Thesis 82488

FACULTEIT GENEESKUNDE EN FARMACIE
Vakgroep Menselijke Ecologie

Master Programme in Human Ecology
Integration of Land Susceptibility Classification System

and Vegetation Change Detection
--o-o-A case study of Dakrong District, Vietnam
Thesis Presented to Obtain the Degree of Master in Human Ecology
Ngo Dang Tri (Roll No. 82488)

August 2007
Promoter: Prof. Dr. Luc Hens
Declaration and Approval

I hereby declare that this thesis submitted for the Master degree in Human Ecology, at the
Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), is my own original work and has not previously been
submitted to any other institution of higher education for award of any degree. All sources
consulted and quoted are acknowledged by means of a comprehensive list of references.
Signature ...
Date .
(Ngo Dang Tri)
Approval
This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as the Vrije Universiteit
Brussels promoter.
Signature ...
(Prof. Dr. Luc Hens)
Date .
Dedicated
To my beloved parents Ng Thit Cng
and o Th Hu
Knh tng cha m thn yu
Acknowledgments
First of all, I would like to extend my profoundest gratitude to my promoter,
Prof. Luc Hens, for his invaluable comments and guidance through every stage of
my thesis from the formulation of the research proposal to the thesis writing.
With the sincerest regards, I wish to thank Dr. Ann Van Herzele for her ideas,
supervision and comments; I also wish to thank Prof. Rob De Wulf for his
comments in the beginning period of the thesis writing.
I would like to thank to Mr. Canters Frank and Mr. Tesfazghi Ghebre Egziabeher
for their teaching on Remote Sensing and GIS technical.
My gratitude is extended to all staff members of Landscape Ecology
Department, IG, VAST for their support of valuable data of study area. The
author also highly appreciates very helpful assistance from Mr. Nguyen Thanh
Tuan who works together with the author in data collected and processed.
My appreciations further go to the Human Ecology Programme coordinators and
teaching professors at Vrije Universiteit Brussel who equipped me with the
required interdisciplinary research knowledge and skills.
My appreciations also go to the Flemish Interuniversity Council (Vlaamse
Interuniversitaise Raad -VLIR) for providing me a scholarship that helped me
not only improve my academic career but also informally learn the cultural
diversity of global citizens.
Most especially, my deepest gratefulness is extended to my parents and siblings
for their inspiration and encouragement.
Last but never least is the heartfelt thanks to my betrothed, Nguyen Thi Nhu
Trang, for her continuous spiritual support to me, and for the hardship she bears
during my absence.
ABSTRACT
Dakrong is located in the up-stream area of ThachHan basin, which is one of the largest basins
in the centre of Vietnam. The declining of forest cover (1945 - 1990) in Dakrong leads to
adverse impacts on the environment of the entire ThachHan basin such as soil erosion,
siltation and runoff moderating ability. It also has flooding impacts on flood-plain area of the
basin.
In recognizing the role of vegetation cover, since 1989, the local government has made many
attempts in forest protection and plantation. Nevertheless, despite of gaining in forest cover,
adverse impacts of forest loss have not reduced clearly and significantly, natural disasters in
the entire basin are continuing uncontrollable. One important reason of this situation is:
though vegetation cover increased, it did not cover the sensitive areas to prevent degradation
of land and water, and to mitigate the risk of disasters. Or in other word, it is lack of a proper
land use plan for the Dakrong district.
This thesis develops a new land classification system, call Land susceptibility classification
(LSC), aiming at classifying land of the Dakrong district into different sensitive classes
toward forestry management and conservation activities. Along with developing and
implementing the LSC, the thesis implements vegetation change detection (VC) in order to
detect the change of vegetation in Dakrong in the period 1989-2005. The integration of VC
and LSC shows how the change among cover types at a land area is and whether the
change is compatible with the recommended use for such land area where the change
occurred. Based on that, the thesis assesses the compatibility of the vegetation change with
the recommendation of land use proposed by the LSC system, and provides information
supporting for master land use planning for the Dakrong district.
Keyword: Change detection, Dakrong, FAO land suitability classification, GIS, Image
classification, Land classification, Land susceptibility classification, NDVI image difference,
Post-classification change detection, Remote sensing, USDA land capability classification.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................... i
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... ii
Table of contents .................................................................................................................... iii
List of figure ........................................................................................................................... vi
List of tables........................................................................................................................... vii
Abbreviation ......................................................................................................................... viii
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1
1.1.
Introduction ................................................................................................................................1
1.2.
Statement of the research problem...........................................................................................3
1.3.
Research objectives ....................................................................................................................6

1.3.1.
General objective ......................................................................................................... 6
1.3.2.
Specific objectives ........................................................................................................ 6
1.4.
Research questions .....................................................................................................................6
1.5.
Definitions and concepts ............................................................................................................7
1.6.
The research tools ......................................................................................................................8
1.7.
1.8.
1.6.1.
Remote sensing (RS) ................................................................................................... 8
1.6.2.
Geographical information system (GIS) ..................................................................... 8
Limitation and significance of the research .............................................................................9

1.7.1.
Limitation of the research ........................................................................................... 9
1.7.2.
Significance of the research ........................................................................................ 9
Research logical framework ....................................................................................................10
Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................12

2.1.
Land classification ...................................................................................................................12

2.1.1.
USDA land capability classification ......................................................................... 13
2.1.2.
FAO land suitability classification ........................................................................... 15
2.1.3.
Remarks ..................................................................................................................... 17
iii
2.2.
Vegetation cover change detection .........................................................................................17

2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.2.3.
Post-classification change detection ......................................................................... 18

2.2.1.1.
Image classification methods .................................................................19
2.2.1.2.
Land cover map comparison ..................................................................21
NDVI image difference ............................................................................................. 21

2.2.2.1.
Radiometric normalization .....................................................................22
2.2.2.2.
NDVI calculation and image difference.................................................23
A hybrid approach for change detection .................................................................. 23
Chapter 3. STUDY AREA ....................................................................................................25

3.1.
Study area .................................................................................................................................25

3.1.1.
3.1.2.
Bio-physical conditions ............................................................................................. 25

3.1.1.1.
Topology and hydrology ........................................................................25
3.1.1.2.
Geomorphology......................................................................................26
3.1.1.3.
Edaphology ............................................................................................26
3.1.1.4.
Meteorology ...........................................................................................26
3.1.1.5.
Land use .................................................................................................27
Socio-Economic ......................................................................................................... 27
3.1.2.1.
Ethnic Groups ........................................................................................27
3.1.2.2.
Health Care ............................................................................................27
3.1.2.3.
Education ...............................................................................................28
3.1.2.4.
Transportation ........................................................................................28
3.1.2.5.
Cultivation practice and household incomes ..........................................28
Chapter 4. MATERIAL AND METHODS .........................................................................29

4.1.
Materials ...................................................................................................................................30
4.2.
Methods and process................................................................................................................31

4.2.1.
4.2.2.
4.2.3.
Land susceptibility classification .............................................................................. 31

4.2.1.1.
Establishing factor maps ........................................................................33
4.2.1.2.
Regression analysis ................................................................................37
4.2.1.3.
Land susceptibility classification map ...................................................37
Vegetation change detection ..................................................................................... 37

4.2.2.1.
Pre-processing ........................................................................................38
4.2.2.2.
Post-classification change detection.......................................................39
4.2.2.3.
NDVI image difference ..........................................................................40
4.2.2.4.
The hybrid approach for change detection .............................................40
The compatibility of vegetation change .................................................................... 41

iv
Chapter 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .........................................................................42

5.1.
Results .......................................................................................................................................42
5.1.1.
Land Susceptibility Classification ............................................................................. 42
5.1.2.
Vegetation change detection ..................................................................................... 43
5.1.3.
5.2.
5.1.2.1.
Change detected using the post-classification ........................................43
5.1.2.2.
Change detected using NDVI image difference .....................................45
5.1.2.3.
Change detected using the hybrid approach ...........................................46
5.1.2.4.
Accuracy assessment for change detection ............................................47
Compatibility of vegetation change........................................................................... 48
Discussion..................................................................................................................................49
5.2.1.
Question 1:
Why should we develop a new classification system oriented
towards forestry management and conservation activities for the Dakrong

district as well as other up-stream areas? ................................................................. 49
5.2.2.
Question 2: How is the efficiency of different methods of vegetation cover/use

change detection? ....................................................................................................... 50
5.2.3.
Question 3: How does vegetation change during the period 1989-2005 in the
study area? Arguably although forest and trees in Vietnam increased, but it did
not cover the sensitive areas. Is the criticism right for Dakrong? ............................. 52
Chapter 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...........................................55

6.1.
Conclusions ...............................................................................................................................55
6.2.
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................56
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................58
APPENDIX .............................................................................................................................64
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.
Chain of the effects of deforestation ......................................................................2
Figure 2.
Changes on forest area in Vietnam during the period 1943-2003 ..........................4
Figure 3.
Percentage of forest area in the Dakrong district in 1945, 1990, 2000 ..................4
Figure 4.
Flowchart to produce the compatible vegetation change map .............................11
Figure 5.
Framework of the post-classification change detection method ..........................18
Figure 6.
Framework of the NDVI image difference method .............................................22
Figure 7.
Framework of the hybrid approach for change detection.....................................24
Figure 8.
Quang Tri province located in Vietnam ...............................................................25
Figure 9.
Hill shade map of Dakrong district ......................................................................25
Figure 10. The framework to establish the compatible vegetation change map....................29
Figure 11. Sensitive land classes ...........................................................................................31
Figure 12. The framework for developing the susceptibility classification map...................32
Figure 13. Post-classification method for change detection in period 1989 - 2005 ..............40
Figure 14. The Hybrid method for change detection in period 1989 - 2005 .........................41
Figure 15. The framework to establish the compatible vegetation cover map ......................41
Figure 16. Land susceptibility classification map .................................................................42
Figure 17. Vegetation map and the distribution of land cover types in 1989 ........................44
Figure 18. Vegetation map and the distribution of land cover types in 2005 ........................44
Figure 19. General trend of cover change (1989-2005).........................................................45
Figure 20. Map of change/no-change detected by NDVI image difference ..........................46
Figure 21. Vegetation change map detected using the hybrid method ..................................47
Figure 22. Compatible vegetation change map .....................................................................48
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1
The severity of the huge flood in Quang Tri occurred in 1999 ..............................5
Table 2
Land capability classes (USDA system) ..............................................................14
Table 3
A treatment oriented scheme for hilly marginal lands .........................................15
Table 4
Land suitability classes and subclasses ................................................................16
Table 5
FAO land suitability classification applied in Vietnam .......................................16
Table 6
Outline of images and maps used in this study ....................................................30
Table 7
Proposed factors for the land susceptibility classification system .......................33
Table 8
Sensitivity classes .................................................................................................42
Table 9
Change detected using the post-classification method .........................................45
Table 10
Change detected using the hybrid approach .........................................................46
Table 11
Accuracies of the post-classification and the NDVI image difference ................47
Table 12
Compatible vegetation change .............................................................................49
vii
ABBREVIATIONS
CDE
Centre for Development and Environment
CVC
Compatibility of Vegetation Change
ESRI
Environmental Systems Research Institute
FSSPP
Forest Sector Support Program and Partnership
GIS
Geography Information System
GTZ
German Agency for Technical Cooperation
IG, VAST
Institute of Geography, Vietnam Academic Science and Technology
ISRIC
International Soil Reference and Information Centre
IUCN
The World Conservation Union
LSC
Land Susceptibility Classification
MARD
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Vietnam
MRC
Mekong River Commission
NLWRA
National Land and Water Resources Audit
QTDoSTE
Quang Tri Department of Science, Technology and Environment
QTDoS
Quang Tri Department of Statistic
QTSA
Quang Tri Statistical Annual
RS
Remote Sensing
RSI
Research System Inc
SMRP
Sustainable Management of Resource in the Lower Mekong Basin
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
VC
Vegetation cover/use Change
VFPD
Vietnam Forest Protection Department
VNSCFC
Vietnam National Steering Committee on Flood control
viii
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.
Introduction
Vegetation cover and changes in this cover, in particular in the up-stream areas, have serious
impacts not only on land, water, air and biological resources, but also on socio-economic
aspect and human health. The reduction of vegetation cover causes soil erosion, land slides,
water degradation and biodiversity loss. It also increases the number and the severity of
droughts and floods in down-stream areas (ARCADIS, 2000). As a result, it restrains
economic development and human health. An overview of the affects of vegetation loss is
summarized in figure 1.
International agreements and conferences have been organized aiming at combating
deforestation (ref to section 1.2). As a consequent, the areas cover by forest and trees have
been increased in many countries, in which Vietnam is also listed among the top 10 world
gainers of forest cover during the period 1990-2000 (IUCN 2006). Nevertheless, the adverse
impacts of forest loss in Vietnam are not significantly decreasing (Phong, 2001; Tuan, 2001
and VNSCFC, 2002). In particular, natural disasters, which are caused from forest loss, still
occur severe. An example is the flood in 1999 in the Quang Tri province which killed 58
people and caused loss of property worth about 18 millions USD. One important reason of this
situation is: though vegetation cover increased, it did not cover the sensitive areas where
strictly require vegetation cover to prevent degradation of land and water, and to mitigate the
risk of disasters. In other words, it is lack of a proper forestation plan at the upstream areas.
On the other hand, although conservation is an essential task, the competitive demand for land
is increasing and arable land is becoming scarcer. It causes unregulated conversion of land
use. In this context, forest without or with limited ecological value should be converted to
meet the demands of arable land. In contrast, the forest located at sensitive areas must be
strictly protected. All activities of land use conversion should be monitored and planed.
In this regard, implementing a land classification oriented toward forestry, which focuses on
conservation without neglecting effectively using of land, is really necessary in upper-stream
areas. In additional, along with its implementations, monitoring the conversion of vegetation
cover (Vegetation change detection) is also very important. Both of these tasks and the
integration of them provides considerable sources for a master land use planning.
1
(Fuel) wood
scarcity
Reduced
cooking
Increased fuel-wood &
fodder collection time
Use of dung & crop
residues as fuel
Loss of bio diversity
Reduced manure and

mulch
Increased soil
erosion
Deforestation
(especially in
sloping land)
Reduced livestock
fodder
Reduced soil fertility

