paccuppannena (with the
present).
Subject
Van n o (my skin)
Verb
pasdati (is so brilliant).
(S. V. I.)
Subject
Aha (I)
(R. S. V.)
Reason
Tena (So)
Noun Groups: atta, angata, paccuppannena, van n o, these four nouns all belong to
(NG.1); tena to (PG.6).
Verb Form: A verb must agree with its subjects in terms of Person and Number. So the verb
nnusocmi (na + anusocmi) has six forms as follow:
Aha nnusocmi atta

Maya nnusocma atta
I dont regret for the past.

We dont regret for the past.
41
Tva nnusocasi atta
You dont regret for the past.
Tumhe nnusocatha atta
You dont regret for the past.
Temiyo nnusocati atta
Temiyo doesnt regret for the past.
Temiy nnusocanti atta
They dont regret for the past.
Below are two remaining verbs with six forms each:
Pajappmi, pajappma; pajassasi, pajassathat; pajassati, pajassanti
Ypemi, ypema; ypesi, ypetha; ypeti, yapenti
LESSON-16
VERB FORM-2 (V-2)
In V-2 case, a verb is modified by 12 suffixes called Pacam (mentioned below) according to
three person, two numbers and two voices. They express permission, agreement, request,
wishing, etc. Their English counterparts are would, should, can, could, may, might.
-mi, -ma; -hi, -tha; -tu, -antu,

-e, -mase; -ssu, vho; -ta, -anta
Story Background:
King Mahindo, the father of Phussa Buddha 11, served meals to his son Buddha and all his monks
and nuns every day. One day, the king was so pleased with his three sons for having defeated the
rebellion in the border area that he promised them a reward of any kind. Then, they requested the
king an opportunity to serve meals to their brother Buddha. Initially their request was rejected,
but they later could successfully negotiate with the king. Below is the authentic passage of their
negotiation where we can study three verbs of V-2 form.
Hotu Deva. Ekakassa no ekeka msa katv tayo mse dethti. Sdhu, tta.
Thena hi tayo mse bhojethti. (Dhammapada Th-64)
11
Regarding Phussa Buddha, in some cases Buddha means any one who is supremely selfenlightened, but not necessarily the historical Buddha. According to Pl i text, there were countless Buddhas in the
past in countless universes, and so will they in the future. In this universe alone there were four Buddhas including
our Buddha who was known as Gotama Buddha in history. The last Buddha in this universe will be Arimetteyya
Buddha.
42
Let it be, your Majesty. Could your Majesty grant (us) three months getting one month
for each of us? Alright, my dear sons, then, serve (the Buddha) for three months.
Below is word-by-word translation and grammatical notes:
Hotu (Let it be) Deva (your Majesty). [Hotu is a verb of V-2 form, and its suffix -tu,
expresses agreement, anumati.]
Tayo mse (three months) detha (Could kindly give). [Detha is a verb of V-2 form, and
its suffix -tha expresses request, ajjhittha.]
Thena hi (then) tayo mse (three months) bhojetha (serve). [Bhojetha is a verb of V-2
form, and its suffix -tha expresses permission, anumati.]
Syntax in Engish
Subject
Tumhe (you) [understood]
Tumhe (you) [understood]
Verb
Detha (could kindly grant)
Bhojetha (serve)
Object
Tayo mse (three months)
Buddha (Buddha)
Agreement between subject and verb:
Aha tayo mse demi.

Maya tayo mse dema.
Tva tayo mse dehi.
Tumhe tayo mse detha.
Devo tayo mse detu.
Dev tayo mse dentu.
I grant (you) three months.

We grant (you) three months.
You grant (us) three months.
You grant (us) three months.
The king grants us three months.
Kings grant us three months.
Wishing: We use a verb of V-2 form to express a wish for oneself or someone else. When we
develop loving kindness (metta), for example, we should first wish ourselves happiness so that
we can arouse sympathetic feeling that helps facilitate metta for others. Below is metta chanting
in which we can find verbs of V-2 form.
Aha avero homi; abypajjo homi; angho homi; sukh attna pariharmi.
May I be unharmed; unworried; unhurt; and able to take care of myself happily.
Agreement between subjects and verbs
Aha avero homi

Maya aver homa
Tva avero hohi
Tumhe aver hotha
So avero hotu
Te aver hontu
May I be unharmed
May we be unharmed
May you be unharmed
May you be unharmed
May he be unharmed
May they be unharmed
43
Aha sukh attna pariharmi. May I be able to take care of myself happily
Maya sukh attna pariharma. May we be able to take care of ourselves happily
Tva sukh attna pariharhi. May you be able to take care of yourself happily
Tumhe sukh attna pariharatha. May you be able to take care of yourself happily
So sukh attna pariharatu.
May he be able to take care of himself happily
Te sukh attna pariharantu.
May they be able to take care of themselves happily
LESSON 17
VERB FORM-3 (V-3)
In V-3 case, a verb is modified by 12 suffixes called Sattam (mentioned below) according to
three persons, two numbers and two voices. They express permission, guessing, or suggestion,
etc. Their English counterparts include would, should, can, could, may, might.
-eyymi, -eyyma; -eyysi, -eyytha; -eyya, -eyyu

-eyya, -eyymhe; -etho, -eyyvho; -etha, -era
Story Background:
During the grand opening ceremony of a royal palace, Prince Bodhi humbly requested the
Buddha to step over the staircase. But, Buddha declined the request because he knew the princes
motive. So, Rev. Ananda, having known the situation, asked the prince to take off the white cloth
that covered the stairs. Only then, did the Buddha step over the staircase. If Buddha stepped over
the stairs covered with the white cloth, that would mean a great omen for the prince to have son
or daughter. The prince was destined to have no child because of his past evil action (kamma). In
one of his past lives the prince as a sole survivor of a ship crash killed and eaten young birds and
egges on an island. Below is the verse the Buddha uttered referring the princes kamma:
Attnace piya ja (jneyya)

Rakkheyya na surakkhita
Tin n a aatara yma
patijaggeyya
pan dito.
If one knew oneself to be preciouse

one should gurard oneself with care.
In any of the three periods
The sage should watch over (himself).
In this verse, there are three verbs of V-3 form with suffix -eyya that is equivalent to should:
ja (jneyya), rakkheyya, patijaggeyya.
[According to the grammar, ja is transformed
from jneyya.]
ja (jneyya) (if knew) expresses logical thinking (parikappa)

rakkheyya (should guard) expresses worth doing (araha)
44
patijaggeyya
(should watch over) expresses worth doing (araha)
Subject
Yo (one)
Verb
Ce ja (If new)
Object
Attna (oneself)
So (he)
Rakkheyya (should
guard)
Patijaggeyya
(should
watch over)
Na (himself)
Pan d ito (the sage)
Na (himself)
Adverb
Piya (to be
precious)
Surakkhita (with
care)
Tin n a aatara
yma (in any of the
three periods).
Noun Groups: attna belong to (NG-8); piya (NG-1); na, so (PG-6); yo (PG-12); surakkhita (NG-2) All the adverbs are regarded as neutral in gender.
Agreement between Subjects and Verbs
Aha attna jneyymi

Maya attna jneyyma
Tva attna jneyysi
Tumhe attna jneyytha
So attna jneyya
Te attna jneyyu
I should know myself

we may know ourselves
you should know yourself
you should know yourselves
he should know himself
they should know themselves
Aha attna rakkheyymi

Maya attna rakkheyyma
Tva attna rakkheyyasi
Tumhe attna rakkheyytha
So attna rakkheyya
Te attna rakkheyyu
I should guard myself

we should guard ourselves
you should guard yourself
you should guard yourselves
he should guard himself
they should guard themselves
Aha attna Patijaggeyymi
Maya attna Patijaggeyyma
Tva attna Patijaggeyysi
Tumhe attna Patijaggeyytha
So attna Patijaggeyya
Te attna Patijaggeyyu
I should watch over myself

we should watch over ourselves
you should watch over yourself
you should watch over yourselves
he should watch over himself
they should watch over themselves
45
Nipta: ce / sace = if
LESSON 18
VERB FORM-4 (V-4)
In V-4 case, a verb is modified by 12 suffixes called Parokkh (mentioned below) according to
three persons, two numbers and two voices. They express hearsay or something hard to believe.
They have no direct English counterpart.
-a, -mha; -e, -ttha; -a, -u

-i, -mhe; -ttho, -vho; -ttha, -re,
Verbs of V-4 form are rarely found in the Pl i. However, two verbs ha (he said) and hu (they
said) are very commonly used in the Pl i text. Below are examples given by Pl i grammar,
which express hearsay:
So kira rj babhva
Aha kira amacco babhva
Maya kira orodh babhvimha
Supine ha kira
It is said he had been a king.

It is said I had been a minister.
It is said we had been royal maids.
It is said (he) had spoken it in the dream.
Eva kira porn hu
It is said the old sages had thus spoken.
VERB FORM-5 (V-5)

In V-5 case, a verb is modified by 12 suffixes called Hiyyattan (mentioned below) according to
three persons, two numbers and two voices. They are used in Simple Past Tense, Their English
counterpart is -ed suffix.
-a, -mh; -o, -ttha; -, -

-i, -mhase; -se, -vha; -ttha, -tthu
VERB FORM-6 (V-6)
In V-6 case, a verb is modified by 12 suffixes called Ajjattan (mentioned below) according to
three persons, two numbers and two voices. They are used in Simple Past Tense. Their English
counterpart is -ed suffix. So, in the Simple Past Tense a verb can be either V-5 or 6.
-i, -mh; - o, -ttha; - , -u

-a, -mhe; -se, -vha; -, -
46
Story Background:
Tisso, Buddhas cousin, recently joined the Holy Order. As a former prince, he was well-fed and
well-dressed, and often sat in the center of the monastery. So, many visiting monks were so
impressed by his appearance that they thought he was senior to them and paid respect to him.
One day, however, his false impression was revealed and he got scolded by a monk. Then, the
Buddha asked him to apologize the senior monks for his misbehavior, but he refused because, he
said, he got already scolded and humiliated by those monks. Then, the Buddha admonished him
with the following verse:
Akkocchi ma, Avadhi ma, Ajini ma, Ahshi me.

Ye ca ta upanayhanti, vera tesa na sammati.
(They) scolded me, attacked me, defeated me, took mine away!
Whoever thus takes it (revenge), their hatred never ends.