Downstream
sedimentation
rivers/reservoirs
Increased total
runoff
Increased flooding
Reduced hydroelectricity
Reduced irrigation
capacity
Reduced runoff in
critical periods
Reduced transport
capacity
Water pollution &
salinity
Reduce fisheries
Drinking water effects
Figure 1. Chain of the effects of deforestation (Graff, 1993)
This study applies Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System techniques in order
to develop new land classification oriented forestry; to detect the change of vegetation
cover/use (1989-2005), and incorporate the achieved results aiming to assess the compatibility
of Vegetation change in Dakrong (1989-2005) as well as supporting information for master
land use planning for the Dakrong district. The term compatibility refers to the suitability
of the change of vegetation in a land unit with the recommended use for such land unit.
Results of this thesis provide important information for assessing forestation plans and
programmes of the government as well as in proposing a master land use plan.
1.2.
Statement of the research problem
Vegetation cover retards soil loss and erosion, retains moisture in the soil, and ensures a
gradual supply of water to streams and rivers (Narendra et al., 1992). When vegetation cover
is destroyed or altered, especially in upper catchments, it leads to erosion, soil and water
degradation, landslides, siltation of water courses and reservoirs, flash floods, and salt water
intrusion (CDE, 1997). Declining of forest in upper-stream areas can lead to increase in the
rate of occurrence and severity of floods and droughts in downstream areas (ARCADIS,
2000). Figure 1 illustrates the multitude of physical effects of one form of land degradation
deforestation. This demonstrates how forest decline directly impacts on wood resources and
indirectly affects on soil and water resources. Many of the potential benefits of soil and water
conservation measures, whether for deforestation or other problems, are shown in this figure
(Graaff, 1993).
Many international agreements and conferences have been organized with attempts to combat
adverse impacts of forests and trees loss. The most well-known are the Ramsar Convention on
Wetlands (1971), the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987), the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992), United
Nations Millennium Declaration (2000), World Summit for Sustainable Development (WSSD,
2002), the World Forestry Congress (generally taken place every six years, 1926-2003), and
Ministerial Meeting on Forests (1995, 1999, 2005).
In Vietnam, before 1943, forest covered more than 43% (14 million ha) of total land surface.
After 33 years (in1976), the forest cover decreased to 33.8% (11 million ha). From 1976 to
1989, the rapid rate of population growth and socio-economic development activities
continuously resulted in forest loss and degradation as shown in figure 2 (30% (1985); 27%
(1990).
50%
Percentage of Forest cover
40%
34%
30%
27%
28%
33%
36%
20%
43%
30%
1976
1985
1990
1995
1999
2003
10%
0%
1943
Figure 2.
Changes on forest area and coverage in Vietnam during the period 1943 2003
(FSSPP, 2006)
In recognizing the role of vegetation cover, since 1989, Vietnams government has made
many attempts on afforestation and forest protection programs such as Program 327, 5-million
ha Afforestation Program, Afforestation program PAM, and German sponsored projects. In
2003, Vietnam forest covered reached 36%, increased more than 9% in comparison with 1990
(figure 2). This increase in forest cover elevated Vietnam to the top 10 world gainers of forest
cover during the period 1990-2000 (IUCN, 2006).
Dakrong is a remote district in the Quang Tri, one of the poorest provinces located in central
Vietnam. In the past, Dakrong was rich of forest cover. As many areas in Vietnam and the
world, forest cover of Dakrong was destroyed and/or conversed to other use. Figure 3 shows
the forests decline during the period 1945 1990 (from 46% decline to 21% of total area).
21%
32%
46%
1945
1990
2000
Figure 3. Percentage of forest area in the Dakrong district in 1945, 1990, 2000 (QTDoS, 2000)
Dakrong falls in up-stream area of ThachHan basin which is the largest basin and occupies
more than 70% of the Quang Tri province territory. Reduction of forest cover in Dakrong
leads to serious effects on the entire ThachHan basin. The declining of forest cover from 46%
to 21% in Dakrong (1945 - 1990) (figure 3) leads to adverse impacts on the environment such
as soil erosion, siltation and runoff moderating ability. It has also flooding impacts on floodplain area in the south-eastern areas of Quang Tri (Thuong, 1993). For example, during the
period 1900-1950, only one huge flood happened (experienced in 1928) but there were 4 huge
floods recorded during the period 1950 2000. These four huge floods occurred in 1953,
1975, 1983, and 1990 (VNSCFC, 2002).
4
Since 1989, the Quang Tri government made efforts to mitigate the situations through
stabilizing and recovering the vegetation cover. Like many regions in Vietnam, Dakrongs
vegetation cover is recovering progressively. According to QTDoS (2000), vegetation cover
has been increasing from 21% (1990) to 32% (2000) (figure 3). Nevertheless, several reports
(Phong, 2001; Tuan, 2001 and VNSCFC, 2002) indicate that despite of gain in forest cover,
the adverse impacts of forest loss have not reduced clearly and significantly, natural disasters
are still uncontrollable. The most noticeable is the huge flood in Quang Tri occurred in 1999
(table 1), which is reputed as the consequent of forest loss in the Dakrong district. These reports also
criticize forestation projects have been implemented without an appropriate location plan.
Table 1
Effect
People
Housing
Education
Agriculture
Fishery
The severity of the huge flood in Quang Tri occurred in 1999 (UNDP, 1999)
Indication
Unit
People killed and missing
No.
58
People injured
No.
Houses collapsed
No.
2,229
Houses flooded and damaged
No.
59,112
Schools collapsed
Room
183
Schools damaged
Room
1,640
Paddy flooded
Ha
4,999
Paddy destroyed
Ha
No data
Other crops flooded
Ha
7,945
Ships and boats sunk and destroyed
No.
148
Fish and shrimp lost
Ton
295
US$
18,000,000
Total Economic Loss
Damage
In this regard, developing a proper land use plan is very important for implementing a
forestation program. Land classification and vegetation change detection are the two
instruments provide important information for developing a proper land use plan.
There are many existing land classification systems. However, among them the USDA land
capability classification and the FAO land suitability classification are most widely used. They
are also the only land classification systems which have been used in Vietnam. These systems
are oriented towards agricultural crop development (these systems will be reviewed in chapter
3). Whereas, Dakrong is a mountainous district, which should be classified by a land
classification system oriented towards forestry. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a new
land classification system for the Dakrong district, which should be oriented towards forest
management and conservation activities without neglecting effectively using of land.
5
Along with implementation of a land classification, monitoring the conversion of vegetation

cover (vegetation change detection) is also very important in forestry planning. Remote
sensing technique is an extremely valuable tool for vegetation change detection and vegetation
cover mapping. It becomes more valuable for mountainous area such as Dakrong district due
to inaccessible areas in the district. However, the application of remote sensing technique for
vegetation cover change in Vietnam is still limited. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the
efficiency of different change detection methods. This thesis applied some different methods
of vegetation change detection to detect the change of vegetation of Dakrong in the period
1989-2005 and also find the most efficient method among them.
1.3.
Research objectives
1.3.1. General objective

The general objective of this study is to support information for master land use planning
in the Dakrong district.
1.3.2. Specific objectives

The specific objectives of this thesis are:
To develop a new land classification system which oriented towards forest
management and conservation activities, called Land susceptibility classification
system. Based on this system, a land susceptibility classification map is generated.
To identify and quantify the major changes in vegetation cover/use in the study area
during the periods of 1989-2005. Based on this system, a vegetation change map
(period 1989-2005) is generated.
To assess the compatibility of the vegetation change with the recommendation of land
use proposed by the land susceptibility classification system.
1.4.
Research questions
Why should we develop a new classification system oriented towards forestry

management for the Dakrong district as well as other up-stream areas? Does the new
classification system fill up the limitation of USDA land capability classification
system and FAO land suitability classification?
How is the efficiency of different methods of vegetation changes detection? (How are
the different between the results of 3 methods of change detections: the NDVI
difference; the post-classification and the hybrid method?).
How does vegetation change during the period 1989-2005 in the study area? Arguably
although forest and trees in Vietnam increased, but it did not cover the sensitive areas.
Is the criticism right for Dakrong?
1.5.
Definitions and concepts
The information about the compatibility of vegetation change can be achieved by

incorporating the results of two methods: (1) Land susceptibility classification and (2)
Vegetation change detection.
(1)
Land susceptibility classification (LSC): is a new land classification system oriented

towards forestry management and conservation activities. This thesis established the LSC in
order to classify a territory into different sensitive classes of land. Each class is
different from others by the degree of sensitivity towards land degradation and water
runoff moderate ability. In other word, each class is different from others by the strict
degree of vegetation cover demand to prevent land, water resources degradation and
mitigate disaster. The expected result of LSC is LSC map, which represents sensitive
degree of each area and the type of land use should be practiced on the identified area
(Conservation forest, Production forest, Agriculture, or other cover).
(2)
Vegetation change (VC) detection method: is applied to investigate the change of

vegetation cover/use between two different years: 1989 and 2005. The result of this
method is VC map, which represent how vegetation-cover types (Conservation forest,
Production forest, Agriculture, and other lands) change in the periods. There are many
existing change detection methods, some of the most popular methods will be
reviewed in chapter 3.
Finally, the two achieved results will be intersected to create the compatibility of vegetation
changes (CVC) map. The CVC map is the final target of this study which enables to show
how the vegetation changed and whether or not the changes are suitable with
recommendations for land use. This result expresses to some extent the efficiency of
afforestation programs toward land, water resources protection and disaster prevention as well
as economic development. The result also provides important information supporting for
proposing a master land use plan.
7
1.6.
The research tools
Remote Sensing and GIS are the main analytical tools used in this thesis. Remote sensing
(RS) and Geography Information Systems (GIS) are very suitable for a multi disciplinary
research like this study. In this study, RS&GIS are used as the main tools for data analyze
processes. The major role of RS in this study is detecting the vegetation cover/use change.
Meanwhile, GIS is used to generate Land susceptibility classification map and Compatibility
of vegetation change (CVC) map.
1.6.1. Remote sensing (RS)

Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining and interpreting information about the earth
surface and atmosphere through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact
with the earth, which measures the intensity of electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted
from the earth (Cracknell et al., 1991).
For design of meaningful conservation strategies, comprehensive information on the changes
in distribution with time is required. It is nearly impossible to acquire such information purely
on the basis of field assessment and monitoring. Remote sensing provides a systematic,
synoptic view of earth cover at regular time intervals, and has been useful for this purpose
(Nagendra, 2001). The use of RS in forest resource assessment is important because they offer
us some advantages such as: information collection of the forest with low cost, short time and
less human resources.
1.6.2. Geographical information system (GIS)

GIS is a collection of computer hardware, software, and geographic data for capturing,
managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information
(ESRI 2006). Currently, GIS is one of the most powerful tools used in resource management.
Considering GIS powers for integrating geo-referenced data, and the possibility of the
complex analyses connected with attribute information and spatial information, GIS is the best
suitable system for land classification. Other advantages of GIS in comparison with tradition
method for developing a land classification are the capacity of interpolation, the capacity of
saving time, money and human resources.
The following RS/GIS soft-wares and hard-wares used for the thesis purpose:
Software: ENVI 4.2, Arcinfo Workstation 9.0, ArcView 3.2, Mapinfo 7.5 and SPSS.
Hardware: GPS, Personal computer: PIV, 512MB ram.
8
1.7.
Limitation and significance of the research
1.7.1. Limitation of the research