Object
Subject
Verb
Te (they)
Akkocchi (scolded), avadhi

(hurt), ajini (defeated)
Ma (me)
Te (they)
Ahsi (stole)
Me (mine)
Ye (whoever)
upanayhant (thus tied)
Ta (it)
Tesa vera (their hatred)
Na sammati (never ends)
Verb Forms
Aha akkosi ta
Maya akkosimh ta
I scolded him
we scolded him
Tva akkoso ma
you scolded me
Tumhe akkosittha ma
you scolded me
So akkocch ma
he scolded me
Te akkosu ma
they scolded me
47
Aha avadhi ta
Maya avadhimh ta
I hurt him.
We hurt him.
Tva avadho ma
You hurt me.
Tumhe avadhittha ma
You hurt me.
So avadh ma
He hurt me.
Te avadu ma
They hurt me.
Aha ajini ta
Maya ajinimh ta
I defeated him.
We defeated him.
Tva ajino ma
You defeated me.
Tumhe ajinittha ma
You defeated me.
So aj ma
He defeated me.
Te aju ma
They defeated me.
Aha ahsi tava

Maya ahsimh tava
I stole his.
They stole his.
Tva ahso ma
You stole mine.
Tumhe ahsittha ma
You stole mine.
So ahsi ma
He stole mine.
Te ahsu ma
They stole mine.
LESSON-19
VERB FORM-7 (V-7)
48
In V-7 case, a verb is modified by 12 suffixes called Bhavissanti (mentioned below) according
to three persons, two numbers and two voices. They are used in Simple Future Tense. Their
English counterparts are will+, shall+ and be going to +:
-ssmi, -ssma; -ssasi, -ssatha; -ssati, -ssanti

-ssa, -ssmhe; -ssase, -ssavhe; -ssate, -ssante
Story Background:
Buddha lay down a monastic code to prevent us from ordaining before we are 20. The reason
was that 17 boys once ordained before mature enough to resist hunger and some other
inconveniences at the monastery. Their leader was Upli whose parents loved him so much that
they did not let him take any trouble learning something for his living. They did not even let him
learn mathematic lest their son would suffer pain on his figures. However, they allowed him to
join the Holy Order because they thought monastic life-style was comfortable. When he
ordained, his 16 play-mates joined him saying thus:
Sace tva ayya pabbajissasi, eva maya pi pabbajissma.

If you, dear, ordain, then we will ordain too.
Having fasted the evening before, the young monks got extremely hungry. So, the next early
morning, they made a lot noise crying for something to eat or drink. So, elderly monks tried to
quiet them saying thus: When the day breaks, will there be ygu (rice gruel), you will drink it;
will there be rice, you will eat it; will there be something to eat, you will eat it. Below is the
passage that elderly monks said when they tried to quiet the young monks:
Sace ygu bhavissati, pivissatha.

Sace bhatta bhavissati, bhujissatha.
Sace khdanya bhavissati, khdissatha. If there will be snack, (you) will chew it.
If there will be porridge, (you) will drink it.

If there will be rice, (you) will eat it.
Sace (if); bhavissati (there will be); ygu (porridge); bhatta (rice); khdanya (snack).
Below are verbs of V-7 form for us to study out of the two paragraphs mentioned above:
Pabbajissasi
pabbajissma
(you) will ordain

(we) will ordain
bhavissati
(there) will be
pivissatha
(you) will drink
bhujissatha
(you) will eat
khdissatha
(you) will chew
49
The Agreement between Subjects and Verbs
Aha pabbajissmi.
Maya pabbajissma.
I will ordain.
We will ordain.
Tva pabbajissasi.
You will ordain.
Tumhe pabbajissatha.
You (plural) will ordain.
So pabbajissati.
He will ordain.
Te pabbajissanti.
They will ordain.
Aha ygu pivissmi.

Maya ygu pivissma.
I will drink ygu (rice gruel)

We will drink ygu.
Tva ygu pivissasi.
You will drink ygu.
Tumhe ygu pivissatha.
You will drink ygu.
So ygu pivissati.
He will drink ygu.
Te ygu pivissanti.
They will drink ygu.
Aha bhatta bhujissmi.

Maya bhatta bhujissma.
I will eat rice.

We will eat rice.
Tva bhatta bhujissasi.
You will eat rice.
Tumhe bhatta bhujissatha.
You will eat rice.
So bhatta bhujissati.
He will eat rice.
Te bhatta bhujissanti.
They will eat rice.
Aha khdanya khdissmi.

Maya khdanya khdissma.
I will eat food.

We will eat food.
50
Tva khdanya khdissasi.
You will eat food.
Tumhe khdanya khdissatha.
You will eat food.
So khdanya khdissati.
He will eat food.
Te khdanya khdissanti.
They will eat food.
Note: The word khdanya refers to any solid food except main meals. To mean eating such
food we use the certain verb khda instead of bhuja although both are translated as eat in
English.
LESSON 20
VERB FORM-8 (V-8)
In V-8 case, a verb is modified by 12 suffixes called Kltipatti (mentioned below) according
to Persons, Numbers and Voices. They express an over-due action or failure of an action due to
an obstacle or to a shortcoming. Their English counterpart is Past Perfect Tense (would have
-ed).
-ssa, -ssmh; -sse, -ssatha; -ss, -ssasu

-ssi, -ssmhase; -ssase, -ssavhe; -ssatha, -ssisu,
Story Background:
Buddha smiled to himself looking at a homeless couple who were at the monastery gate asking
young novices for left-over food. When Venerable nanda asked the reason, the Buddha replied:
Look, nanda, at that homeless couple. The husband once inherited 820 millions from his
father, Mah-dhana. Having squandered all his wealth, hes now with his Brahmin wife at the
monastery gate asking for left-over food. And Buddha mentioned their great loss as follows:
Sace hi aya pathama-vaye

bhoge akhepetv kammante payojayissa [Actually if he had
done business in his first age without squandering his wealth,]

Imasmi yeva nagare agga-setthi
abhavissa. [He would have become the richest in this
very city.]
Sace pana nikkhamitv pabbajissa, [Or if he had renounced and ordained,
arahatt ppunissa. [He would have attained arahatship.]
Bhariypissa angmi-phale patitthahiss.
[His wife also would have reached the third
level of enlightenment.]
Word by Word Transation: Sace (if) hi (actually) aya (he) pathama-vaye
(in the first
part of age) bhoge (wealth) akhepetv (without having squandered) kammante (business)
payojayissa (had done), imasmi yeva nagare (in this very city) agga-setthi
(the richest
one) abhavissa (would have become). Sace (if) pana (otherwise) nikkhamitv (had
51
renounced and) pabbajissa,(had ordained) arahatta (full enlightenment) ppunissa

(would have attained). Bhariy'pi'ssa (his wife also) angmi-phale (on the third level of
enlightenment) patitthahissa
(would have stood).
The verbs (in bold) in the above paragraph express actions that fail to take place due to obstacles
or short-comings. So, this paragraph means that the homeless man failed to do business in time,
and did not become the richest in the city. He also failed to ordain, and did not attain
arahattaship. Nor did his wife achieve the 3rd level of enlightenment which was accessible to her.
The Agreement between Subjects and Verbs
Sace aha kammante Payojayissa.

Sace maya kammante payojayissmh.
Sace tva kammante payojayisse.
Sace tumhe kammante payojayissatha.
Sace so kammante payojayiss.
Sace te kammante payojayissasu.
If I had done business,

If we had done business,
If you had done business,
If you had done business,
If he had done business,
If they had done business,
Aha agga-setthi
abhavissa.
Maya agga-setthino
abhavissmh.
Tva agga-setthi
abhavisse.
Tumhe agga-setthino
abhavissatha.
So agga-setthi
abhaviss.
Te agga-setthino
abhivissasu.
I would have become the richest.

We would have become the richest.
You would have become the richest.
You would have become the richest.
He would have become the richest.
They would have become the richest.
Sace aha pabbajissa.

Sace maya pabbajissmh.
Sace tva pabbajisse.
Sace tumhe pabbajissatha.
Sace so pabbajiss.
Sace te pabbajissasu.
If I had ordained,
If we had ordained,
If you had ordained,
If you had ordained,
If he had ordained,
If they had ordained,
Aha arahatta ppun issa.

Maya arahatta ppun issmh.
Tva arahatta ppun isse.
Tumhe arahatta ppun issatha.
So arahatta ppuniss.
Te arahatta ppunissasu.
I would have reached arahatship.

We would have reached arahatship.
You would have reached arahatship.
You would have reached arahatship.
He would have reached arahatship.
They would have reached arahatship.
52
Aha angmi-phale patitthahissa.
Maya angmi-phale patitthahissmh.
Tva angmi-phale patitthahisse.
Tumhe angmi-phale patitthahissatha.
So angmi-phale patitthahiss.
Te angmi-phale patitthahissa
su.
I would have stood on angmi state.

We would have stood on angmi state.
You would have stood on angmi state.
You would have stood on angmi state.
He would have stood on angmi state.
They would have stood on angmi state.
LESSON-21
PASSIVE VOICE
As mentioned before, a verb is modified by 96 suffixes that are classified into 8 groups with 12
suffixes each (khyta-vibhatti). Among the 12 suffixes of every group the first six are generally
used in active voice, and the second 6 in passive voice 12. Now, we will study passive sentences in
comparision with active ones.
In an Active Sentence:
1. Subject must be 1st form
2. Object must be 2nd form
3. The verb must have one of the six active suffixes that agree with their corresponding
subjects in terms of Person and Number.
Below are Active Sentences with different subjects and same objects because active verbs need
to agree with their subjects but not with their objects in terms of Person and Number:
Subject
Aha (I)
Maya (We)
Tva (you)
Tumhe (you)
Buddho (Buddha)
Buddh (Buddhas)
Object
Dhamma
Dhamma
Dhamma desesi
Dhamma
Dhamma deseti
Dhamma
Verb
desemi (preach)
desema
desetha
(preaches)
desenti
NG/ PG: Aha (I), maya (we) PG-1; tva (you) PG-2; Buddho, Buddh NG-1.
12
Unique to Pl i is functionalvoice (bhva), which indicates only action, but not action-doer or
action-receiver. Therefore, it has only one form, similar to the 3rd singular form of the
passive forms. This type of verb form is not mentioned here as it is rarely used.
53
A Passive Verb:
A passive verb takes extra suffix -ya or -ya before one of the normal verb-suffixes. Here, the
verb desye, for example, is the combination of the root (des), the passive suffix (ya) and the
normal verb suffix (e). And the verb desymhe is the combination of (des + ya + mhe) and
so on.
In a Passive Sentence:
1. The subject must be 3rd form.
2. The object must be 1st form.
3. The verb must have one of the six passive suffixes, which agree with their corresponding
subjects in terms of Person and Number.
Below are Passive Sentences with same subjects and different objects because passive verbs need
to agree with their objects but not with their subjects in terms of Person and Number:
Subject
Buddhena
Buddhena
Buddhena
Buddhena
Buddhena
Buddhena
Object
aha (I, dhamma)
maya (we, dhammas)
tva (you, dhamma)
tumhe (you, dhammas)
dhammo (dhamma)
dhamm (dhammas)
Verb
desye (am preached)
desymhe (are preached)
desyase (are preached)
desyavhe (are preached)
desyate (is preached)
desyante (are preached)
The Definition of Subject and Object:

In English when an active verb changes into a passive one, its subject and object exchange their
locations and names. In Pl i, a verb, its subject and object change their forms, but not locations
and names when they are transformed from Active to Passive.
In Pl i, a verb literally means an action (kriy), and a subject and object are respectively an
action-doer (katt) and an action-receiver (kamma). In the syntax below, therefore, words in the
1st column are taken as objects because they are action-receivers, but regarded as Subjects in
English because they are what the verbs directly refer to. Those in the 3 rd column are called
Subjects in Pl i because they are action-doers, but they are By-phrases in English.
Subject (Object in P i)
Aha (I, dhamma)
Maya (we, dhammas)
Tva (you, dhamma)
Tumhe (you, dhammas)
Dhammo (dhamma)
Dhamm (dhammas)
Passive Verb
Desiye (am preached)
Desymhe (are preached)
Desyase (are preached)
Desyavhe (are preached)
Desyate (is preached)
Desiyante (are preached)
By-phrase (Subject in P i)
Buddhena (by Buddha)
54
Persona Pronouns in Figurative Speech:

In the above passive sentences, aha (I), maya (we), tva (you) and tumhe (you) are
personal pronouns that normally stand for human individuals in English. Here, however, they do
not refer to any individual, but just to dhamma that is personified in a figurative sense. When
Buddha was fully enlightened, for example, he proclaimed his conquest over craving, which was
the cause of life and life-related suffering. Then, he used the word tva (you) referring to the
craving in a figurative sense thus:
Gaha-kraka, (tva) dittho
asi
Puna geha na khasi
Hey builder, you have been found.

Dont build a house again.
LESSON-22
Causative Verbs (Krita)
A Causative Verb:
A causative verb (krita-kriy) is composed of three things: root, causative suffix and verb
suffix. The causative suffixes include -e, -aya, pe, -paya, which are equivalent to their English
counterparts: to make, to get, to let, to have and so on. Hence, Someone makes (lets/gets/has)
someone else do something.
Story Background:
On one occasion, the Buddha, standing on a street in Savatthi, gave a brief talk to Bhiya, which
enlightened Bahiya on the spot. Soon afterward, Bhiya was gored to death by a cow. Then, the
Buddha ordered his monk community (sagha) to perform a funeral for his body. Below is what
the commentary says:
Tathgato saghena Bhiyassa sarra-kicca kresi. (Anguttara-tthakath-1, 220)

The Buddha got the sagha do the work on Bhiyas body.
Two Subjects & Two Objects

In this sentence the causative verb 'kresi' is composed of kara (root), -e (causative suffix, or
c-suffix), and - (verb suffix). It means: Someone gets someone else to do something. Below
is the syntax:
Subject of C.suffix
Verb
Subject of the Root,
Object of the Root
55
and Object of C. Suffix

Tathgato (Buddha)
Kresi (get do)
Saghena (sagha)
Bhiyassa sarrakicca (funeral

ceremony)
In the 1st column, tathagato is the word that refers to the Buddha who got his monks do
a funeral of Bhiya. So, the word tathgato is called Subject of Causative Suffix (hetukatt). It is in its 1st form.
In the 2nd column, the verb kresi is composed of three particles, (kara + -e + ). The
root kara means to do; the c-suffix -e means to get someone do; the v-suffix -
indicates the verb is 1st person, singular and past tense.
In the 3rd column, saghena is the collective noun that refers to monastic community.
The community is an action-doer, as it really did the funeral. It is also an action-receiver,
as Buddha made it do the funeral. So, saghena is called the subject of the root (dhtukatt) and the object of c-suffix (hetu-kamma). Mostly it takes the 3rd form, but
occasionally 2nd or 6th form.
In the 4th column, the phrase Bhiyassa sarra-kicca (Bhiyas funeral) is the object of
the root (kara = do), as the funeral is something to be done.
Beow are some more exampes:

Norma Verbs
Causative Verbs:
Bhujati (one eats)

kinti (one buys)
karoti (one does)
deti (one gives)
pacati (one cooks)
uggan hati (one learns)
bhojeti, bhojpeti, bhojpayati (to make sb. eat)

kinpeti, kinpayati (to make sb. buy)
kreti, krpeti, krpayati (to make sb. do)
dpeti, dpayati (to make sb. give)
pacpeti, pacpayati (to make sb. cook)
uggan hpeti, uggan hpayati (to make sb. learn)
LESSON 23
VERB PARTICIPLES (Kitaka)
For an English participle there are two suffixes: -ed13 that is used in the case of the passive voice
or the perfect tense, and -ing in the case of active voice or the continuous tense (in addition to
adjective, adverb or gerund). As for a Pl i participle (kitaka), it takes many different suffixes
(paccaya) for many different expressions, such as -tabba, -anya, -ta, -tu, -tv, etc. Any way,
both Pl i and English participles have the same functions in many cases, though.
A Participe with Different Suffixes for Different Expressions:
13
The suffix -ed is for a regular verb. As for irregular verbs, there will be many other forms
of suffixes.
56
1. Dtabba (d + tabba + -)
2. Datto (d + ta + -o)
3. Dinno (d + ta + -o)
4. Dtu (d + tu)
5. Datv (d + tv)
6. Dento, dadanto (d + -anta + -o)
7. Dadamno (d + mna + -o)
8. Dna (d + na + -)
9. Dt (d + tu + -)
10. Dyako (d + aka + -o)
11. Dy (d + + )
should be offered/ or something worthy to offer

a child belived to be granted by a god, etc.
to be offered/ or to have offered
in order to offer
to offer and
offering
offering
act of offering
somebody who offers something to somebody
a generous supporter
somebody who has tendency to offer
About the Exampes Mentioned Above:

A participle is a verbal noun that is composed of three particles: root, participle suffix, noun
suffix, (which will be called later as p-suffix and n-suffix respectively). Out of the examples
mentioned above, dtabba is, for example, the combination of (d + -tabba + -), which are
respectively root, p-suffix and n-suffix. As for dtu (d + tu) and datv (d + tv), they
have only p-suffix, but no n-suffix, as they are nipta. A nipta is a word with one and only
form.
Combanations and Changes:
Root and suffixes often change their forms when they are combined. For example, dinno and
datto are the combination of (d + ta + -o); Dento (d + anta + -o); dt (d + tu + -); dyako
(d + aka + o); dy (d + + ). If you read two or three words together for five times fast, they
are spontaneously combined changing their forms. If we read, for example, three particles (d +
-aka + -o) together, suppose, for five times fast, we will spontaneously pronounce them as
dyako. Moreover, like every thing else in the world, a word naturally changes over the time in
terms of spelling, pronounciation or meaning.
Noun Groups:
As mentioned before, all the participles (except those with -tu and -tv suffixes) are nouns
(verbal nouns), have seven forms and corresponding functions exactly like normal nouns.
A participle must agree in terms of gender, form and number with the word it refers to.
Dtabba, for example, means something worthy to offer, like a monastery (vihro), a robe
(cvara), or a flower (ml). So, dtabba will be NG-1 if it is a monastery (vihro), or NG-2
if it is a robe (cvara), or NG-3 if it is a flower (ml).
If dtabba is monastery (vihro), then it will be NG-1. Below is its paradigm:
Singuar
Pura
57
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Dtabbo
Dtabba
Dtabbena
Dtabbassa
Dtabbasm, -mh, -
Dtabbassa
Dtabbasmi, -mhi, -e
dtabb
dtabbe
dtabbehi, -bhi
dtabbna
dtabb
dtabbna
dtabbesu
If dtabba is a robe (cvara), then it will be NG-2. Below is its paradigm:

Singuar
1. Dtabba
2. Dtabba
3. Dtabbena
Pura
dtabbni
dtabbe, databbni
dtabbehi, -bhi
(All the rest are the same as in NG-1)
If dtabba is a flower (ml), then it will be NG-3. Below is its paradigm:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Singuar
Pura
Dtabb
Dtabba
Dtabbya
Dtabbya
Dtabbya
Dtabbya
Databbya, dtabbya
dtabb, dtabbyo
dtabb, dtabbyo
dtabbhi, -bhi
dtabbna
dtabbhi, -bhi
dtabbna
dtabbsu
LESSON-24
Definition / Transation of a Verba Noun:
A few decades ago, there was a meditation slogan in Burma: All you do is suffering. This is
the translatation of the Pl i passage, sabbe sakh dukkh. This slogan created very intense
debate and infighting among Burmese Buddhists. The problem was all about the definition of the
pl i word sakhr that can be translated either in the active or passive sense according to the
context.
Definition of Sakra:
58
In Dhamma-pada, the Buddha said, sabbe sakhr dukkh: All sakhra are sufferings.
Here,sakhra should be translated in the passive sense as the conditioned (phenomena)
referring to minds and bodies that are subject to decay. So, the whole sentence should be
translated thus: All the conditioned (mind and body) are suffering,, but not All you do are
suffering.
The phrase All you do may be a good translation for sakhr in the case of sakhrapaccay vin a: Due to sakhra, (there arises) rebirth. Here, sakhra should be
translated in the active sense as the conditioning (phenomena) referring to volitions or
volitional actions or all we do (or preferably all we have done). So, the whole sentence can be
translated thus: There arises rebirth due to conditioning phenomena (volitions or volitional
actions or all we have done).
Defined In Different Senses

A participle (kitaka) can be defined not only in an active (norminative) and passive (accusative)
sense, but also in other senses such as instrumental, dative, ablative, locative, and functional
according to the context. These seven grammatical senses are called sdhana (something known
by inference). In general, a certain p-suffix has a certain sdhana. In most cases, however,
sdhana is determined by the context (abhidheyyattha) rather than by a p-suffix. Gato, for
example, can be defined or translated in different senses according to its context as follows:
Go/ went/ gone/ going

Going (an act of going)
Somebody who goes (eg, a traveler)
Somebody to go with (eg, a friend)
Something to go by (eg, a car)
Somewhere to come from (eg, school)
Somewhere to go back (eg, home)
In the verbal sense

In the functional sense
In the norminative sense
In the instrumental sense
In the instrumental sense
In the locative sense
In the locative sense
Definition of Abhidhamma Terms:

The 52 mental factors such as sati (awareness), pa (knowledge), sa (remembering), etc.,
can be defined in three senses: norminative, instrumental, and functional. However, these terms
are most preferably defined in the functional sense because there is no person as the subject nor
anything else as the instrument in the ultimate sense.
Beow are styistic definitions of some Abhidhamma terms:
1. 'Sati' means a mental factor that remembers (sarat'ti sati)
2. 'Sati' means a mental factor to remember with (sarati yen'ti sati)
3. 'Sati' means remembering (sarana sati)
59
1. Pa means a mental factor that knows well (pakrena tti pa)

2. Pa means a mental factor to know well with (pakrena ti yenti pa)
3. Pa means knowing well (pakrena jnana, n a)
1. 'Cetan' means a mental factor that motivates (cetet'ti cetan)
2. 'Cetan' means to motivate with (ceteti yen'ti cetan)
3. 'Cetan' means motivating (cetetana cetan)
LESSON-25
Some More Participes and Their Suffixes: As mentioned before, a participle is composed of
three particles (root + p-suffix + n-suffix). Regarding the n-suffix, the examples shown here are
only 1st form singular. For their remaining forms, check their corresponding NG.
1. Tabba: Below are some examples of the suffix -tabba that expresses worth doing (like
should):
Ganhitabba (gaha + nh + tabba + -)

tabba, jnitabba ( + tabba + -)
pacitabba (paca + tabba + -)
ktabba (kara + tabba + -)
vcitabba (vaca + tabba + -)
bharitabba (bhara + tabba + -)
should be taken
should be known
should be cooked
should be done
should be talked
should be taken care of
2. Ta: The suffix -ta is equivalent to Past Tense or Present Perfect Tense, (have + -ed). It also
can be passive. Below are some examples of participles with -ta suffix:
gan hito (gaha + n h + ta + -o)

to/ jnito ( + ta + -o)
kato (kara + ta + -o)
pacito (paca + ta + -o)
vcito (vaca + ta + -o)
nto (n + ta + -o)
bharito (bara + ta + -o)
prito (pra + ta + -o)
to be taken/ to have taken

to be known/ to have known
to be done/ to have done
to be cooked/ have cooked
to be spoken/ have spoken
to be brought/ to have brought
to be taken care/ to have taken care
to be fulfilled/ to have fulfilled
3. Tu: -tu expresses purpose like in order to. Below are examples:
gan hitu (gaha + tu)
in order to take
60
tu / jnitu ( + tu)
ktu (kara + tu)
pacitu (paca + tu)
nayitu (n + tu)
bharitu (bhara + tu)
pritua (pra + tu)
sayitu (s + tu)
dtu (d + tu)
vcitu (vaca + tu)
in order to know
in order to do
in order to cook
in order to bring
in order to take care
in order to fulfill
in order to sleep
in order to give
in order to speak
4. Tv: A verb with -tv (like and) is a preceding action that refers to succeeding one. In the
case of two simultaneous verbs (actions), this -tv suffix does the same function as -anta
suffix. Below are examples:
gan hetv (gaha + tv)

atv / jnitv ( + tv)
katv (kara + tv)
pacitv (paca + tv)
vatv (vaca + tv)
netv (n + tv)
bharetv (bhara + tv)
pretv (pra + tv)
sayitv (s + tv)
datv (d + tv)
to take and
to know and
to do and
to cook and
to speak and
to bring and
to take care and
to fulfill and
to sleep and
to give and
5. Anta / Mna: -anta and mna do the same functions as their English counterpart -ing that
serves as continuous tense, adjective, adverb or gerund. Moreover, mna is sometimes used as a
passive participle. Below are examples:
dento (d + anto + -o)

dadamno (d + mna + -o)
gan hanto (gaha + anta + -o)
jnanto ( + anta + -o)
karonto (kara + anta + -o)
pacanto (paca + anta + -o)
vacanto (vaca + anta + -o)
nento, nayanto (n + anta + -o)
bharanto (bhara + anta + -o)
to be giving
to be giving
to be taking
to be knowing
to be doing
to be cooking
to be speaking
to be bringing
to be taking care
61
prento (pra + anta + -o)

sayanto (s + anta + -o)
to be fulfilling
to be sleeping
6. Yu (n a / na): According to Pl i grammars, the p-suffix -yu changes into n a or na. Here,
however, we use n a or na as a p-suffix instead of the so-called original suffix -yu. Below are
some examples:
dna (d + na + -)
sayana (s + na + -)
bharana (bhara + na + -)
nayana (n + na + -)
vacana (vaca + na + -)
pacana (paca + na + -)
gamana (gamu + na + -)
n a, jnana ( + n a + -)
pran a (pra + na + -)
karan a (kara + n a + -)
an action of giving
an action of sleeping
an action of taking care
an action of bringing
an action of speaking
an action of cooking
an action of going
state of knowing
an action of fulfilling
an action of doing
7. Nvu (-aka, -ika): Pl i Gramms say the p-suffix -nvu changes into -ka/ -ika. Here,
however, we will use -aka / -ika as a p-suffix instead of the so-called original suffix -nvu.
Below are some examples:
dyako/ dyik (d + aka/ ika + -o/ -)

gan hako/ gan hik (gaha + aka/ ika + -o/ -)
seyako/ seyik (s + aka/ ika + -o/ -)
prako/ prik (pra + aka/ ika + -o/ -)
bhrako/ bhrik (bhara + aka/ ika + -o/ -)
nyako/ nyik (n + aka/ ika + -o/ -)
vciko/ vcik (vaca + aka/ ika + -o/ -)
pacako/ pacik (paca + aka/ ika + -o/ -)
krako/ krik (kara + aka/ ika + -o/ -)
niko/ nik ( + ika/ ika + -o/ -)
a giver
a taker
a sleeper
a filler
a care-taker
a leader
speaker
a cook
a doer
an intelligent person
8. Tu (t): Pl i grammars say that the p-suffix -tu changes into several forms besed on nsuffixes. See their corresponding NG. Below are some examples:
dt (d + tu + -)
katt (kara + tu + -)
pacit (paca + tu + -)
vatt (vatu + tu + -)
net (n + tu + -)
bht (bhara + tu + -)
a giver
a doer
a cook
a speaker
a carrier
a brother
62
prit (pra + tu + -)
sayet (s + tu + -)
gan hit (gaha+ tu + -)
t, at ( + t + -)
a filler
someone who sleeps
someone who takes something
knower
9. N (-): The suffix n changes into -. Here, however, we will take - as a p-suffix instead
of the so-called original suffix -n . Below are some examples:
dy (d + + -)
kr (kara + + -)
vc (vaca + + -)
ny (n + + -)
bhr (bhara + + -)
pr (pra + + -)
say (s + + -)
gan h (gaha + + -)
n ( + + -)
a giver
a doer
a speaker
a bringer
a carrier
a fulfiller
a sleeper
a taker
an intelligent person
LESSON-26
Functions and Tenses of a Participe:
A participle is considered as a noun (verbal noun). So, like a regular noun, it varies in terms of
form, number, gender, and function such as subject, object, adjective, adverb, etc. However, it
also serves as a verb. So, like a real verb (khyta) it has three sentence styles: active, passive
and functional.
1. In the active, it must agree with its subjects in terms of form, gender and number.
2. In the passive, it must agree with its object.
3. In the functional, it stands on its own, without following a subject or object.
Syntaxes to Study in Comparision with the Origina P i Sentences
The syntax below is an example of-tabba suffix:
Buddhena dhammo desitabbo. (The suffix -tabba is passive voice)
Dhammo (dhamma)
Passive Verb
Desitabbo (should be preached)
The syntax below is an example of-tv suffix:
Buddhena (by the Buddha)
63
Buddho dhamma desetv vihra pvisi. (The suffix -tv is active, and equivalent to and
then / afterward)
Subject
Tv-phrase
Buddho (The Buddha) Dhamma desetv
(preached dhamma,
and then)
Verb
Pvisi (entered)
Object
Vihra (the monastery)
The syntax below is an example of-tabba suffix:

Buddho dhamma desento amhe vineti. (The suffix anta is active).
Subject
Buddho (The Buddha)
Anta-phrase
Dhamma desento
(preaching dhamma)
Verb
Vineti (admonishes)
Object
amhe (us)
The syntax below is an example of-tu suffix:

Buddho dhamma desitu Bran asi gato. (The suffix -tu is functional)
Subject
Buddho (The Buddha)
Tu-phrase
Dhamma desitu
(to preach dhamma)
Verb
Gato (went/ has gone)
Object
Bran asi (to
Bran as)
Story Background:
On one occasion, the evil spirit (mra = killer) came and said to the Buddha thus: You have
been bound by the death-snare both divine and human. You have been bound intensely. You
wont escape from me. Then, Buddha replied to him as follows (Vinaya-3, 30):
Mutthim (mutto aha) sabba-psehi (I have been liberated from all snares or traps)
Subject
Verb
Abative
Aha = I
Mutto amhi = have been

liberated (amhi is
understood.)
Sabba-psehi = from all the

snares
Nihato tvam asi antaka. Hey killer, you have been defeated.
64
Verb
Tva (you)
Nihato asi (have been

defeated)
May (by me)
In the above sentence there are two participles:
Mutto is composed of (muca + -ta + -o) that are respectively root, p-suffix, and n-suffix.
Nihato' (ni + hana + -ta + -o) which are respectively prefix, root, p-suffix, and nsuffixes.
Two participles (mutto, nihato) respectively combine with amhi (am) and 'asi' (are) and make
perfect verbs or passive verbs. So, the sentences can be translated in two ways each as follows:
I have been liberated from all bondages (Active Perfect Tense)

I am liberated by all bondages (Passive Present Tense)
Hey Killer, you have been defeated (Active Perfect Tense)
Hey Killer, you are defeated. (Passive Present Tense)
P i Verb-to-be:
For the perfect tense and passive verbs we can find participles sometimes combine with
corresponding verb-to-be (like am, is, are, was, were, etc.). Below is verb-to-be in Pl i:
Present Tense:
1st person:
2nd person:
3rd person:
amhi, amha
asi, attha
hoti, honti (atthi, santi)
Past Tense:
1st person:
2nd Person:
3rd Person:
Ahosi, ahosimh
Aho, Ahosittha
Ahosi, ahosu
Future Tense:
1st person:
2nd person:
3rd person:
hessmi, hessma
hessasi, hessatha
hessati, hessanti
65
Nine P i Tenses in Comparison with Engish

English
1. go / goes
2. went
3. will/shall go
4. is going
5. was going
6. will/shall be going
7. have gone
8. had gone
9. will/shall have gone
10. would have gone
Pl i
gacchati (V-1)
agacchi (V-6)
gacchissati (V-7)
gacchanto hoti (-anta-suffix participle + verb-to-be present tense)
gacchanto ahosi (-anta-suffix participle + verb-to-be past tense)
gacchanto hessati (-anta-suffix participle + verb-to-be future)
gato hoti (-ta suffix participle + verb-to-be present tense)
gato ahosi (-ta suffix participle + verb-to-be past tense)
gato bhavissati (-ta suffix participle + verb-to-be future tense)
gamiss (V-8)
Helping Verbs
Engish
1. would go
2. should go
3. can/could go
4. may/might go
5. must go
6. need to go
7. used to go
8. want to go
9. want (sb.) to go
10. make (sb.) to go
11. let sb. go
12. have sb. to go
P i
gaccheyya (V-3)
gaccheyya (V-3)/ gamitabba (-tabba-suffix participle)
agacchi
gaccheyya, gantu icchati
gampeyya
gampeti
gampeyya
gampeti
Participes and Rea Verbs:

Some participles often serve as real verbs (khyta-kriy). In other words, participles and real
verbs can be equally used in many cases. Below are examples in which we can study Pl i
participles in comparison with their English counterparts:
Engish
Participe
Rea Verb
Go
Went
Should go
gato
gato
gantabba (passive)
Gamati / gacchati
agam / agacch
gaccheyya (active)
66
To be going
gacchanto, gacchamno
To have gone
gato hoti
An action of going gamana (gam + na + )
Goer/ traveler gamiko (gam + ika + o)
In order to go
gantu (gam + tu)
Go and
gantv (gam + tv)
gamati / gacchati
LESSON 27
TWO KINDS OF QUESTIONS
1. Yes/No Question (bhoga):
Yes/No Question (bhoga) is the question posed on a verb in a sentence, and can be answered by
Yes or No. To form such a question, a verb is followed by 'nu' and shifts to the beginning of the
sentence. If its a negative question, na (not) precedes or succeeds the verb in addition to nu.
Hence, four styles of the question as follow:
1. Deseti nu Buddho dhamma?
Does Buddha preach dhamma?
2. Na deseti nu Buddho dhamma?
Does Buddha not preach dhamma?
3. Deseti na nu Buddho dhamma?
Doesnt Buddha preach dhamma?
4. Na deseti na nu Buddho dhamma? Doesnt Buddha not preach dhamma?

Note: The No.4 style is not available in English. But it is similar in essence to the negative
question tag. Hence, it would means: Buddha does not preach dhamma, does he?
2. Wh-Question (Pucch):
Wh-question (pucch) is the question posed on a noun or pronoun in a sentence. To form such a
question, a noun or pronoun is replaced with a k word (like wh in English) according to the
gender, form and function of the noun or pronoun.
Story Background: Seven weeks after his supreme enlightenment, Buddha went to Baran a s to
meet the group of five hermits (known as Paca-vaggiya). On his way there, between the Bodhi
tree and Gaya village, he met an ascetic called Upako who was so amazed by the Buddhas
personality that he asked Buddha some questions out of curiosity thus:
Ka asi tva vuso uddissa pabbajito?
Whom, sir, have you ordained referring to?
67
Ko v te satth?
Kass v tva dhamma roceti?
Who is your teacher?

Whose teaching do you like?
Like the example mentioned above, wh-questions mostly start with k words. The sentence
below is for us to study how to replace nouns with k words to pose a question on each of them
according to their genders, forms and functions:
Buddho dhamma saddena devna drato samaye deseti.
Buddha preaches Dhamma with voice to devas from afar on occasion.
Nouns
K
Wh
Buddho
ko
who
Dhamma ka
whom
saddhena
kena
with which
devna
kesna
to whom
drato
kuto
from where
samaye
kad
where
Note: Kuto means from where. Its suffix -to is the replacement of 5th form suffix -sm.
Kad means when. Its suffix -d is equivalent to -smi. Both are unique forms called
nipta. All the remaining k words belong to PG-15.
Below are questions:
P i
Engish
Ko dhamma deseti?
Who preaches dhamma
Ki Buddho deseti?
What does Buddha preach
Kena Buddho dhamma deseti?
With which does Buddha preach dhamma
Kesna Buddho dhamma deseti?
To whom does Buddha preach dhamma
Kuto Buddho dhamma deseti?
From where does Buddha preach dhamma
Kad Buddho dhamma deseti?
When does Buddha preach dhamma
Styes of Question to Study:

Below are some questions taken from Vinaya Mahvagga, for us to study original style of
questions:
Kosi tva vuso?

Ko pana te vuso upajjhyo?
Ki-nmo asi?
Ki pana tumhe vuso akattha?
Kassa tva dhamma rocesi?
Kati nu kho amhka sikkhpadni?
Who are you, sir?

Who is, sir, your upajjhyo?
What name are you? (What is your name?)
What did you do, sir?
Whose dhamma do you like?
How many are our precepts?
68
Kaha tva gahapati gacchasi?

Kinti aya bhikkhu hoti?
Ki te dittha
?
Kinti te dittha
?
Kad te dittha
?
Kattha te dittha
?
Where do you go, gentle man?

How come he is a monk?
What is seen by you?
How is it seen by you?
When is it seen by you?
Where is it seen by you?
Beow are K words Equivaent to Wh:
Who/ what/ which

Whom
ko (male), k (female), ki (neuter)

ka (3G)
For whom
kesa (m, n) ksa (f) + atthya
For what
kim-atthya
With whom
kena, kehi (m, n))/ kya khi (f)
From whom/ where
kuto (ni)/ kasm (m, n) kya (f)
Of whom/ whose
kassa (m, n)/ kya (f)
When
kad (ni)/ kena samayena/ kasmi samaye (m)
Where
kattha (ni), kuhi (ni), kuha (ni), kaha (ni)
Why
kena, kasm (m/n)
How
katha (ni), kenkrena (m)
How much
kittaka (3G), kva (ni),
How many
kittaka (3G), kati (ni), kvatika (3G)
How far
kva-dro (3G)
How long
kva-cira (n)
How often
kati-kkhattu (ni), kiva-kkhattu (ni)
Whoever, whatever
yo-koci (m), ya-kici (n), y-kci (f)
Wherever
yattha-katthaci (ni)
69
However
yath-kathaci (ni)
Which of the two
katara (3G)
Which of the many
katama (3G)
What like
kdisa (3G)
Abbreviation: Among the above examples, (m) is an abbreviation for masculine gender, (f) for
feminine, and (n) for neuter. The word (ni) stands for nipta, and (3G) for three genders.
LESSON 28
FALLING PARTICLES (NIPTA)
In Pl i, there are many particles called nipata (clitics). Its literal meaning is falling particles
because they fall anywhere in a sentence, and carry out several different functions such as a
conjunction, a preposition, an adverb and so on. Their forms never change, as they are not
influenced by any verb or noun that they modify.
Ceva, Ca (And)
Two particles ceva and ca are equivalent to and. These follow each word in a series to join
them (samuccaya). Ceva usually comes only after the first word and ca after the rest. Below
is an example:
Aha buddha ceva dhamma ca sagha ca saran a gato.
I take refuge to Buddha and dhamma and sangha.
Note: In the poetic sense, however, the order of ceva and ca can go in reverse depending on the
poetic system.
V (and/ or):
V means and like ceca and ca, but sometimes it means or. Below are examples:
Rjato v corato v rakkha gan hantu
Take protection from evil rulers and thieves as well. [Here v means and/ as well.]
Manas ce padutthena
bhsati v karoti v
With mind ruined if (one) speaks or does [Here, v means or]
70
Iti (thus):
Iti is used for quotation like thus in English. However, Pl i style of quotation is different
from the English. Below is an example:
Ekacce parena pahat amhti vadanti.
Some people, (We) are beaten by others thus said. (Pl i Style)
Some people said thus, (We) are beaten by others. (English Style)
Note: When this iti follows a word that ends with a vowel, that vowel is lengthened, and the
iti becomes left just ti.
Pi / Api (again, aso, even)
Dutiyampi buddha saran a gacchmi
Again, for the second time, I take refuge to the Buddha.
Api dibbesu kmesu rati so ndhigacchati
Even in divine pleasure he doesnt take delight.
Sace/ Ce + Evasati (if + then):
Sace te, Kassapa, agaru, vaseyyma eka-ratti agygre.
If to you, Kassapa, its not troublesome, (let me) stay one night in the kitchen.
M (Dont): It is a prohibitive partice
M sadda akattha: Dont make noise
M te bhavantu antary: May misfortunes not befall you.
Etha tumhe, Klm, m anussavena: Come on, Klm, dont (accept any doctrine) by hearsay.
Pe (Peyyla)
Peyyla or its abbreviated form pe is the signal of repetition. It is used to shorten a text by
substituting a long part of it that is identical with part of a preceding section. When the text is
read aloud, such a section is replaced and read out in full.
Yath / Tath (just as + so aso)
Yath pure tath pacch; yath pacch tath pure.
Just as before, so also after; just as after, so also before
Eva (just/ very/ ony)
Cace ida bhatta amhka dvinna na pahoti, tva m bhujhi, aha eva bhujissmi.
If this rice is not enough for two of us, you dont eat it, only I will eat it.
71
Beow Are Some More Niptas:
Eva:
Aatra :
Kinnu (kim + nu)
Iva
Nu
Nanu
Atha/ Atha Kho
Idha
Evameva
Kho
Pana
Ve/ Have
Sma/ saya
Puna
Seyyathpi
Tu
Handa
thus
except/ among
Is it that--/ how is it that--/ (but) why
like/ as
Interrogative Participle (question)
isnt it?
now/ then/ on that occasion/ however
here/ in this world
thus/ similarly/ in like manner
emphatic particle (like of course)
however/ and then/ and also/ otherwise/ actually/ though
indeed, truly, really
by oneself
again
for example/ just as/ just like/ as if
however/ indeed
well then/ now
Niptas In Comparison With Their Engish Counterparts
above
about
at last
at ease
at first
at that moment
at that time
between
beyond
even
even if
from afar
from above
from behind
from the beginning
for
in
on
upari/ udda
parito
ante
yath-sukha
dito
tvade/ takhan e
tad
antar/ antare/ majjhe
ati-kkamma,
api
api ce
drato/ rak
uparito
pacchato
dito
uddissa
anto/ majjhe
upari
72
on account of
paticca,
on all sides
sabbato
on the other hand
aatra
on the same day
tadhu
on that account
tato
over
upari/ uttara/ udda
over again
punpi
over and over
punappuna
all over
sabbattha
is over
nitthita
through
nissya/ antar/ nirantara/ abbocchinna
to and fro
ito cito
with
saha/ saddhi
with reference to
uddissa/ updya/ sandhya
within
anto/ abbhantare
without
bahi/ bahidd/ vin/ aatra
without doubt
nissasaya
20 PREFIXES (UPASRA)
In Pl i, there are 20 prefixes called 'Upasra':pa, para, ni, n, u, sam, du, vi, ava, anu, pai, abhi,
adhi, pati, su, , ati, apa, api, upa. Below are examples that show how they work:
Origina Words
Words with Prefix
Jnti (to know)

jayo (winning)
daratha (worry)
gato (to go)
ja (comprehension)
medhvi (a wise one)
kara (doing)
passan (seeing)
loketi (to look)
vta (wind)
loma (body hair)
dhamma (teaching)
gata (coming)
pn akotika
(end of life)
gacchati (to go)
pa-jnti (to know very well)

par-jayo (losing)
ni-ddaratha (no worry)
ni-ggato (to go out)/ uggato (to go up)/ adhi-gato (to gain)
sam-pa-jaa (clear-comprehension)
du-mmedho (astupid one)
du-kara (hard to do)/ su-kara (easy to do)
vi-passan (special-insight)
vi-loketi (to look aside)/ ava-loketi (to look down)
anu-vta with-wind/ pati-vta against-wind
anu-lomam (due order)/ pati-loma
(reverse order)
abhi-dhamma (higher teaching)

su-gatam (svgata) (Welcome!)
-pn akotika
(until death)
-gacchati (to come back)
73
vkya (a sentence)
vattati (arise)
nagara (a city)
gacchati (to go)
ati-vkya (insulting words)

ati-vattati to go beyond
upa-nagara (near-city)
upa-gacchati (to go near/ to approach)
74
PART-2
(NMA-GANA) PARADIGMS
GROUPS OF NOUN FORMS
75
Noun Groups (Nma-gan a)