As discussed before, the information about compatibility of vegetation change is achieved
based on the integration of LSC and VC detection (period 1989-2005). In which, LSC is
developed for the upstream area only. Thus, this study is limited to only the upstream areas.
The Dakrong district, Vietnam was selected as the case study for application.
The LSC system in this study is just a general zoning. For the purpose of supporting detailed
land use planning, additional studies are required to subdivide sensitive classes into suitablesubclasses. For example, production forest can be subdivided into rubber-forest, caf-forest, or
pepper-forest... However, the objective of this study stands at providing information for
proposing a master plan so LSC satisfies the objective need.
Though without neglecting economic aspect, the LSC put more focus on the environment
aspects due to this system is designed for upstream areas. The LSC system does not integrate
any socio-economical factor in classifying processes except water availability. However, if we
have enough time and money, other socio-economical such as infrastructure and location of
villages should be integrated into this classification system.
In respect of time limitation, this thesis is applied for the period 1989 2005. 1989 is the time
when the forest cover in Dakrong was lowest in history. It is also the time the Quang Tri
government started to implement policies and projects of afforestation. And 2005 is the time
when policies and projects of afforestation in Quang Tri have been implemented for 16 years.
It is also the most recent data available.
1.7.2. Significance of the research

-
The thesis developed a new land classification system, call Land susceptibility
classification system. This system is suitable for the Dakrong district and other
upstream area due to it is oriented towards forest management and conservation.
The thesis applied successfully a hybrid of post-classification and NDVI image

difference methods to detect the change of vegetation for the Dakrong district in the
period 1989-2005. The hybrid method is most efficient in comparison with single
methods (post classification and NDVI image difference method). It has obtained a
high accuracy and detailed information of the change.
9
The compatible vegetation change map, which derived from integrated the land
susceptibility classification system and the vegetation change detection, proved that the
change in vegetation in the period 1989-2005 is not compatible with recommendation of
land use that proposed by the land susceptibility classification system. It consolidates the
criticism that forestation programs and land use conversion plan in some regions in
Vietnam have been implemented with a lack of appropriate allocation plan.
Moreover, the compatible vegetation change map identified the areas which is using for an
inappropriate land use. The map also recommended the appropriate land use for such
areas. It provided important sources for master land use planning.
1.8.
Research logical framework
The logical framework of this study based on a simple premise that: It is possible to classify a
territory into units; each unit has its own recommendation for land use (land classification). At
the same time, it is possible to detect the change among different vegetation types at a certain
unit of land in a period of time (vegetation change detection). The compatible vegetation
change map, which is the result of the integration between land classification and vegetation
change detection, enables to show how the change occurred and at which recommended
vegetation type. If the change of vegetation is from another type of vegetation to a vegetation
type that recommended by land classification, it is a compatible change and should be
encourage. Otherwise, if the change is from a recommended vegetation type to another
vegetation type, it is an incompatible change and should be avoided.
This thesis implements land susceptibility classification and vegetation cover change
separately. Then, the compatible vegetation change map is produced by the integration of land
susceptibility classification and vegetation change detection. Figure 4 describes the flowchart
to produce the compatible vegetation change map. Where:
(1)
Refer to table 6. Outline of images and maps used in this study;
(2)
Refer to section 4.2.1.1. Establishing factor maps;
(3)
Refer to section 4.2.1.2. Regression analysis;
(4)
Refer to section 4.2.1.3. Land susceptibility classification map;
(5)
Refer to figure 16. Land susceptive classification;
(6)
Refer to section 4.2.2.2. The post-classification change detection;
(7)
Refer to section 4.2.2.3. The NDVI image difference;
(8)
Refer to section 4.2.2.4. The hybrid approach for change detection;
(9)
Refer to figure 21. Vegetation change map detected using the hybrid method;
(10)
Refer to figure 22. Compatible vegetation change map.
10
Land susceptibility classification

Existing map (1)
Creating
Test areas
factor maps (2)
Factors value =?
Vegetation cover change
Elevation
Slope
Soil depth
Roughness
Elevation
Slope
Soil depth
Roughness
Class = ?
Class = 1?
Class = 2?
Class = 3?
Landsat TM
1989
Landsat TM
2005
Image classification
Regression analysis
to predict coefficients (3)
Vegetation map
1989
SC = a*elevation + b*Slope + c*Soil depth

+ d*Roughness + e
(6)
Vegetation Change map (9)
Integration of the land classification and the vegetation cover change

Compatible vegetation change map (10)
Figure 4.
Flowchart to produce the compatible vegetation change map

11
Change/No change Mask
Post-classification
with mask (Hybrid) (8)
Overlay/GIS
Landsat TM
2005
NDVI difference (7)
Vegetation map
2005
Use the equation for entire area;

Sub-classification for class 3 (4)
Land susceptibility classification map (5)
Landsat TM
1989
Chapter 2. Literature review
Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
As introduced in chapter 1, the main idea of this study is the integration of a land
classification and a vegetation change detection aim to provide information for preliminary
assessing forestation plans and programs of the government as well as providing information
for a master land use planning. This chapter reviews two existing land classification systems
which are most widely used and also to be the only land classifications applied in Vietnam.
This chapter also reviews some methods of change detection.
2.1.
Land classification
Forestation is an essential activity to combat adverse impacts of vegetation loss. However,

forestation is also a costly activity and hardly affects socio-economic and environment
aspects, so it requires a proper land use master plan. Always, a land classification is one of the
key components of master planning. A Classification system is defined as a systematic
framework for putting objects into distinct groups or classes based on certain diagnostic
criteria (Kuechler and Zonneveld, 1988).
There are many land classification systems was adopted for specific purposes. Some wellknown land classification systems are USDA land capability classification, FAO Land
suitability classification, USBR Land Suitability for Irrigation, Agro-ecological Zoning, soil
survey interpretations, parametric indices, yield estimates, agro-ecological zoning, fertility
capability soil classification system, the LESA system, and soil potential ratings. These
classifications are useful only when used for their intended purposes (Rossiter, 1994). Out of
these classification systems, the USDA land capability classification and the FAO land
evaluation framework (FAO 1976) are the most widely used ones.
This section, firstly, reviews the USDA land capability classification and the FAO land
evaluation framework. After that, a general remark is stated in the section 2.1.3.
12
2.1.1. USDA land capability classification

USDA land capability classification is the earliest and best known system of land capability
mapping. The system was developed by the United States Natural Resources Conservation
Service to assess the extent to which limitations such as erosion, soil depth, wetness and
climate hinder the agricultural use (Graaff, 1993). The land classification has been adapted for
use in many other countries (Hudson, 1981). This is undoubtedly the most used land
classification system in the world, and the land evaluator will very often encounter it
(Rossiter, 1994).
USDA is applied mainly in agricultural land use planning, with emphasis on its conservation
requirements (FAO, 1984). The objective of the classification is to divide an area of land into
units (the basic units are the capability units) according to their ability to support general kinds
of land use without degradation or significant off-site effects, for farm planning (Rossiter,
1994). This system recognises eight classes arranged from Class I characterised by no or very
slight risk of damage to the land when used for cultivation, to Class VIII, very rough land that
can be safely used only for wildlife, limited recreation and watershed conservation (Graaff,
1993). Increasing class number restricts the intensity of land use (Graff, 1993) (table 2). The
value of land capability classification lies in identifying the risks attached to cultivating the
land and in indicating the soil conservation measures that are required (Morgan, 2005).
However, it must be emphasized that the prime concern of the classification is the risk of
erosion, and not productivity (Beek, 1980).
Sheng (1972, 1975, and 1986) has improved the land capability classification by making the
conservation recommendations more specific. The scheme classified lands into whether they
are cultivable and then by conservation treatments required. The lands are divided mainly
according to degree of slope and soil depth although stoniness, wetness and gully dissection
are also considered (Camirand and Evelyn, 2003). His treatment-oriented scheme developed
in Taiwan and tested on hilly land in Jamaica, includes six slope classes and four soil depth
classes. Based on suitability for tillage, this provides seven different options for land use or
recommended treatment (table 3) (Sheng, 1986).
13
Table 2
Land capability classes (USDA system) (Graaff, 1993)
Class
Characteristics and recommended land use
Deep, productive soils easily worked, on nearly level land; not subject to overland
flow; no or slight risk of damage when cultivated; use of fertilizers and lime, cover
crops, crop rotations required to maintain soil fertility and soil structure.
II
Productive soils on gentle slopes; moderate depth; subject to occasional overland

flow; may require drainage; moderate risk of damage when cultivated; use of crop
rotations, water-control systems or special tillage practices to control erosion.
III
Soils of moderate fertility on moderately steep slopes, subject to more severe

erosion; subject to sever risk of damage but can be used for crops provided plant
cover is maintained; hay or other sod crops should be grown instead of row crop.
IV
Good soils on steep slopes, subject to severe erosion; very severe risk of damage
but may be cultivated if handled with great care; keep in hay or pasture but a grain
crop may be grown once in five or six years.
Land is too wet or stony for cultivation but of nearly level slope; subject to only
slight erosion if properly managed; should be used for pasture of forestry but
grazing should be regulated to prevent plant cover being destroyed.
VI
Shallow soils on steep slopes; use for grazing and forestry; grazing should be
regulated to preserve plant cover; if plant cover is destroyed, use should be
restricted until land cover is re-established.
VII
Steep, rough, eroded land with shallow soils; also includes droughty or swampy
land; severe risk of damage even when used for pasture or forestry; strict grazing or
forest management must be applied/
VIII
Very rough land; not suitable even for woodland or grazing; reserve for wildlife,
recreation or watershed conservation
Classes I-IV denote soils suitable for cultivation;

Classes V-VIII denote soils unsuitable for cultivation.
14
Table 3
A treatment oriented scheme for hilly marginal lands (Sheng, 1986)
Slope
Gentle
Moderate
Strong
Very
strong
Steep
Very
steep
< 12%
12-27%
27-36%
36-47%
47-58%
> 58%
Deep (>90 cm)
C1
C2
C3
C4
FT
Moderately deep
(50-90 cm)
C1
C2
C3
Shallow
(20-50 cm)
C1
Soil
depth
Very shallow
(<20 cm)
C2
FT
P
C3
P
C1
C4
AF
AF
Symbols indicate most intensive use:

C1:
Annual cropping with few measures (vegetative);
C2:
Annual cropping with terracing or hillside ditches (mechanization possible);
C3:
Annual cropping with terracing or hillside ditches (walking tractor only);
C4:
Annual cropping with terracing (manual labour);
P:
Pasture; if wet, zero grazing on slopes >= 45%;
FT:
Fruit trees; if widely spaced, interspaces to be grass covered;
AF:
Agro-forestry;
F:
Forestry.
2.1.2. FAO land suitability classification

The FAO suitability classification aims to show the suitability of each land unit for each land
use. Land suitability classification specifies the suitability of land for particular crops
(Morgan, 2005). In FAO's Framework for Land Evaluation, land is first classed as suitable (S)
or not suitable (N). These suitability classes can then be further sub-divided. In practice, three
classes (S1, S2 and S3) are often used to distinguish land that is highly suitable, moderately
suitable and marginally suitable for a particular use. Two classes of 'not suitable' can usefully
distinguish land that is unsuitable for a particular use at present but which might be useable in
future (N1), from land that offers no prospect of being so used (N2) (FAO, 1976). Principally,
the system classifies all lands into order, class, subclass, and units according to the degree of
suitability and types of limitations, as given in table 4.
15
Table 4
Land suitability classes and subclasses (FAO. 1976)
Order
Class
Subclass
Unit
S1: Highly suitable
S2m
S2e-1
S2: Moderately suitable
S2e
S2e-2
S3: Marginally suitable
etc.
etc.
S: Suitable
etc.
N1: Currently not suitable
N: Not suitable
N2: Permanently not suitable
According APO (2004), since 1994, Vietnam follows the FAO framework on land
classification and land evaluation. In 1996, Vietnam published the findings of the National
Program on Vietnam land use evaluation for productive use and ecological stability. Under
this program, different sustainable land-use types of Vietnam were classified jointly by the
experts of Tran An Phong and other agencies. As a result of this program, the soil scientists of
Vietnam completed the land suitability classification for land-use planning in different
ecological zones of the whole country. The main land-use types representing Vietnams
agricultural production systems were classified as table 5. This system takes into consideration
agriculture development and improving crop productivity more than forestry and resource
conservation.
Table 5
FAO land suitability classification applied in Vietnam (Tran an Phong, 2001)
No
Area
(million ha)
Major land use types
Suitability rating
S1
S2
S3
Paddy rice
4.38
1.57
1.70
1.11
Annual industrial and subsidiary crops
1.66
0.41
0.77
0.48
Perennial industrial tree crops and fruit trees
1.84
0.54
0.73
0.57
Grass land/pasture
0.53
0.15
0.22
0.16
Agro-forestry systems
0.58
0.44
0.14
Aquaculture
0.42
0.42
16
2.1.3. Remarks
With a district that has of its total area are characterized by hill and mountain as Dakrong
(Trai et al. 2001), consideration for conservation should be emphasized, and forestry planning
should be promoted over agricultural development.
USDA land capability classification system and Sheng scheme as well as FAO land suitability
classification system, which was applied to classify land in Vietnam are oriented towards
agricultural crop development. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a new land classification
system for the Dakrong district, which should be oriented towards forest management.
In additional, one limitation of USDA land capacity classification and FAO land suitability
classification system is the problem of parameter value. The first system classifies land
mapping unit mainly according to slope and soil depth parameters while FAO land suitability
classification then added more land parameters such as soil fertility, water ability, or rainfall
intensity However, both of these systems have a constraint of ranging parameter values
leading to an imprecise result in classifying land units.
For example, it is easily recognized in table 3 that the same value is assigned for the slope
ranging from 47% to 57% (steep slopping) but a different value for the slope ranging from
36% to 47% (very strong sloping). Here, a slope at the margin of the class which have more
similarity are put in different categories. It means that if a land unit has soil depth 15cm then if
the slope is 46%, then the recommended use will be P (Pasture). Whereas, if the slope is 48%
then the recommended use for the land unit will be F (forestry) and the same recommended
use for a land unit that has slope of 57% (which is quite a different value from 48%).
2.2.
Vegetation cover change detection
Along with classifying land, detecting the change of vegetation cover/use in order to
investigate vegetation change is very important for forestation management. Many studies
(Brandon and Bottomley, 1998; Chen, 2000; Diouf and Lambin, 2001; Kuntz and Siegert,
1999; Lambin, 1994; Mendoza S. and Etter R, 2002; and Vance and Geoghegan, 2002) have
emphasised the importance of investigating land cover dynamics as a baseline requirement for
sustainable management of natural resources. The knowledge of where are the changes is
essential for the formulation of appropriate management strategies (Phong, 2004).
17
Change detection is a process of identifying and analyzing the differences of an object or a