One must have a good knowledge of noun forms in order to master the skills of composing Pl i
verses, writing Pl i passages, and understanding Buddhist texts. Noun forms are officially
classified into 13 groups according to their basic forms and gender. Here, however, we include
all the sub-groups in our list, and also designate 25 noun groups, and 31 pronoun groups.
Below youll find some points to learn about the noun groups in advance.
Two Kinds of Suffixes (Nma Vibhatti)
1. Original Suffix (pakati-kranta), e.g., a in the case of buddha
2. Functional Suffix (pada-kranta), e.g., o in the case of buddho. [A noun has different
suffixes for its different functions, such as subjects, objects, etc.]
Two Number
1. Singular (Eka-vacana)
2. Plural (Bahu-vacana)
Three Genders
1. Masculine (Pulliga)
2. Feminine (Itthi-liga)
3. Neuter (Napulliga)
In general, masculine nouns denote males, and feminine nouns denote females. If gender
distinction relates to valid phenomena in this way, it is called attha-linga. But nouns that denote
inanimate things are not always neuter, e.g., Rukkha (tree), Canda (moon), are masculine; Nad
(river), Lat (vine), Pa (wisdom) are feminine; Dhana (wealth), Citta (mind) are neuter.
Two words, although denoting the same thing, may be different in gender. Psna and sil are
both synonyms for a stone, but the former is masculine, and the latter is feminine. Likewise
some nouns have two or more genders, e.g., geha (house) can be either masculine or neuter,
kucchi (belly) can be either masculine or feminine. In reality, gender distinction is something
created by Pl i grammar (sadda-liga) to designate groups of nouns with same characteristics in
each group.
Note: A noun has seven forms. But, in the paradigms, you can see a noun in eight forms because
the first form is of two kinds: pure noun (liga) and addressing noun (lapana).
76
NG-1 (Purisa Group)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Original Suffix: -a
Masculine gender.
Singuar
Pura
puriso
bho purisa, puris
purisa
purisena
purisassa, purisya
purisasm, -mh, -
purisassa
purisasmi, -mhi, -e
puris
bhonto puris
purise
purisehi, -bhi
purisna
purisehi, -bhi
purisna
purisesu
Forms of Address: All nouns have two types of the 1 st form. The second type is used for
addressing (alapana). To distinguish it from the other, titles are used, such as 'bho' (sir) and
'Bhonto' (sirs) for masculine; bhoti (madam) and bhotiyo (madams) feminine; bho,
bhavantni for neuter.
Members
buddho
dhammo
sagho
poso
devo
manusso
naro
mtugmo
orodho
Buddha
Dhamma
the community of Buddhist monks
man
divine spirit
human
human
woman
royal servant girl
NG-2 (Citta Group)
Original Suffix: -a
Neuter gender.
77
Singuar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Pura
citta
citt, cittni
bho citta, citt bhavantni citt, cittni
citta
citte, cittni
cittena
cittehi, cittebhi
cittassa (cittya)
cittna
cittasm, -mh, -
cittehi, -bhi
cittassa
cittna
cittasmi, -mhi, -e cittesu
Members
kula
kusala
pua
kalatta
udaka
sukha
dukkha
akusala
ppa
kamma
family
merit
meritorious deed
wife
water
happiness/ comfort
unhappinesss/ discomfort
demerit
evil
action
NG-3 (Ka Group)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Original Suffix: -
Feminine Gender.
Singuar
Pura
ka
bhoti kae bhotiyo ka,
kaa
kaya
kaya
kaya
kaya
kaya, kaya
ka, kayo
kayo
ka, kayo
kahi, -bhi
kana
kahi, -bhi
kana
kasu
78
Members
saddh
metta
pa
gang
pucch
sikkh
bhikkh
tanh
vc
gth
amm/ ann
paris
sabh
faith
loving kindness
knowledge/ wisdom/ education
Gag river
question
training/ moral conduct
food
attachment/ hunger
conversation
stanza (verse)
mother
audience
conference, festival, carnival
NG-4 (Mano Group)
Original Suffix: -a
Neuter gender
Unique Suffixes
1. The suffixes (-o, -s, -so, -si,) are unique respectively to the 2nd, 3rd, 4th ( or 6th), and 7th
forms of the G-4 members.
2. In the case of compound nouns, o-suffix is unique to the G-4 members.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Singuar
Pura
mana, mano
bho mana, man bhavantni
mana, mano
manena, manas
manassa, manaso
manasm, -mh, -
manassa, manaso
manasmi, -mhi, mane, -si
man, manni
man, manni
mane, manni
manehi, -bi
manna
manehi, -bhi
manna
manesu
Members
79
vaco
vayo
tejo
tapo
ceto
tamo
yaso
ayo
payo
siro
chando
saro
uro
raho
aho
conversation
age (udaya, vaya is NG-1i)
fire, power, ability (Mr. Teja is NG-1)
asceticism
mind
dark
fame, friends (Mr. Yasa is NG-1)
iron (metal)
water or milk
head
will, zeal, desire
lake (arrow and vowel are NG-1)
chest
hidden place
date
NG-5 (Gunav Group)
Original Suffix: -u
Gender: masculine and neuter
Mascuine:
Singuar
Pura
gun av, gun avanoto

bho gun ava, gun ava, gun av
gun avant, gun avanto

bhoto gun avant, gun avanto
gun ava, gun avanta
gun avante
gun avat, gun avantena
gun avantehi, -bhi
gun avassa, gun avato, gun avantassa gun avata, gun avantna
gun avat, gun avantasm, -mh, -
gun a vassa, gun a vato, gun a vantassa gun a vata, gun a vantna
gun avati, gun avantasmi, -mhi, -e gun avantesu
Neuter:
gun avantehi, -bhi
80
Singuar Pura
gunava
bho gun ava, gun ava, gun av
gunavant, gunavanti, gunavantni

bhoto gun avant, gun avanti, gun avantni
gun ava, gun avanta
gun avante, gun avanti, gun avantni
[The rest follow the pattern of the masculine form.]

Members
gun av (vantu)
himav (vantu)
fame-owner
snow-owner (Himalaya mountain)
satim (mantu)
mindfulness-owner
bandhum (mantu)
good-friend owner
bhuttav
having eaten
ettv
up to / until / this much
tv
that much
candim
moon or Moon-deva
NG-6 (Gacchanta Group)
Original Suffix: -anta

Gender: - Masculine, Neuter
Mascuine:
Singuar
Pura
1. gaccha, gacchanto
2. bho gaccha, gaccha, gacch
gacchant, gacchanto
bhonto gacchant, gacchanto
3. gaccha, gacchanta
gacchante
4. gacchantena
gacchantehi, -bhi
5. gacchassa, gacchanto, gacchantassa gacchanta, gacchantna
81
6. gacchant, -sm, -mh, -
gacchantehi, -bhi
7. gacchassa, gacchanto, gacchantassa gacchanta, gacchantna

8. gacchati, gacchantasmi, -mhi, -e
gacchantesu
Neuter
Singuar
Pura
2. bho gaccha, gaccha, gacch
gacchant, gacchanti, gacchantni

bhonto gacchant, gacchanti, gacchantni
gacchante, gacchanti, gacchantni
[All the rest follow the pattern of the masculine form.]

Members
saya
cara
tittha
standing
dada
giving
bhuja
eating
sun a
listening
paca
cooking
jra
mya
dying
cava
dying
kara
doing
bhava
master
sa
saint
sleeping
going around
getting old
82
araha
Arahat
maha
honoring, being noble or great.
NG-7 (Pum Group)
Original Suffix: -a
Gender: Masculine
Singuar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Pura
pum, pumo
bho puma, pum
pumna, puma
pumun, pumn, pumena
pumuno, pumassa
pumun, pumasm, -mh, -
pumono, pumassa
pumne, -asmi, -mhi, -e
pumno, pum
bhonto pumno, pum
pumno, pume
pumhehi, -bhi, pumehi, -bhi
pumna
pumnehi, -bhi, pumehi, -bhi
pumna
pumesu
Members
yuv (youth), Maghav (Deva King) addh (journey)
NG-8 (Rja Group)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Original Suffix: -a
Gender: Masculine
Singuar
Pura
rj
bho rja, rj
rjna, rja
ra, rjin, rjena
rao, rjino
ra
rao, rjino
rae, rjini
rjno
bhonto rjno
rjno
rjhi, -bhi, rjehi, -bhi
raa, rjna, rjna
rjhi, -bhi, rjehi, -bhi
raa, rjna, rjna
rjsu, rjesu
Members: Rja = king; brahm = brahm; atta = oneself, ego
NG-9 (Satth Group)
Original Suffix: -u
83
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Gender: Masculine and feminine