phenomenon through monitoring at different times (Morshed, 2002). Many change detection
methods have been developed and used for various applications. However, they can be
broadly divided into: from to and change/no change approaches. Each method of
change detection has advantages and disadvantages its self. In which, the post-classification
change detection (represents for from - to method) and NDVI image difference (represents
for Change - No change methods) are most widely used.
2.2.1. Post-classification change detection

The post-classification change detection is the most intuitive and common method. In this
method, two images from different dates are classified and labelled. The area of change is then
extracted through the direct comparison of the classification results (Lunetta and Elvidge,
1999) (figure 5).
Image date 1
Image date 2
(1) Image
classification
(1) Image
classification
Classified map
date 1
Classified map
date 2
(2) Comparison
Change map
Figure 5. Framework of the post-classification change detection method
Where: (1) Refer to 2.2.1.1. Image classification methods;
(2) Refer to 2.2.1.2. Land cover map comparison.
The principal advantage of the post-classification lies in the fact that the two dates of imagery
are separately classified; thereby minimising the problem of radiometric calibration between
dates (Coppin et al. 2004). Another advantages of the post-classification include the detailed
of from-to information (Chen, 2000; Lunetta and Elvidge, 1999). It bypasses the difficulties
associated with the analysis of images acquired at different times of year or sensor (Chen,
2000).
18
The main disadvantage of the post-classification approach is the dependency of the land cover
change results on the individual classification accuracies (Chen, 2000). The problem is that
the errors, which are cumulative, from each of the individual land cover maps are incorporated
into the final change product (AMNH, 2004a). In other word, this approach can produce a
large number of erroneous change indications since an error on either data gives a false
indication of change (Singh, 1989). Therefore, it is imperative that the individual classification
be as accurate as possible (Chen, 2000).
From the framework of the post-classification method (figure 5), it has been easily found that
there are two steps to generate vegetation change map: Image classification and Comparison
of the two image classified maps.
2.2.1.1.
Image classification methods
The very important step in the post-classification method is classification process, which
involves translating the pixel values in a satellite image into meaningful categories.
Digital image classification is the process of assigning pixel to classes (Jensen, 1996).
Usually, each pixel is treated as an individual unit composed of values in several spectral
bands. By comparing pixel to one another and to pixels of known identity, it is possible to
assemble groups of similar pixels into classes that match to the informational categories of
interest to users of remotely sensed data. Digital image classification can be group into
automated, manual and hybrid approaches.
(1)
Automated approach
The majority methods of image classification fall in automated category which is emphasized
by supervised and unsupervised classification algorithm.
Supervised classification algorithm: With supervised classification, we identify examples of
the Information classes (i.e., land cover type) of interest in the image. These are called
"training sites". The image processing software system is then used to develop a statistical
characterisation of the reflectance for each information class. This stage is often called
"signature analysis" and may involve developing a characterisation as simple as the mean or
the rage of reflectance on each bands, or as complex as detailed analyses of the mean,
variances and covariance over all bands. Once a statistical characterisation has been achieved
19
for each information class, the image is then classified by examining the reflectance for each
pixel and making a decision about which of the signatures it resembles most (Eastman, 1995).
There are several types of supervised classification algorithms. Some of the more popular
ones are: parallelepiped, minimum distance, maximum likelihood, and mahalanobis distance.
Studies (RSI, 2003) proved that maximum likelihood supervised classification has a high
accuracy and is one of the most popular methods of classification in remote sensing. The
method assumes that the statistics for each class in each band are normally distributed
and
calculates the probability that a given pixel belongs to a specific class. Unless a probability
threshold is selected, all pixels are classified. Each pixel is assigned to the class that has the
highest probability.
Unsupervised classification algorithm: Unsupervised classification is a method which
examines a large number of unknown pixels and divides into a number of classed based on
natural groupings present in the image values. Unlike supervised classification, unsupervised
classification does not require analyst-specified training data. The basic premise is that values
within a given cover type should be close together in the measurement space (i.e. have similar
gray levels), whereas data in different classes should be comparatively well separated (i.e.
have very different gray levels) (PCI, 1997; Lillesand and Kiefer, 1994; Eastman, 1995). The
two most frequently used algorithms are the K-mean and the ISODATA clustering algorithm.
(2)
Manual approach
Manual classification method uses skills that were originally developed for interpreting aerial
photographs. It relies on the interpreter to employ visual cues such as tone, texture, shape,
pattern, and relationship to other objects to identify the different land cover classes.
The primary advantage of manual interpretation is its utilization of the brain to identify
features in the image and relate them to features on the ground. The brain can still beat the
computer in accurately identifying image features.
The disadvantage of manual interpretation is that it tends to be tedious and slow when
compared with automated classification and because it relies solely on a human interpreter and
is also subjective. Another drawback of this method is that it is only able to incorporate 3
bands of data from a satellite image since the interpretation is usually done using a colour
image comprised of red, green, and blue bands (AMNH, 2004b).
20
(3)
The hybrid approach for Image classification
The hybrid approach combines the advantages of the automated and manual methods to
produce a land cover map that is better than if just a single method was used. One hybrid
approach is to use the automated classification methods to do an initial classification and then
use manual methods to refine the classification and correct obvious errors. With this approach
you can get a reasonably good classification quickly with the automated approach and then
use manual methods to refine the classes that did not get labelled correctly (AMNH, 2004b).
2.2.1.2.
Land cover map comparison
After classified and labelled two images from different dates, the area of change is deduced by
comparing the classification results. It is the simple step in the post-classification change
detection and be executed through GIS.
2.2.2. NDVI image difference

Almost methods in change/no change approaches are based on some types of Image algebra
change detection techniques (image difference or image rationing). Singh (1989) and Coppin
et al (2004) have identified image difference as the most accurate change detection technique.
This technique is performed by subtracting images from two dates pixel by pixel. Then
threshold boundaries between change and no-change pixels are determined for the difference
image to produce the change map (Singh, 1989).
Among change/no change detection methods, NDVI image difference is emphasized as one
of the most widely used. The reason is the method only requires data from the red and near
infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and it can be applied to virtually all
multispectral data types. A large number of comparative studies on different change detection
methods including NDVI image difference have been carried out (Fung and Siu, 2000; Hayes
and Sader, 2001; Lunetta, 2002; Michener and Houhoulis, 1997; Petit et al 2001; Yuan and
Elvidge, 1998). Except for the study by Yuan and Elvidge, (1998), most studies conclude that
NDVI image difference method yields highest accuracy. Studies by Lyon (1998), and Lunetta
(2002) reported that NDVI difference was the best method for vegetation change detection in
biologically complex ecosystems.
To detect the change in this method, firstly, one of the images is applied to a radiometric
normalization to the other image. Secondly, NDVI formulation will be used for NDVI
calculation for both images. Finally, a subtraction is performed between these NDVI images
to generate a different image (figure 6).
21
The major advantage of NDVI image difference as well as other spectral-based detection
techniques is that they are based on the detection of physical changes between image dates.
This avoids the errors introduced in the post-classification change detection where
inaccuracies in the land cover classification are accumulated into land cover change analysis.
In additional, NDVI difference was least affected by topographic factors (Lyon, 1998, and
Phong, 2004). However, the disadvantage of NDVI image difference laid on the loss of
fromto information. The result is just a representation of change and no change
information.
Image date 1
Image date 2
Radiometric
normalization to
Image date 2
Normalized
Image date 1
NDVI
calculation
NDVI
calculation
NDVI Image
date 1
NDVI Image
date 2
Image difference
Change map
Figure 6. Framework of the NDVI image difference method
2.2.2.1.
Radiometric normalization
Remotely sensed data acquired by satellite sensors are usually influenced by a number of
factors, such as change in radiometric performance over time, variation in solar illumination
conditions, atmospheric scattering and absorption and changes in atmospheric conditions
(presence of clouds) (Mas, 1999; Song, 2000; Yang and Lo, 2000; Du, Teillet and Cihlar,
2002). Therefore, if any two datasets are to be used for quantitative analysis based on
radiometric information, as in the case of multi-date analysis for detecting surface changes,
they ought to be adjusted to compensate for radiometric divergence (Mas, 1999).
22
Two approaches have been developed to achieve these radiometric compensation (radiometric
normalisation) are absolute and relative. The absolute approach requires knowledge of the
sensor spectral profile and atmospheric properties at the time of image acquisition for
atmospheric correction and sensor calibration (Du, 2002; Song, 2000; Yang and Lo, 2000).
This approach is not only costly but also impractical since for most of historical satellite
images these data are not available (Du, 2002).
The relative approach known as relative radiometric normalisation is more preferred since it
bypasses the shortcomings of absolute approach. In this approach digital numbers of multidate images are normalised band by band to a reference image selected by the analyst (Yang
and Lo, 2000). A number of relative radiometric correction methods have been developed for
land cover change detection. They can be divided into three groups: statistical adjustment,
histogram matching, and linear regression normalization. The latter includes various methods
such as image regression (IR), pseudo- invariant feature (PIF), radiometric control set (RCS),
and no change set determined from scattergram (NC). The RCS method is selected for this
study since it favors better change detection (Yang and Lo, 2000; Phong, 2004).
2.2.2.2.
NDVI calculation and image difference
After radiometric normalization, NDVI have to be calculated for both images. The equation
for calculating NDVI is denoted as: NDVI = (NIR Red)/(NIR + Red).
And then, a subtraction is performed between these NDVI images to generate the difference
image: NDVI difference image = NDVI date2 NDVI date1.
2.2.3. A hybrid approach for change detection

In common, a hybrid method is the combination between change/no change method and
from - to method in order to minimize the shortcomings of the two mentioned methods,
thereby enhancing the results of the change analysis.
In this method, a change/no change method is used to determine the changed areas. If a
pixel falls in the changed areas, it will be labelled as 1. Otherwise, it will be labelled as 0. This
results in a binary mask image. A traditional post-classification comparison can then be
applied to yield from-to change information. The mask image is overlaid onto the date image
two, and only those pixels that were detected as having changed are classified in the both date
images (figure 7).
23
Image date 1
Image date 1
Image date 2
NDVI difference
Image classification
Classified image
date 1
Image date 2
Classified image
date 2
Post-classification with mask

(Hybrid)
Change map
Figure 7. Framework of the hybrid approach for change detection
In a particular case, if NDVI image difference is more accuracy than the post-classification
then the hybrid method can reduce change detection errors (Pilon et al. 1988; and Jensen,
1996). In general assessment, the result obtained from NDVI image difference is more
accuracy than it obtained from the post-classification (ref. 2.2.2).
A foreseen advantage of the hybrid method is it can eliminate disadvantages as well as
synthesis advantages of single methods (from - to and change/no change method). The
hybrid method may help to reduce errors that might occur in the post-classification alone and
it can retrieved from - to information. However, the method requires a voluminous works
because it includes works of both methods from - to and change/no change.
24
Chapter 3. Study area
Chapter 3. STUDY AREA

3.1.
Study area
Dakrong is a remote, mountainous district of Quang Tri, one of the poorest provinces located
in the central Vietnam. Dakrong district is located in the upper catchment basin of the Quang
Tri and Thach Han Rivers. Dakrong spread out from the latitude1618 to 1651 North, and
from the longitude 10642 to 1079 east (figure 8 and 9).
300000
900000
600000
900000
2400000
2400000
600000
1800000
1800000
2100000
2100000
1200000
1200000
1500000
1500000
100 0 km 200
300000
Figure 8. Quang Tri province
Figure 9. Hill shade map of Dakrong district
located in Vietnam
3.1.1.
Bio-physical conditions
3.1.1.1.
Topology and hydrology
The topography of Dakrong is characterised by a ridge of low mountains, which extends

south-east from the Annamite Mountains, and forms the boundary between Quang Tri and
Thua Thien Hue provinces. The north-eastern sections of the area are predominantly low-lying
hills. The southern and western sections are rougher in the upstream or highest river
catchments. The lowest and highest point in Dakrong is 9m and 1551m above sea level
respectively.
25
In central Vietnam, the foothills extend to the coastline, and the coastal plain is compressed or
non-existent. As a result of the coastal topography rivers in the study area are often short,
slope and narrow. Predominant flow direction is east or north-east towards the sea (Trai et al.,
2001).
3.1.1.2.
Geomorphology
The study area is situated within the Viet-Lao Caledon enfolded syncline of central Vietnam.
This syncline is confined between the lines of the Ma River fault to the north and the Tam KyHiep Duc fault to the south. This syncline complex developed from the Cambrian Period to
the beginning of the Devonian Period (William et al. 2001).
Most of the mountains are composed of granite which is common in the region. Lower
mountains are composed of sedimentary rocks from the Ordovician-Silurian Age, including
hyaline rock, stratified arenaceous rock, stratified sandstone, and argillaceous rock (William et
al., 2001).
3.1.1.3.
Edaphology
According to William et al. (2001), in Dakrong, the following soils are typical:
Hills: yellow fertile soils developed on sedimentary rocks;
Lower Mountains and Hills: red/yellow fertile soils developed on sedimentary
rocks, with fine soil composition;
Low Mountains: yellow fertile soils developed on effusive acid rock;
Mid-high Mountains: yellow and red alpine humus and fertile soils developed on
sedimentary rock, with rude soil composition, or yellow and red alpine humus
developed on effusive acid rock; and
Basins and River Washes: river and stream alluvium.
3.1.1.4.
Meteorology
Temperature: Dakrong is located in an eastern tropical monsoons area,
experiencing an average annual temperature ranges from 22 to 24C. Winters are
cold and humid, due to north-easterly winds. Western winds lead to hot and dry
conditions in the summer (Trai et al. 2001).
26
Precipitation: Dakrong has a high rainfall with average of 2,500-3,000 mm/year.

September and October are highest rainfall months (45% of the total rainfall). The
dry season are extended from February to ends in July (Trai et al. 2001).
Humidity: Relative humidity for this region averages 85-88 %. During the rainy
season, relative humidity is around 90%. In dry season, the minimum relative
humidity can be reached at 30% (Trai et al. 2001).
3.1.1.5.
Land use
In 1997, the forest land covered 27,937 ha (27% of the total district land area), and the
agricultural land covers 8,681 ha (8.4% of total land). Unproductive land currently accounts
for 66,905 ha (64.6 %) of the total; unproductive lands include agriculturally exhausted lands
barren lands, and hills (QTDoS, 2000).
The high percentage of unproductive land area was originally created by slash-and-burn
cultivation. Although there have been determined efforts to reform land use practices, the
amount of unusable land is increasing as a result of continued slash-and-burn cultivation, and
is further compounded by progressive soil erosion (QTDoS, 2000).
3.1.2. Socio-Economic
The Dakrong district has 13 communes. The population density is dispersed along roads rather
than in villages. In the Dakrong district there are currently: 2,603 households; 14,489 people;
and 2% population growth per year (QTDoS, 2000).
3.1.2.1.
Ethnic Groups
There are three ethnic groups: Kinh (majority Vietnamese) (33 %); Bru-Van Kieu (52 %); and
Pa-co (15 %). The Bru-Van Kieu ethnic minority, also known as the Van Kieu, are member of
the Mon-Khmer language group, have the largest local population. The Pa-co ethnic minority,
a subgroup of the Ta-oi ethnic minority, closely akin to the Ba-hi ethnic minority and live in
the Ta Rut commune (QTDoS, 2000).
3.1.2.2.
Health Care
Health facilities are sparse in this newly established district. In the 13 communes of the
district, there are only three commune health centres (Ta Rut, Ba Long and Mo O communes).
The largest commune does not have a health centre (QTDoS, 2000).
27
The health care facilities are understaffed and lack properly trained health care workers, and
the staff housing is primitive and inadequate. The most common ailments are malaria, goiter
and tuberculosis (QTDoS, 2000).
3.1.2.3.
Education
The educational infrastructures are also poorly established and lack both schools and teachers.
The literacy rate in the Dakrong district is uncommonly low for Vietnam. Kindergarten
facilities do not exist in any of the 13 communes. However, each commune has a primary
school. Ba Long and Trieu Nguyen also have secondary schools within the primary school
facilities. Very few children attend secondary school. In total, there are 122 teachers but only
11 are ethnic minority people, all of whom teach at the primary school level (QTDoS, 2000).
3.1.2.4.
Transportation
Currently, two communes (Ba Long and Hai Phuc) are not accessible by road, and the main
mode of transport to these two communes is the Quang Tri River. There are two existing roads
which are within the national road system and which cross the district: National Highways 9
and 14B (Trai et al. 2001).
3.1.2.5.
Cultivation practice and household incomes
The main sources of income are agriculture and forestry. Average income is low, cultivation
practices are antiquated and arable land is scarce. Total food consumption per person is only
120 kg/year. Malnutrition and poverty are common, especially among ethnic minority people:
A sizeable portion of the districts population supplement their diets by gathering and hunting
in the watershed protection forest (QTDoS, 2000).
Animal husbandry is also a source of income, particularly the breeding of water buffaloes,
cows and pigs. Buffalo and cows are free ranging and are commonly used as draft animals for
timber exploitation and transportation (QTDoS, 2000).
28
Chapter 4. Materials and Methods
Chapter 4. MATERIAL AND METHODS
As mention in Chapter 1, the compatibility of vegetation change (CVC) map is t resulted from
the integration of the land susceptibility classification map and the vegetation change map.
Where:
The Land susceptibility map represents the susceptive level of a certain land area
and pinpoints the type of land use that is appropriate with such land area. The map
is established in GIS by implementing a land susceptibility classification system.
The Vegetation change map shows how the vegetation changed in the period 19892005. The map is established mainly in Remote Sensing environment by
implementing vegetation change detection.
Figure 10 describes the general framework of producing the CVC map. The Land
susceptibility map and the Vegetation change map are first deduced separately, and then, the
two maps are overlaid to produce the CVC map.
Land susceptibility
classification (1)
Vegetation change
detection (3)
Land susceptibility
classification map (2)
Vegetation change
map (4)
Overlay/GIS
Compatible vegetation
change map (5)
Figure 10. The framework to establish the compatible vegetation change map
Where:
(1) Refer to 4.2.1. Land susceptibility classification;

(2) Refer to figure 16. Land Susceptibility classification map;
(3) Refer to 4.2.2. Vegetation change detection;
(4) Refer to figure 21. Vegetation change map using the hybrid method;
(5) Refer to figure 22. Compatible vegetation change map.
29
4.1.
Materials
To understand the background and to identify the problems, the general concepts,
development and implementations of land classification systems as well as cover change
detection around the world and Vietnam has been reviewed. This information was obtained
from books, study papers, internet, magazines, journals and reports.
Other very important data are satellite images, maps, relevant studies and reports in Quang Tri
province that were collected from the Global land cover facility, Quang Tri Department of
Science, Technology and Environment (QT DoSTE), and Landscape Ecology Department
(LED)-IG, VAST. Table 6 outlines the images and maps used in this study.
Table 6
Outline of images and maps used in this study
Data
Name
Existing
images
Landsat TM
17/02/ Raster
Path/Row = 125/49 1989
30m resolution Global land

cover facility
Landsat ETM+
01/02/ Raster
Path/Row = 125/49 2005
30m resolution LED-IG, Vast
Contour
1990
Vector/line
1/25.000
LED-IG, Vast
River
2000
Vector/line
1/25.000
LED-IG, Vast
Soil
1998
Vector/ polygon
1/25.000
QT DoSTE
Administrative
2000
Vector/ polygon
1/25.000
LED-IG, Vast
DEM
2007
Grid
30m resolution Contour map
Slope
2007
Grid
30m resolution DEM
Roughness
2007
Grid
30m resolution DEM
Soil depth
2007
Grid
30m resolution Soil map
Soil type
2007
Grid
30m resolution Soil map
Water availability
2007
Grid
30m resolution River map
Existing
maps
Deducing
maps
Date
Format
30
Scale
Source
4.2.
Methods and process
4.2.1. Land susceptibility classification

As mention in section 2.1.3, all of the land classification
systems in Vietnam were oriented toward agricultural
crop development. In order to classify land oriented
towards forest management and conservation, this thesis
develops a new land classification system, called Land
susceptibility classification system. The system classifies
territory into three difference classes. Each class is
Figure 11. Sensitive land classes
different from others by the degree of sensitivity towards

land degradation and water runoff moderate ability.
In actual appearance, the classes describe difference strict degree of vegetation cover
requirement aiming to mitigate resource degradation and prevent disaster. The degree of
strictness of vegetation cover requirement is decreased from class 1 to class 3 and represented
in land susceptibility classification map. Susceptive class 3 can be subdivided into class 3a
(arable land) and class 3b (Non-crop land). This map is the expected result of the
classification system. For each class, general recommendations for sustainable land use are
given. The three classes are:
Susceptive class 1 (the most sensitivity class): Areas with very steep slopes and rugged
landforms, commonly uplands and headwater areas. These are critical areas for water
and soil resources management. These areas are the highest priority for forest
protection and forestation. Recommended land use: Conservation Forest. As a rule,
these areas should be under permanent forest cover.
Susceptive class 2 (the moderate sensitivity class): They are usually at high elevation
with steep to very steep slopes. Landforms usually result in less erosion than Class 1.
Recommended land use: Production forests where mining and logging will be allowed
within legal limits.
Susceptive class 3 (No sensitivity towards land and water degradation): includes
gentle slopes or flat areas. Such areas are appropriate for other land use practice such
as agriculture and other uses. The class can be divided into 2 subclasses: class 3a arable land and class 3b - non-crop land (barren lands).
The Land susceptibility classification system is developed based on a relationship between
susceptive classes and related factors (elevation, roughness, slope, and soil depth). This
relationship can be expressed as a function between susceptive classes and factors and denoted
as following equation:
31
SC = a1*x1 + a2*x2 + a3*x3 ++ an*xn + an+1 (equation 1)

Where:
SC
Susceptive class;
x1 xn
Factors that has relation with Sensitive classes.
a1 an+1 =
Coefficients that describes mathematical relationship or

interaction between susceptive class and factors;
Note: The equation was a linear regression because all of relationship factors are either direct ratio
or inverse ratio with susceptive class.
Two task blocks (Creating factor maps and regression analysis) have to be implemented to
develop the classification system. The framework for developing the classification system is
described in figure 12 following:
Existing map (1)