Singuar
Pura
satth
bho sattha, satth
satthra
satthr, satthun
satthu, satthuno, satthussa
satthr, satthun
satthu, satthuno, satthussa
satthari
satthro
bhonto satthro
satthro
satthrehi, -bhi, satthhi, -bhi
satthrna, satthna, satthna
satthrehi, -bhi, satthhi, -bhi
satthrna, satthna, satthna
satthresu, satthsa
Members
satthu
kattu
bhattu
vattu
netu, nettu
nattu
dhtu
pitu
bhtu
jmtu
mtu
dhtu
teacher
doer
husband
speaker
carrier
grand-son
carrier
father
brother
son-in-law
mother (feminine)
daughter (feminine)
NG 10 (Ratti Group)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Original Suffix: -i
Gender: Femine
Singuar
Pura
ratti
bho ratti
ratti
rattiy, raty
rattiy, raty
rattiy, raty
rattiy, raty
rattiy, raty, rattiya, -tya, ratto
ratt, rattiyo, ratyo

bhotiyo ratt, rattiyo, ratyo
ratt, rattiyo, ratyo
ratthi, -bhi, rattihi, -bhi
rattna, rattina
ratthi, -bhi, rattihi, -bhi
rattna, rattina
rattsu, rattisu
84
Members
ratti
mati
nbhi
bhmi
bodhi
khanti
yuvati
osadhi
Pli
siddhi
iddhi
kitti
yutti
anguli
night
knowledge
navel
earth
enlightenment
forbearance
unmarried young woman
herb
Pl i
accomplishment
power
fame
logic, reference, proof
finger
dundubhi
big drum
NG 11 (Ygu Group)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Original Suffix: -u
Gender: Feminine
Singuar
Pura
ygu
bhito ygu
ygu
yguy
yguy
yguy
yguy
yguy, yguya
yg, yguyo
bhotiyo yg, yguyo
yg, yguyo
yghi, -bhi, yguhi, -bhi
ygna, yguna
yghi, -bhi, yguhi, -bhi
ygna, yguna
ygsu, ygusu
Members
ygu
dhtu
ksu
dhenu
daddu
rice porridge
element
hole
cow
ringworm
85
kan du
itchiness
karen u female elephant
rajju
rope
sassu
mother-in-law
piyangu
certain kind of tree
ulu
star
NG 12 (Vadh Group)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Basic Ending: -
Gender: Feminine
Singuar
Pura
Vadh
bhoti vadhu
vadhu
vadhuy
vadhuy
vadhuy
vadhuy
vadhuy, vadhuya
vadh, vadhuyo
bhotiyo vadh, vadhuyo
vadh, vadhuyo
vadhhi, -bhi
vadhna
vadhhi, -bhi
vadhna
vadhsu
Members
vadh
jamb
cam
kacch
sarabh
sarab
subh
vmr
ngansr
daughter-in-law
a certain kind of tree
warrior
itch, a skin disease
a certain kind of reptile
crown
pretty eyebrows
woman with pretty legs
woman with legs like an elephants trunk
NG-13 (Aggi Group)
Original Suffix: -i
Gender: Masculine
Singuar Pura
86
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
aggi
bho aggi
aggi
aggin
aggissa, aggino
aggism, -mh, aggin
aggissa, aggino
aggismi, aggimhi
(aggini), agg, aggayo

bhnoto agg, aggayo
agg, aggayo
agghi, -bhi, aggihi, -bhi
aggna, aggina
agghi, -bhi, aggihi, -bhi
aggna, aggina
aggsu, aggisu
Members
aggi
fire
di
beginning
bydhi sickness
mahesi
Buddha (mahes = queen belongs to naddi)
isi
hermit
sandhi
combination (pati-sandhi = birth NG-12)
gan thi
knot
muni
Buddha
kucchi
belly, stomach
asi
royal sword
pn i
hand
ahi
snake
kimi
insect, bug
ari
enemy
ti
relative
bali
tax, customs duty
atithi
guest
NG-14 (At t hi Group, Neuter)
Original Suffix: -i
Gender: Neuter
1.
2.
3.
4.
at t hi
at t h, at t hni
bho at t hi
bhontni at t hi at t hni
At t hi
At t h At t hni
at t hinat t hhi, -bhi ( and so on)
Members of Neuter with i-Suffix
Atthi
satthi
bone
thigh
87
dadhi
akkhi, acchi
vri
sappi
yoguard
eye
water
butter
These are the same as the masculine i-ending aggi except for aggini. Two aspects are different
in that they are neuter and have ni instead of yo; and no ni-ending in the 1st form singular like
aggini, which is particular to this noun only.
NG-15 (Dan d Group)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Original Suffix: -
Gender: Masculine
Singuar
Pura
Dan d ,
bho dan d
dan d i, dan d ina,
dan d in
dan d issa, dan d ino
dan d isa, -mh, -n
dan d issa, dan d ino
dan d ismi, -mhi, -ni
dan d , dan d ino

bhonto dan d , dan d ino
dan d , dan d ino
dan d hi, -bhi
dan d na
dan d hi, -bhi
dan d na
dan d su
Members
dan d
hatth
dth
gan
sagh
sm
gm
gman
yog
rog
sukh
dukkh
cr
cg
kusal
a hermit with secret stick

elephant
wild animals with fangs (like lions, snake)
founder of a gang
president of sangha
master, owner
traveler
head of village
meditator
sickly
happy one
unhappy one
practitioner
generous one
healthy one
88
NG-16 (Sukhakri Group, Neuter)
Original Suffix: -
Gender: Neuter
1.
2.
3.
4.
Singuar
sukha-kri
bho sukha-kri
sukha-kri, sukha-krina
sukha-krin (and so on)
Pura
sukha-k, sukha-krni
bhontni sukha-k, sukha-krni
sukha-k, sukha-krni
Members of Neuter with -suffix

sukha-kr (dna), sgha-yy (fast-moving mind) are the same as the masculine -ending dan d .
They differ in that they have the i-suffix 1st form singular, and the ni-suffix 1st and 2nd forms
plural.
NG-17 (Bhikkhu-ed Group)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Original Suffering: -u
Gender: Masculine
Singuar
Pura
bhikkhu
bho bhikkhu
bhikkhu
bhikkhun
bhikkhussa, -no
bhikkhusm, -mh, n
bhikkhussa, -no
bhikkhusmi, -mhi
bhikkh, bhikkhavo
bhonto bhikkh, bhikkhave, bhikkhavo
bhikkh, bhikkhavo
bhikkhhi, -bhi, bhikkhuhi, -bhi
bhikkhna, bhikkhuna
bhikkhhi, -bhi, bhiikhuhi, -bhi
bhikkhna, bhikkhuna
bhikkhsu, bhikkhusu
Members
bhikkhu
patu
snu
bhnu
rhu
ketu
pagu
ucchu
monk
good one
wood, or forested hill
sun
Rhu deva (legendary giant spirit)
peak
disable
sugar cane
89
sindhu
idhu
velu, venu
neru, meru
guru
usu
hetu
jantu
ocean
firewood, fuel
bamboo
Mt. Meru (the mountain at the center of the universe)
teacher
arrow
reason
a living being
NG-18 (yu Group, Neuter)
Original Suffix: -u
Gender: Neuter
Below are u-ending neuter nouns.
yu
cakkhu
vasu
dru
madhu honey
ambu
tipu
higu
sigu /siggu
matthu
vatthu
jatu
slu
assu
phalu
bindu
life
eye
jewellery
timber/ wood
water
led
the plant asafetida
ginger
buttermilk
location/ base
bitumen pitch
edible root of water lily
tear
a knot or joint in a reed
dot
NG-19 (Sayambb Group)

Original Suffix: -
Gender: Masculine
Singuar
1. sayambh
Pura
sayambh, sayambhuvo
90
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
bho sayambh
sayambhu
sayambhun s
sayambhussa, -no
sayambhusm, -mh, -n
sayambhussa, -no
sayambhusmi, -mhi
bhonto sayambh, sayambhuvo

sayambh, sayambhuvo
ayambhhi, -bhi
sayambhna
sayambhhi, -bhi
sayambhna
sayambhsu.
Members
abhibh, vattabh, sambh, pabh, vibh, parbhibh are all the same as sayambh.
For sabba, vedag, vi, vo is replaced with no. For sahabh, both vo and no
are available.
NG-20 (Gotrabh Group, Neuter)
Original Suffix: -
Gender: Neuter
Gotrabh (certain kind of mind-unit just before the moment of enlightenment),

dhamma (dhamma-knowing mind) are the same as sukha-kr.
NG-21 (Nad Group)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Original Suffix: -
Gender: Feminine
Singuar
Pura
nad
bhito nad
nadi, nadiya
nadiy, najj
nadiy, najj
nadiy, najj
nadiy, najj
nadiy,, nadiya, najj
nad, nadiyo, najjo

bhotiyo nad, nadiyo, najjo
nad, nadiyo, najjo
nadhi, -bhi
nadna
nadhi, -bhi
nadna
nadsu
Members
nad
itth
river
woman
91
kumr/ tarun
brhman
sakh
mtuln
sir
bhot
gacchant, gacchat
gun avant, gun avat
gv
ds
puthav/ pathav
young unmarried woman

brahmin woman
female friend
aunt
grace
female master
female traveler
honorable woman
cow
slave
earth
NG-2 2(Gahapatn-ed Group)
Original Suffix: -in

Gender: Feminine
Singuar
Pura
1. gahapatn
2. bhoti gahapatn
3. gahapatni, -niya
gahapatn, gahapatnyo
bhotiyo gahapatn, gahapatnyo
gahapatn, gahapatnyo
(The rest is the same as itth)

Members
bhikkhun
rjin
dan din
pokkharan
yakkhin
paracitta-vidn
female monk
queen
woman with a stick
lake
female ghost
a woman who can read anothers mind
FEMALE SUFFIXES (-, -, -in)