Creating
Test areas
factor maps (2)
Elevation
Slope
Soil depth
Roughness
Factors value =?
Class = ?
Class = 1?
Class = 2?
Class = 3?
Elevation
Slope
Soil depth
Roughness
Regression analysis
to predict coefficients (3)
SC = a*elevation + b*Slope + c*Soil depth +

d*Roughness + e
Use the equation for entire area;
Sub-classification for class 3 (4)
Land susceptibility classification map (5)
Figure 12. The framework for developing the susceptibility classification map
Where:
(1) Refer to table 6. Outline of images and maps used in this study;
(2) Refer to 4.2.1.1. Creating factor maps;
(3) Refer to 4.2.1.2. Regression analysis;
(4) Refer to 4.2.1.3. Deducing land susceptibility classification map;
(5) Refer to figure 16. Land susceptibility classification map.
32
4.2.1.1.
Establishing factor maps
The following six factors were initially proposed (table 7). (The climate factor was rejected
because the Dakrong district has a uniform climate type). Elevation, Slope, Roughness and
Soil depth are used to classify study area into 3 classes (class 1, class 2 and class 3); and then,
Slope, Soil depth, Water availability and Soil type are used to sub-classify class 3 to class 3a
and class 3b.
Table 7
Proposed factors for the land susceptibility classification system
Criteria
Value
Relation to sensitivity land class
Elevation
Real value (meter)
The higher the elevation, the more sensitive of the land

is.
Slope
Real value (percent)
The higher the slope, the more sensitive of the land is.
Roughness
Real value
(m/990m2)
Integer value (Soil
Inverse ratio with Susceptive class.
The higher the roughness value, the more sensitive of

the land is.
Soil depth
The more soil depth, the more sensitive of the land is.
depth are assigned to
Direct ratio with Susceptive class.
score values)
Soil type
If soil type belongs to no salty, no sulphate and no

bared soil group
Water
Real value
Availability (m/990m2)
(1)
Can be used for agriculture (class 3a).
If River density > 500m/km2
Can be used for agriculture (class 3a).
Elevation factor
The elevation is the altitude of a given spot measured in meters (continuous value) above sea
level. Areas in higher locations usually have higher average annual rainfall. Therefore such
areas have a greater erosive potential, increasing soil and water degradation. Therefore, the
elevation factor has an inverse ratio with susceptive class number: The higher of elevation, the
more susceptive of land, the smaller susceptive class number.
33
Elevation factor is deduced from a Digital elevation model (DEM). DEM is a grid theme
where each grid cell contains elevation data. The DEM is generated by GIS interpolation
function (ArcInfo Topogrid). Linear and point information (the elevation contours and
elevation points from topography map) is transformed into spatial information (DEM). The
main ArcInfo commands used to generate DEM from topographic map layers are:
Arc: TOPOGRID Draft_dem 30
Topogrid: CONTOUR elev_ln elev
Topogrid: POINT elev_pnt elev
Topogrid: STREAM stream
Topogrid: LAKE lake
Topogrid: END
Arc: GRID
Grid: FILL draft_dem dem SINK 20
The ArcInfo command used for generated Elevation factor from DEM is:
Arc: GRID
Grid: Elev = DEM
(2)
Slope factor
Slope factor identifies the maximum rate of change in value from each cell to its neighbours.
The slope unit can be percentage or degree. The unit used here is percentage. A slope of 40%
means that, for each 100 meters of horizontal distance, the terrain rises or drops 40 meters
(vertical distance).
The steeper the land area is, the more it is susceptive to soil degradation. A piece of land with
a slope of 40% is much higher risk of soil degradation, than another piece with a slope of 5%,
suppose that other related factors are similar in both cases. Therefore, the slope factor has an
inverse ratio with susceptive class number: The higher the slope value, the more susceptive of
land, the smaller susceptive class number.
Slope factor is also used in subdivided processing to divide susceptive class 3 into subclass 3a
and subclass 3b. If slope of a certain land is more than 15% then the land lies in subclass 3b
(non-suitable for agriculture). Otherwise, the land will be determined as subclass 3a or
subclass 3b depending on other factors (water availability, soil depth and soil type).
34
The slope layer was derived from DEM using the slope function available from the ArcInfoGRID module. The main ArcInfo commands used to deduce Slope factor are:
Arc: GRID
Grid: slope = SLOPE (dem, PERCENTRISE)
(3)
Roughness factor
Roughness index depicts the differences in cells elevation within a specified distance from
each cell. This factor represents a form of terrain. A flat terrain has less risk of land, water
degradation; while as, a rough terrain has a higher risk of land and water degradation.
Therefore, the roughness factor has an inverse ratio with susceptive class number: The higher
the roughness value, the higher susceptive of land, the less susceptive class number.
The unit for measuring the roughness factor value should have been m/km2, however for
practical reasons in the implementation of the method, the 1 km diameter is approximated
with a 990m diameter because, when using 30 m resolution data, it can thus be expressed
simply with a 16 cells radius circle (16 cells radius = 33 cells diameter = 990 meters diameter
circle). Therefore, the selected unit is m/990m2.
The roughness layer was derived from DEM using the FOCALSTD function available from
the ArcInfo-GRID module. The main ArcInfo commands used to deduce roughness factor are:
Grid: rough = FOCALSTD (dem, CIRCLE, 16)
(4)
Soil depth factor
Soil depth is the depth of soil to bedrock or to an impermeable layer. The unit used for
measuring soil depth is centimeters. Soil depth determines how deep roots, water, and air can
penetrate into a soil. This, in turn, influences how much water can infiltrate the soil, how
much water can be held by the soil, and how much soil plant roots can occupy
The depth of soil required varies for different crops, but in general, shallow soils are less
suitable for agriculture. Deep soils provide much larger store of water. Soil depth is usually
strongly related to topography, soils on hill-slopes (zones of erosion) tend to be shallow, those
in valleys or depressions are deeper (zones of deposition) (NLWRA 2001). Therefore, the soil
depth factor has a direct ratio with susceptive class number: The higher the soil depth value,
the less susceptive of land, the higher susceptive class number.
35
The Soil depth factor is also used in subdivided processing to divide susceptive class 3 into
subclass 3a and subclass 3b. If soil depth of a certain land is less than 50cm then the land lies
in subclass 3b (non-suitable for agriculture). Otherwise, the land will be determined as
subclass 3a or subclass 3b depending on other factors (slope, water availability and soil type).
The soil depth layer can be extracted from soil map. The soil map for the Dakrong district is
stored in vector. ArcInfo software is used to deduce soil depth grid from soil depth vector
map. The main ArcInfo commands used to deduce soil depth factor are:
Arc: POLYGRID soil soil_depth depth
(5)
Soil type factor
This factor is used to subdivide the susceptive class 3 into subclass 3a and subclass 3b. If soil
type of a certain land belong to the salty, sulphate or bared soil group, the land lies in subclass
3b (non-suitable for agriculture). Otherwise, the land will be determined as subclass 3a or
subclass 3b depending on other factors (slope, water availability and soil depth).
The soil type layer can be also extracted from soil map. The same as deducing soil depth
factor, ArcInfo is used to deduce soil depth grid from soil type vector map. The main ArcInfo
commands used to deduce soil depth factor are:
Arc: POLYGRID soil soil_type type
(6)
Water availability factor (river density or dissection degree)
Water availability factor is also used in subdivided processing to subdivide susceptive class 3
into two subclasses: 3a and 3b. If river density of a certain land is less than 500m/km2 then the
land lies in subclass 3b (non-suitable for agriculture). Otherwise, the land will be determined
as subclass 3a or subclass 3b depending on other factors (slope, soil depth and soil type).
The water availability is difficult to quantify with traditional methods (ISRIC, 1993).
However, the use of GIS makes it feasible to derive the water availability factor from drainage
network. The unit for measuring water availability value is m/km2. The factor was derived
from drainage network using the line_density function available from the ArcInfo-GRID
module. The main ArcInfo commands used to deduce water availability factor are:
Grid: river_den = LINEDENSITY (drainage, #, 30, SIMPLE, #, 1000)
36
4.2.1.2.
Regression analysis
In order to predict the coefficients for equation 1 (ref 4.2.1) for Dakrong, test areas (samples)
is collected randomly and
assigned a numerical susceptive class value based on the
definitions of susceptive class and scale value for each variable (factor). Regression analysis,
be applied for the samples, bases on relationships between factors and known susceptive class.
The regression analysis is performed in Arcinfo Workstation 9.0 and SPSS. Appendix 1 shows
the detail information about the out put of regression analysis. As a result of regression
analysis, the LSC equation for study area has been derived (ref. 5.1.1.).
The generation of LSC equation is formed as:
SC = a*elevation + b*Slope + c*Soil depth + d*Roughness + e
Where: SC
= Susceptive class;
a, b, c, d, e = Coefficients need to be predicted.

4.2.1.3.
Land susceptibility classification map
Factor maps, which are created from the section 4.2.1.1, will be put into the LSC equation in
order to be analysed through the GIS program (Arcinfo Workstation 9.0) and produce a
temporary map. This map will be sub-classified in order to divide class 3 to 2 subclasses.
The sub-classification was performed based on 4 criteria: Slope, water availability, soil depth
and soil type. Class 3 is sub-classified in to 2 subclasses: arable land (class 3a) and non-crop
land (barren lands, class 3b). Arable land is areas in class 3 (no sensitivity) that has slope <
15%; Water availability > 500m/km2; Soil depth >= 50cm with any type of soil which is little
salty, little sulphate and no bared soil group. The remaining area is class 3 is non-crop land.
(The criteria for the subdivide processing is consulted from QTDoSTE (2001))
The result of the classification is the Land susceptibility classification map. This map
represents a sensitive degree of each areas and the type of land use should be practiced on
such areas (Conservation Forest, Production forest, Agriculture, and other uses).
4.2.2. Vegetation change detection

This study uses RS&GIS to detect vegetation change (VC) from two satellite images in 1989
and 2005. The first image represents allocation of vegetation cover in 1989, before the Quang
Tri government implemented policies and projects of afforestation. It also represents the time
37
when the most serious forest loss in history took place. The second image represents
vegetation cover in 2005, after policies and projects of afforestation in Quang Tri have been
implemented for 16 years. It is also the most recent data available.
Three methods of vegetation cover change detection, which were reviewed in chapter 3 (the
post-classification, NDVI image difference and the hybrid of these two method), are applied
in this study. The accuracy of results among the three methods will be compared in the next
chapter. The highest accurate method will be used for the next stage of this thesis workflow.
4.2.2.1.
(1)
Pre-processing
Geometric correction
There are two methods for geometric correction: imagetoimage and imagetomap
(McMorrow, 2002). Landsat TM satellite image of 1989 is already geo-referenced to the
coordinate system of the study area (WGS84, projection: UTM, zone 48N). It was used as a
referencing image for image-to-image co-registration of the image of 2005. Control points are
taken at cross-roads and river junctions.
(2)
Normalization
Radiometric normalisation was performed in ENVI software. The image of 2005 was selected
as the reference image to normalise image of 1989. Two control-sets namely dark and bright
were used for radiometric normalization. Dark data sets were taken from water area. Bright
data set were selected from dry areas (such as sandy or built up areas), which have the same
average surface reflectance among images acquired at different dates (Yang and Lo, 2000).
The linear equation to perform the normalization is denoted as follows:
Sk = mkSk + bk
Where: Sk is the digital number (DN) of band k in image S on date 1;
Sk is the normalised DN of band k on date 1;
mk is the slope or gain and calculated by:
mk = (BRK - DRK)/(BSK - DSK);
bk is the intercept or offset and calculated by: bk = (DRK* BSK DSK * BRK)/(BSK DSK)
Where:
DRK - mean DN of dark set in band k of reference image;

BRK - mean DN of bright set in band k of reference image;
DSK - mean DN of dark set in band k of subject image;
BSK - mean DN of bright set in band k of subject image.
38
4.2.2.2.
Post-classification change detection
In order to orient objectives of this thesis, vegetation cover/use is divided into 4 classes:
Conservation forest: includes natural forest and conservative plantation forest. The
purpose of this land cover/use type is mainly for water resource protection, soil
protection, erosion control, disaster prevention, climate harmonization, environment
and ecology protection;
Production forest: mainly for timber and non-timber productions associates with
environment and ecology protection. Production forest in Dakrong includes:
Sandalwood tree, conch tree, rubber tree, tea tree, pepper tree, coffee tree;
Agriculture land: Agriculture in Dakrong mainly includes rice paddy, vegetables,
cassava, maize, sweet potato, bean, peanut, chilli, sugar-cane...
Other lands: This class includes mainly brushes land, grasses land and barren land.
Settlement and infrastructures are also grouped in this class.
Image classification was carried out in ENVI software. A hybrid approach of image
classification between maximum likelihood supervised classification (automated approach)
and screen digitizing (manual approach) was applied for the post-classification change
detection in this study (ref. 2.2.1.1).
The maximum likelihood supervised classification was based on 54 training samples for both
images 1989 and 2005. After that the running of 5x5 pixel majority filter, clustering and
elimination operations (with minimum 10 pixels) will be performed for smoothing the
classification results.
After classifying and labelling both images of 1989 and 2005 in ENVI, the classification maps
were polygonised for further processing with on screen digitizing of some land cover classes
areas. The screen digitizing is necessary because some land cover classes overlapped in
spectral reflectance values (forest was split into natural forest, conservative plantation forest
and production forest based on a literature review of the study area). The finished classified
maps then overlay in GIS to deduce Vegetation change map (figure 13).
39
Image of 1989
Image of 2005
Maximum likelihood supervised

and screen digitizing
Vegetation map
1989
Vegetation map
2005
Overlay
Change map
1989-2005
Figure 13. Post-classification method for change detection in period 1989 - 2005
4.2.2.3.
NDVI image difference
To derive the change map, it is important to determine the threshold between change and no
change pixel. Larger threshold results in a larger error of omission (low producer accuracy),
while smaller threshold results in more errors of commission (low user accuracy). It is
therefore very important to find the threshold, which balances these errors.
In this study, the empirical approach with Kappa accuracy index as described by (Fung and
LeDrew, 1988) was applied to determine the change and no change area. The final threshold
selected was mean 1*STD for the difference images of 1989-2005.
Because of spectral overlapping between forest plantation and shrub, the method was failed to
detect the change between these cover types. An on-screen digitizing was incorporated to add
the change-areas between forest plantation and shrub.
4.2.2.4.
The hybrid approach for change detection
This approach for detecting vegetation cover changes was based on the hybrid between NDVI
difference and the post-classification approach (ref. 2.2.3). Firstly, both date images have to
be pre-processed. Secondly, image classification is carried out for each image to generate two
vegetation cover maps of two periods. Thirdly, the NDVI difference method is used to
generate a change/no change mask. Finally, the mask will be used for the post-classification
from two maps that get from the third step to generate vegetation cover change map. This map
contains fromto information of vegetation cover changed in period 1989 to 2005. Figure 14
shows how the Vegetation change Map can be established using the hybrid approach.
40
Landsat TM
1989
Landsat TM
2005
Landsat TM
1989
Image classification (1)
Vegetation map 1989
Landsat TM
2005
NDVI difference (2)
Vegetation map 2005
Post-classification
with mask (Hybrid)
Vegetation change map (3)

Figure 14. The Hybrid method for change detection in period 1989 - 2005
Where:
(1) Refer to 4.2.2.2. Post-classification change detection;

(2) Refer to 4.2.2.3. NDVI image difference;
(3) Refer to figure 21. Vegetation change map using the hybrid method.
4.2.3. The compatibility of vegetation change

As discussed in section 1.5, the Vegetation change map (VC map) shows how the vegetation
change in the period 1989-2005; and Land susceptibility classification map (LSC map) shows
which level of demand of vegetation cover is required in each area and what type of land use
is appropriate with that area. The VC map and LSC map will be overlaid using GIS and the
result is the compatible vegetation change map. Figure 15 shows how the Compatible
vegetation change map can be established.
Vegetation cover
change map
Land susceptibility
classification map
Overlay/GIS
Compatible vegetation
change map
Figure 15.
The framework to establish the compatible vegetation cover map
The Compatible vegetation map enables us to show how the VC occurs and at which class of
the LSC. Based on the map, we can get the information about the allocation program and this
is also a way to help decision makers to get a clear, visualable and understandable view in
order to make the right decisions.
41
Chapter 5. Results and Discussion
Chapter 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1.
Results
5.1.1. Land Susceptibility Classification

As a result of regression analysis (refer to section 4.2.1.2), the LSC equation in the Dakrong
district is: SC = -0.001 * dem - 0.031 * slope - 0.005 * roughness + 0.137 * depth + 3.054
Factor maps, which are created by the method as described in section 4.2.1.1, has been put
into the LSC equation to formulate through GIS program and results in a temporary map. This
temporary map has been sub-classified as described in section 4.2.1.3 in order to deduce the
LSC map (figure 16).
Detailed information about classes of LSC map is showed in table 8, in which, class 1 is the
most sensitivity class and recommended for conservation forest; Class 2 is the moderate
sensitivity class and recommended for commercial forest. Class 3 is no sensitivity class: Class
3a is recommended for agriculture and class 3b is not suitable for agriculture (Refer to section
4.2.1. for more detail).
Table 8
Figure 16. Land susceptibility classification map
42
Sensitivity classes
Sensitive
class value
Area
(ha)
Percent
(%)
Class 1
26,405
25.5
Class 2
33,363
32.3
Class 3a
22,599
21.8
Class 3b
21,156
20.4
Total
103,523
100%
5.1.2. Vegetation change detection

5.1.2.1.
Change detected using the post-classification
a. Image classification
The image classification is performed as described in section 4.2.2.2. Results of the image
classification are vegetation cover maps of 1989 and 2005.
Three classes were identified in the vegetation cover map of 1989. They are Conservation
forest, Agriculture land, and other lands (figure 17). In which:
Forest covers 23,596ha or 22.8% of the study area and is located on the eastern and
centre of the district. All of the forests during that period were natural forests.
Agricultural land covers 15,302 ha or 14.8 % of the study area. Agricultural lands are
located along the rivers.
The largest proportion of the study area were other lands (64,625ha or 62.4%), and
located at the northern, western and southern areas of the district.
Four classes have been identified in vegetation cover map of 2005. These are Conservation
forest, Production forest, Agriculture land, and other lands (figure 18). In which:
Conservation forest covers 26,972ha or 26% of the study area. This class includes
natural forest and conserved plantation forest.
A new class appears in 2005, production forest, covers 9,719 ha or 9.4% of the study
area.
Agricultural land constitute 20,708 ha or 20% of the study area.
Other lands still cover the largest proportion of the study area (46,124ha or 44.6%).
43
(ha)
Figure 17. Vegetation map and the distribution of land cover types in 1989
(ha)
Figure 18. Vegetation map and the distribution of land cover types in 2005
44
b. Change detection
In order to detect change with the post-classification method, the Vegetation cover maps are
overlaid in GIS. The result reveals 8 types of change in period 1989-2005 (table 9).
Table 9
No
Change detected using the post-classification method

From/to information
Change area (ha)
From conservation forest to agriculture
1,625
From conservation forest to other lands
1,771
From agriculture to conservation forest
359
From agriculture to production forest
322
From agriculture to other
3,909
From other lands to conservation forest
6,413
From other lands to production forest
9,397
From other lands to agriculture
8,371
Total
32,167
The general trend of the change among the period 1989-2005 has been shown in the figure 19.
Conservation forest, production forest and agricultural lands were increased whereas other
lands were decreased.
Figure 19. General trend of cover change (1989-2005)

5.1.2.2.
Change detected using NDVI image difference
The map of change areas has been produced based on NDVI method described in at section
4.2.2.3. The NDVI image difference cannot provide detailed change information. It can only
give the information of change or no-change. The area of change detected by NDVI image
difference (28,728ha) is less than that detected by using the post-classification (32,167ha).
Figure 20 is the map of change/no-change detected by NDVI image difference.
45
Category
Area (ha)
Change
28,728
No-change
74,795
Figure 20. Map of change/no-change detected by NDVI image difference
5.1.2.3.
Change detected using the hybrid approach
In the hybrid method, the detail information of change was obtained by the post classification.
Then NDVI image difference has been used as a mask to identify the change areas. Table 10
shows detailed information of the change detected by the hybrid approach. The result reveals
6 types of change in period 1989-2005. The change map is presented in figure 21.
Table 10 Change detected using the hybrid approach
No
From/to information
Change area (ha)
1,431
1,320
From agriculture to other lands
3,467
5,984
8,568
7,958
Total
28,728
46
Figure 21. Vegetation change map detected using the hybrid method
The legend of the map is corresponding with the order number in table 10
5.1.2.4.
Accuracy assessment for change detection
According to Singh (1989), the accuracy of the post-classification method is calculated by

multiplying the accuracies of each individual classification map (see appendix 2). While as for
NDVI change maps, the accuracies were calculated based on the error matrices (see appendix
3). Table 11 describes the accuracy of change detection in 2 difference methods the postclassification and NDVI image difference.
Table 11 Accuracies of the post-classification and the NDVI image difference
Post classification
NDVI image difference
Overall accuracy
0.81 * 0.85 = 0.69
0.87
Kappa Statistic (KHAT)
0.70 * 0.78 = 0.55
0.78
47
From table 11, it is obvious that accuracies of the change map produced by the postclassification method are much lower than those of NDVI change maps. This due to, in the
post-classification, errors from individual vegetation maps will be propagated in the change
map (ref to section 2.2.1). Accuracy of NDVI change map is at an acceptable level (> 0.7).
Despite a much higher accuracy level, the NDVI image difference method does not provide
from-to information. The hybrid between the post-classification and the NDVI image
difference was employed to obtain the from-to change information. As discussed in section
2.2.3, if the result produced by NDVI image difference is more accuracy than that by using the
post-classification, then the hybrid method can reduce change detection errors in comparison
to the post-classification method. Thereby, the result by using hybrid method has both high
accuracy and from-to information. The result of the hybrid method has been used for further
analysis in the following stage of this thesis.
5.1.3. Compatibility of vegetation change

As described in section 4.4, the compatible vegetation change map (figure 22) was produced
by overlaying the VC map and LSC map.
Figure 22. Compatible vegetation change map

48
The compatible vegetation change map is a division of the Dakrong district into 45 categories.
However, it is difficult to distinct by eyes 45 categories in a small scale paper map. Therefore,
these categories were grouped into 3 classes (incompatible change, compatible change and nochange) for purpose of visual able (figure 22). From the compatible vegetation change map,
we not only know how the change among cover types at a land area is, but also know whether
the change is compatible with the recommended use for such land area where the change
occurred. The detailed information about 45 categories of the map is described in table 12.
Table 12 Compatible vegetation change (ha)
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
From/to information
A
Conservation forest (No-change)
Agriculture (No-change)
From agriculture to other lands
Other lands (No-change)
Total
Where:
5.2.
Class1 Class2 Class3a Class3b Total

B
C
D
E
F
9,763 8,593
1,103
1,386 20,845
309
338
213
1,431
571
354
667
66
233
1,320
1,600 1,581
8,322
331 11,834
859
930
1,104
574
3,467
499
313
5,984
3,045 2,127
1,588 4,769
1,878
334
8,569
797 3,348
314
7,958
3,499
9,090 13,010 11,557
8,458 42,115
27,405 35,363 28,599 12,156 103,523
All data cells in row 1, row 4 and row 9 are grouped into class no-change
Cell D2, cell B6, cell C7, cell D8 are grouped into class compatible change
The remaining data cells are grouped into class incompatible change
Discussion
5.2.1. Question 1: Why should we develop a new classification system oriented towards
forestry management and conservation activities for the Dakrong district as well as
other up-stream areas?
Dakrong is a mountainous district located in the upper area of the Thach Han catchment basin.
This basin is one of the largest basins in centre of Vietnam, and it occupied 70% of the Quang
Tri territory. More than area of the Dakrong district area is characterized by hills and
mountains. The reduction of Dakrong forest causes adverse impacts on other districts of the
Quang Tri province. Thus, in the district, consideration for conservation should be
emphasized, and forestry planning should be promoted over agriculture development. It is
necessary to implement land classification for the Dakrong district, which should be oriented
towards conservation and forest management in order to protect land and water resources and
prevent disaster without neglecting efficient use of land.
49
The existing USDA land capability classification system and Sheng scheme, as well as the
FAO land suitability classification systems, which were applied to classify land in Vietnam,
are oriented towards agricultural crop development. In additional, one limitation of these
classification systems is the problem of parameter values (refer to section 2.1.3.). For these
reasons, developing a new land classification for the Dakrong district is needed.
The land susceptibility classification is developed in this study helps to meet the need of a
new land classification system that oriented towards conservation and forest management.
And thereby, the limitation of space of the classification system is upstream areas only. The
result of the classification shows that almost 58% (see table 8, figure 16) of the Dakrong
district area belongs to Sensitive class I or II. These land areas can be considered as critical,
with potential soil erosion concerns when vegetation cover cleared. Only 20.4% of the District
area falls in class 3a which can be recommended for agriculture. The remaining area (21.8%)
fall in sensitive class 3b which can be used for any activities without consideration on land
degradation but the area is not suitable for agriculture.
To get a clearer view of the actual area potentially endangered by land degradation, the LSC
map has been analysed in conjunction with the vegetation map (image classified map) of
2005. The results show an alarming situation. More than 17 % of the district area falls into
sensitive class I or II with no forest covered. With its steep and rugged landforms, and lack of
forest covered, these areas can be considered as very critical with regarding to degradation
risk from soil erosion.
The thesis applied GIS to develop the land susceptibility classification system. Based on the
capacity of multi-data-source-analysis and regression analysis of GIS, the LSC eliminated the
problem of parameter value that limits the accuracy of the classification in USDA land
capability classification and FAO land suitability classification. More over, using of GIS helps
to interpolate data where difficult or can not access. It also helps the classification process
reducing time and cost.
5.2.2. Question 2: How is the efficiency of different methods of vegetation cover/use