- Suffix: is very common after nouns that indicate both male and female:
Mae
Femae
sunakho (dog)
sunakh (bitch),
92
sukaro (pig)
makkato (monkey)
yakkho (ghost)
skar (female pig),

makkat (female monkey),
yakkh / yakkhin (female ghost) and so on.
This - suffix is also quite common after the nouns with such original suffixes as -ava, -ika,
-eyya, -anta, -antu:
Mae
Femae
mnavo
nviko
gotamo
gacchanto
gun avanto
mnav (young woman)

nvik (wife of a sailor)
gotam (Queen Gotam)
gacchant (female traveler)
gun avant (honorable woman)
The -in suffix: It is common after nouns with such original suffixes as i, , u, :
Mae
Femae
gahapati
dan d
bhikkhu
paracitta-vid
gahapatin (female house-holder)

dan d in (female hermit with sacred stick)
bhikkhun (nun)
paracitta-vidn (woman who can read others mind)
The suffix: It is very common after the a-ending nouns that modify female nouns:
abhirp ka (pretty woman)

nl ml (blue flower)
93
PRONOUN GROUP (PG)
(PG-1) I/ We
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Singuar
Pura
aha
ma, mama
may, me
mama, mayh, amha, mama me
may
mama, mayh, amha, mama me
mayi
maya, amhe, no
amhe, amhka, no
amhehi, amhebhi, no
amhka, asmka, amha, no
amhehi, amhebhi
amhka, asmka, amha, no
amhesu, asmesu
(PG-2) You
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Singuar
Pura
tva, tuva
ta, tava, tuva, tva
tay, tvay, te
tava, tuyha, tumha, te
tay, tvay
ava, tuyha, tumha, te
tayi, tvayi
tumhe, vo
tumhe, tumhkam, vo
tumhehi, -bhi, vo
tumhka, tumha, vo
tumhehi, -bhi, vo
tumhka, tumha, vo
tumhesu
(PG-3) He / They
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Singuar
Pura
aya
ima
anena, imin
imassa, assa
imasm, imamh, asm
imassa, assa
imasmi, imamhi, asmi
ime
ime
imehi, imebhi, ehi, ebhi
imesa, imesna, esa, esna
imesa, imesna, esa, esna
imesu, esu
(PG-4) It / They
94
Singuar
Pura
1. ida, ima
2. ida, ima
3. anena, imin
imni
imni
(The rest are the same as masculine.)
(PG-5) She / They
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Singuar
Pura
aya
ima
imya
imya, ass, assya, imiss, imissya
imya,
imya, ass, assya, imiss, imissya
imya, assa, imissa
im, imyo
im, imyo
imhi, imbhi
imsa, imsna
imhi, imbhi
imsam, imsna
imsu
(PG-6) That / Those (Mascuine)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Singuar
Pura
so
na, ta
nena, tena
nassa, assa, tassa
nasm, asm, tasm, namh, tamh
nassa, assa, tassa
nasmi, asmi, tasmi, namhi, tamhi
ne, te
ne, te
nehi, nebhi, tehi, tebhi
nesa, nesna, tesa, tesna
nehi, nebhi, tehi, tebhi
nesa, nesna, tesa, tesna
nesu, tesu
(PG-7) That / Those (Neuter)

Singuar
1. na, ta
2. na, ta
3. nena, tena
Pura
nni, tni
nni, tni
nehi, nebhi
(The rest are the same as masculine)
95
(PG-8) That / Those (Feminine)

Singuar
Pura
1.
2.
3.
4.
s
n, nyo, t, tyo
na, ta
n, nyo, t, tyo
nya, tya
nhi, nbhi, thi, tbhi
tiss, tass, nass, ass, tissya, tassya, nassya, assya, nya, tya;
nsna, tsa, tsna
5. nya, tya nhi,
nbhi, thi, tbhi
6. tiss, tass, nass, ass, tissya, tassya, nassya, assya, nya, tya;
nsna, tsa, tsna
7. tissa, tassa, nassa, nya, tya
nsu, tu
(PG-9) That / Those (Mascuine)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Singuar
Pura
eso
eta
etena
etassa
etasm, etamh
etassa
etasmi, etamhi
ete
ete
etehi, etebhi
etesa, etesna
etehi, etebhi
etesa, etesna
etesu
(PG-10) That / Those (Neuter)

Singuar
1. eta
2. eta
Pura
etni
etni
(PG-11) That / Those (Feminine)

Singuar
1. es
Pura
et, etyo
nsa,
nsa,
96
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
eta
etya
etya, etiss, etissya
etya
etya, etiss, etissya
etya, etissa
et, etyo
ethi, etbhi
etsa, etsna
ethi, etbhi
etsa, etsna
etsu
(PG-12) Wh (Mascuine)
(Relative Pronoun)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Singuar
Pura
yo
ya
yena
yassa
yasm, yamh
yassa
yasmi, yamhi
ye
ye
yehi, yebhi
yesa, yesna
yehi, yebhi
yesa, yesna
yesu
(PG-13) Wh (Neuter)
(Relative Pronoun)
Singuar
1. ya
2. ya
Pura
yni
yni
(PG-14) Wh (Feminine)
(Relative Pronoun)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Singuar
Pura
y
ya
yya
yya, yass
y, yyo
y, yyo
yhi, ybhi
ysa, ysna
97
5. yya
6. yya, yass
7. yya, yassa
yhi, ybhi
ysa, ysna
ysu
(PG-15) Who? (Mascuine)

Singuar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Pura
ko
ke
ka
ke
kena
kehi, kebhi
kassa, kissa
kesa, kesna
kasm, kamh
kehi, kebhi
kassa, kissa
kesa, kesna
kasmi, kismi, kamhi, kimhi,
kesu
(PG-16) Which / What? (Neuter)

Singuar
1. ki
2. ki
Pura
kni
kni
(All the rest are the same as masculine.)
(PG-17) Who? (Feminine)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Singuar
Pura
k
ka
kya
kya, kass
kya
kya, kass
kya, kassa
k, kyo
k, kyo
khi, kbhi
ksa, ksna
khi, kbhi
ksa, ksna
ksu
(PG-18) Somebody / Anybody
98
If ki has the suffix ci, it becomes koci (masculine), kaci (neuter), kci (feminine) and so
on, they translate as somebody.
If ki has the prefix yo, ya, y in addition to the suffix ci, then it becomes yo koci
(masculine), ya kaci (neuter), y kci (feminine) and so on. They translate as anybody/
whosoever.
NUMBERING
(PG-19) One
The word eka generally means one. However, it is used in many senses as follows:
number (sankhy), same or similar (tulya), no two or unique (a-tulya), alone (a-sahya),
combination (missana), noble (settha),
other one (aa), true (sacca), certain (mukkhya), a little
bit (appa), entire (kevala).

Among its meanings, the first four have only singular forms as follows:
Mascuine: eko, eka, ekena, ekassa, ekasm, -mh, ekass, ekasmi, -mhi.
Neuter: eka, eka, ekena (the rest are the same as masculine)
Feminine: ek, eka, ekya, ekya, ekiss, -----ekya, ekissa, eksu.
(PG-20) Two (in a genders) Ony Pura

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
dve, duve
dve, duve
dvhidvibhi
dvinna, duvinna
dvhi, dvibhi
dvinna, duvinna
dvsu, dvisu
(PG-21) Three (Mascuine) Ony Pura

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
tayo
tayo
thi, tbhi, tihi, tibhi
tinna, tinnna
tinna, tinnna
99
7. tsu, tisu
(PG-22) Three (Neuter)

1. tni
2. tni
3. thi, tbhi, tihi, tibhi
(The rest are all the same as masculine.)
(PG-23) Three (Feminine)

1.
2.
3.
4.
tisso
tisso
tissanna (and so on)
(PG-24) Four (Mascuine) Pura Ony

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
cattro
cattro
cathi, catbhi, catuhi, catubhi
catunna
cathi, catbhi, catuhi, catubhi, catubbhi
catunna
catsu, catusu
(PG-25) Four (Neuter)

1. cattri
2. cattri
3. cathi (The rest are all the same as masculine)
(PG-26) Four (Feminine)

1. catasso
2. catasso
3. cathi, catbhi, catuhi, catubbhi
100
4. catassna (The rest are the same as masculine)
(PG-27) Five (In a gender)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
paca
paca
pacahi, -bhi
pacanna,
pachi, -bhi
pacanna
pacasu
(PG-28) Genders and Numbers
From dvi (two) to atth-rasa (eighteen) are always plural.

vsati (twenty) and navuti (ninety) are feminine singular.
From sata (hundred) to asankhyeyya (100,000,000,000,000) are neuter, singular.
Koti (ten millions), Pakoti (one billion), Koti-pakoti (a) and Khobhin are feminine
singular.
(PG-29) A/ Everybody (Mascuine)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Singuar
Pura
sabbo
bho sabba, sabb
sabba
sabbena
sabbassa
sabbasm, -mh
sabbassa
sabbasmi, -mhi
sabbe
bhonto sabbe
sabbe
sabbehi, -bhi
sabbesam, sabbesna
sabbehi, -bhi
sabbesam, sabbesna
sabbesu
(PG-30) A/ Everybody (Neuter)

Singuar
Pura
1. sabba
sabbni
2. bho sabba, sabb
bhavantni sabbni
3. sabba sabbni (All the rest are the same as masculine)
101
(PG-31) A/ Everybody (Feminine)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Singuar
Pura
sabb
bhoti sabbe
sabba
sabbya
sabbya, sabbass
sabbya
sabbya, sabbass
sabbya, sabbassa
sabbyo
bhotiyo sabb, sabbyo
sabb, sabbyo
sabbhi, -bhi
sabbsa, sabbsna
sabbhi, sabbbhi
sabbsa, sabbsna
sabbsu

The Buddha's Teaching on Attachment and Karma

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

The Buddha's Teaching on Attachment and Karma

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

1

purisasmi, -mhi, -e(in, on, a man) purisesu (in, on, at men)

1st form subject (katt)

Atthi (There are)

Noun Form: Putt, dhamma belong to NG-1; att to NG-8

Some More Exampes

Parama lbha (paramount gain)

Marcikpam sa. Sakhr kadalpam

Phen apin d a (fizz) + upama (like) = phen apin d pama

Forms and Functions:

The Unique Features of P i Syntaxes:

Forms and Functions:

Ariya-svako (a noble Sukheti (delights)

Forms and Functions:

2nd FORM (Adverb of Time/ Distance)

Sace te agaru (If

Eka-ratta (for one

Beow Are Some More Exampes:

Buddha seated with sole posture for seven days.

Sattha (for seven

Bhagav tattheva Rjagahe vassa vasi, tattha hemanta, tattha gimha.

Vassa (for rainy

Yaso cattro mse na hetth-psda

Yaso (Mr. Yaso)

Cattro mse (for four

2nd FORM (Distance Adverb)

yojana (for one yojana)

Column -1: Aha (understood) is PG-1

kammam karoti. (Majjhima-pan n sa 70) [Pi here means also.]

Pdehi (with feet), Ssena (with

(with trunk) [pi means also.]

Forms and Functions:

Column-1: ngo NG-1

Some More Exampes of (S.V. O.I.):

aamaa (each other)

aamaa (each other)

Ssa (each others head)

Satthehi (with weapons)

Forms and Functions:

dhipateyyena. (Aguttara-2, 27)

yun (with longevity) van n ena

Forms and Functions:

Column-1: dyako NG-1

Pubbe sannivsena (for having lived together before)

Forms and Functions:

Ekagghano selo (rocky mountain)

Na samrati (never shakes)

Vtena (due to wind)

Forms and Functions:

Column-1: selo, ekaggano NG-1

Hn-dhimuttik (people Sasandanti

Forms and Functions:

Na vivadmi (not argue)

Lokena (with the world)

Forms and Functions:

Dev (divine beings)

Pindaptikassa bhikkhuno (for alms-seeker

Forms and Functions:

Bhagavato (to the Buddha)

Forms and Functions:

Itthina (to women)

cikkheyya (can tell)