change detection?
The post-classification and NDVI image difference are both quite intuitive techniques and
easy to implement. The NDVI requires normalising differences between multi-temporal
images caused by atmospheric conditions while the post-classification does not.
50
There are areas identified as no-change by using the NDVI image difference, but they are
identified as change areas by using the post-classification method and vice-versa. The reasons
of this different can be explain as following:
In the first case, some areas that are identified as no-change by using NDVI image
difference, but they are identified as change areas by using the post-classification:
because of spectral overlapping between forest plantation class and shrub. The
spectral overlapping causes reduction of change area detected by the NDVI method.
In this case, the expertise knowledge of the study area was incorporated into the post
classification method during the process of image classification (through on-screen
digitizing) thus enabling the detection of this change. In additional, the errors of the
post-classification lead to the expansion of the change areas detected by this method.
In the second case, the areas that are identified as change areas by the NDVI image
difference, but they are identified as no-change areas by using the post-classification:
because those are only the changes between difference cover types but these cover
types are defined as the same class in this study. For example, there are some changes
between barren land and grass land (and thereby they are detected as changed areas
by using the NDVI image difference) but they are grouped together into other lands
class (and thus they are detected as no-change by using pos-classification method).
Accurate assessment for the change detection shows that the post-classification method yields
a low accuracy. This is due to the fact that errors from each individual classification map are
cumulative and incorporated into the change map. In addition, one reason that explains the
low accuracy of the post-classification, this is the erroneous from classified process of image
of 1989 (one of the difficulties is the ground truthing data for the classification of images of
1989. The only source of data available is the land cover map of 1992).
In summary, the NDVI difference method is more reliable in detecting vegetation change than
the post classification, while the latter method can provide more detailed information. The
hybrid method was employed to combine the change areas detected by the NDVI method with
the more detailed information of the post classification. Despite the hybrid method requiring a
more voluminous of works, the result obtained by using the hybrid method provides a higher
accuracy (by inheriting from NDVI image difference method) with detail from-to
information (by inheriting from Post-classification method). The result obtained by the hybrid
approach is used for further analysis in this study.
51
5.2.3. Question 3: How does vegetation change during the period 1989-2005 in the study
area? Arguably although forest and trees in Vietnam increased, but it did not cover the
sensitive areas. Is the criticism right for Dakrong?
Through table 10, we can see that the changes of vegetation are positive: Conservation forest,
production forest as well as agriculture were all increased. While as, only area of other lands
(majority is unused land) was decreased.
The largest change during the period of 1989-2005 in Dakrong is the increasing
8,568ha of production forest. Production forest is a new type of vegetation cover in
Dakrong. It contributes not only for economic development, but also for mitigating
land degradation and preventing disaster.
The second biggest change in this period is the change from other lands to agriculture
land (7,958ha). This change appeared due to the land reclaiming program which began
from 1992. The expansion of agriculture land is likely to correlate to population
increasing. In contrast, 3,467ha of agriculture land was converted into other lands as a
result of the slash and burn farming system.
Conservation forest was also increased, and the increased area is all converted from
other lands (5,984ha). However, some conservation forest areas were converted into
agriculture and other lands, but they account for a smaller amount (1,431ha and 1,320
respectively).
The reduction of other lands is quite notable (22,511ha): 5,984ha of other lands was
converted to conservation forest, 8,569ha of other lands was converted to production
forest and 7,958ha of other lands was converted to agriculture land.
So, from the change detected table (table 10), we can know that the change is either positive
or negative. However, we can not know whether the change is compatible with the
recommended land use for such land areas where the change occurred. For example, if the
change is from other lands to agriculture land then the change is positive; but if the area
where the change occurred is very susceptive and it demands forest cover strictly to mitigate
land degradation and prevent disaster then the change is not suitable. Because, in this case, the
recommended used for the area is conservation forest, not agriculture. Table 12 is used to
solve the obstacle.
52
Compatible vegetation changed table (table 12) shows that, in the Dakrong district:
Cell B10 (column B, row 10) of the table 12 shows 27,405ha (B10) recommended for
conservation forest. In the recommended area for conservation forest, 1,588ha (B7),
2,706ha (B2 + B4 + B8) and 10,303ha (B3 + B5 + B9) are using for production forest,
agriculture and other lands respectively. These areas are the potential lands of water
degradation.
In 2005, the total conservation forest area is 26,829ha (F1 + F6) (increased 5,984ha
(F6) in comparison with 1989). However, only 12,808ha (B1 + B6) of conservation
forest is located in the sensitive class 1 where recommended for conservation forest.
10,720ha (C1 + C6) and 1,602ha (D1 + D6) are located in the sensitive class 2
(recommended for production forest) and sensitive class 3a (recommended for
agriculture) respectively. This incompatible distribution can be reputed as the root
cause of land, water degradation along with flood disaster in Quang Tri.
In 5,984ha (F6) of increased area of conservation forest, just only 3,045ha (B6) (51%)
of which is located in the sensitive class 1 where recommended for conservation forest.
The remaining (49%) of the change is located in area where it is not recommended for
conservation. This means that the change of conservation forest is incompatible with
the purposes of environment protection and economic development. Meanwhile, 663ha
(B2 + B3) of conservation forest that located in the sensitive class 1 was converted into
agriculture and other lands.
There is 35,636ha (C10) recommended for production forest. In 2005, total production
forest area is 8,569ha (F7). However, only 4,769ha (C7) of which is located in the
sensitive class 2 where recommended for production forest. 1,588ha (B7) is located in
the area recommended for conservation forest which requires permanent forest cover.
Thus, exploitation of this 1,588ha production forest could result in the degradation of
land and water resources.
There is 13,010ha (C9) of other lands locates in 35,636ha (C10) recommended for
production forest. This area should be examined to develop production forest to
enhance economic development as well as protection of environmental resources.
There are 28,599ha (D10) recommended for agriculture. In this recommended area for
agriculture, 12,727ha (D3 + D5 +D9) is other lands. This area should be converted to
agriculture land in order to meet the need for food security.
53
In 2005, the total agriculture area is 21,223ha (F2 + F4 + F8) (increased 9,389ha (F2 +
F8) in comparison with 1989). However, just 12,392ha (D2 + D4 + D8) is located in the
area recommended for agriculture. 2,706ha (B2 + B4 + B8) and 5,267ha (C2 + C4 +
C8) are located in the area recommended for conservation forest and production forest
respectively. These areas are susceptible to land, water degradation and also nature
disaster.
Of the 9,389ha (F2 + F8) increased area for agriculture land, only 4,070ha (D2 + D8)
(43%) is located in the sensitive class 3a where recommended for agriculture intended.
This means that the change of agriculture is incompatible with the purposes of
environmental protection and economic development. The 57% increased area of
agriculture is inconsistent with the location recommended for such land.
54
Chapter 6. Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1.
Conclusions
There is no land classification system completely suitable for every area in the world. In a
specific case such as upper stream area like the study area (Dakrong district, Vietnam),
application of the USDA land capability classification and the FAO land suitability
classification systems is not really suitable (ref. section 2.1.3 and section 5.2.1). Moreover,
despite their wide use and familiarity, these two famous classification systems have their own
limitations.
In a mountainous district such as Dakrong, where the area is hill and mountain,
consideration for conservation should be emphasized, and forestry planning should be
promoted over agricultural development. Therefore, the development of the land susceptibility
classification system for Dakrong is necessary. In additional, the land susceptibility
classification is developed based on regression analysis of GIS, it eliminated the parameter
problems of the two existing land classification in Vietnam (USDA land capability system and
FAO land suitability classification system).
The land susceptibility classification map, which is the result of susceptibility classification
system, represents the susceptive level of a certain land area and helps to determine what type
of land use is appropriate. The map can be used as an important source for proposing the
master land use plan for the Dakrong district.
The post-classification change detection method and NDVI image difference method are both
simple and easy to implement, however, they produced different results. The second method is
more accurate than the post-classification method. Meanwhile, the post-classification change
detection method can give more detailed information about the change (from-to
information).
An important product in the post-classification change detection method is the image
classified map (or it can be also called vegetation map in this study). This map can be
analyzed in conjunction with the land susceptibility classification map to represent the actual
state of potentially endangered areas by land degradation (Ref. 5.2.1).
55
The hybrid approach for change detection is recommended because it can eliminate
disadvantages as well as synthesis advantages of single method. This approach may reduce
change detection errors aiming at increasing accuracy and provides detailed information on
the change (from to information).
In the period 1989-2005, there have been significant changes in vegetation cover in the
Dakrong district. Along with many efforts of the government, the area of conservation forest
area has been increased aiming at mitigating resource degradation and enhancing disaster
prevention; Production forest has appeared aiming at improving both the environment and the
economy; Areas of other land use types were converted to agriculture land aimed at meeting
the need of food security. Nevertheless, the efficiency of the efforts was low. Disasters are
still occurring severely; the economy of Dakrongs people was not significantly improved. It
has been realized that there are continuing problems in afforestation and land use plan.
For instance, the total conservation forest in Dakrong (2005) is 26,829ha but only 12,808ha
(48%) of such amount is compatible with the recommended use provided by the LSC map. In
the period 1989-2005, the area of conservation forest increased 5,984ha but only 3,045ha
(51%) is compatible with the recommendation by the LSC map. The same situation occurs
with production forest and agriculture land. In 2005, the increased area of production forest
and agriculture land stood at 8,569ha and 9,389 respectively. However, only 4,769ha (56%) of
production forest and 4,070 (43%) of agriculture land is compatible with the recommendations
provided by the LSC map. It again showed that afforestation projects as well as land use
conversion have been implemented with a lack of appropriate location plan.
Therefore, based on the compatible vegetation change map, this thesis proved that the change
in vegetation in the period 1989-2005 is not compatible with recommendation of land use that
proposed by the land susceptibility classification system. It consolidates the criticism that
forestation programs and land use conversion plan in some regions in Vietnam have been
implemented with a lack of appropriate allocation plan.
6.2.
Recommendations
As discussed, the loss of vegetation cover in upstream areas often leads to adverse impacts on
the environment of the entire basin. Forestation is necessary but costly and hardly affect on
socio-economic and environmental aspects. Therefore, before implementing a forestation
program, it is very important to develop a good master land use plan. The CVC map, the
integration of the LSC map and the VC map, can be used as one of the important information
sources for proposing a good master land use plan. Based on the CVC map, this thesis has
some recommendations:
56
Almost 58% of the Dakrong district area belongs to Sensitive class 1 or 2. Therefore,
forestation should be considered as oriented intended of using land in the district.
Though the area of land used for conservation forests is 26,829ha, just 12.808ha
(48%) of such areas are compatible with the recommendations provided by the LSC
map. Therefore, this area should be strictly protected. The remaining area (52%)
should be converted into other appropriate land use areas. In detail, 10,702ha (40%)
should be converted into production forest land and 1,602ha (6%) should be
converted into agricultural land.
The compatible area of conservation forest land in 2005 (12.808ha) occupied only a
small scale (44%) in comparison with the area recommended for conservation forest
(27,405ha). Therefore, much effort from government is required to increase
conservation forest area to achieve the amount are required.
In the period 1989-2005, despite the area of conservation forest increasing is high
(5,984ha), just 3,045ha (51%) of which is compatible with recommendation by the
LSC map. This problem in forestation programs leads to a non-efficiently use of
money, and the positive impact on environment factors of the entire basin was also
not significant. Thus, land use planning should be examined carefully before
carrying out forest plantation.
There is 35,636ha (34% of total district area) recommended for production forest.
However, just 4,769ha is used for production forest on the recommended area. The
remaining 3,800ha of production forest is located on the area recommended for other
land use types. In which, the noticeable is 1,588ha of production forest located in the
area recommended for conservation forest which requires permanent forest cover.
Exploitation of this 1,588ha production forest could result in degradation of land and
water resources. Therefore, such area should be converted to conservation forest.
Though there is 21,223ha of land used for agriculture intended, only 12,392 (58%) of
such quantity is compatible with the recommended use by the LSC map. The
remaining area (42%) of agriculture is located on the area recommended for other
land use types. This causes ineffective agriculture and also adversely impacts on the
environment. Therefore, this incompatible land should be converted into
recommended vegetation type and relocated into the area recommended for
agriculture. The expansion of agriculture on the area recommended for conservation
forest must be prohibited.
57
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63
Appendix
APPENDIX
Appendix 1. Regression analysis output
Model Summary
Model
1
R
.864(a)
R Square
.746
Adjusted R
Square
.733
Std. Error of
the Estimate
.296
a Predictors: (Constant), Sdepth, Roughness, Slope, DEM
Coefficients(a)
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Model
1
Standardized
Coefficients
B
3.054
Std. Error
.151
DEM
-.001
.008
Slope
-.031
Roughness
-.005
.137
(Constant)
Sdepth
Beta
Sig.
B
18.818
Std. Error
.000
-.186
-3.225
.002
.004
-.802
-13.878
.001
.007
-.186
-3.221
.002
.040
.186
3.214
.002
a Dependent Variable: Class2
Appendix 2. Error matrixes of image classification

Accuracy of 1989
Classes
Conservation forest
Agriculture
Other lands
Total
Producer accuracy
Conservation forest
7
0
5
12
0.58
Agriculture
0
14
2
16
0.88
Other
1
2
23
25
0.89
Total
8
16
30
54
User accuracy
0.89
0.89
0.77
Overall accuracy (44/54) = 0.81
Kappa Statistic (KHAT) = 0.7
Accuracy of 2005
Classes
Conservation forest
Production forest
Agriculture
Other lands
Total
Producer accuracy
Conservation Production
Agriculture
forest
forest
10
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
21
3
0
1
13
3
22
0.77
1
0.96
64
Other
Total
1
1
2
12
16
0.75
11
4
23
16
54
User
accuracy
0.91
0.75
0.91
0.75
Appendix
Appendix 3. Error matrix of NDVI image difference

Classes
No-change
Change
Total
User accuracy
No-change
22
27
0.82
Change
25
27
0.93
Total
24
30
54
0.92
0.83
Producer accuracy

Appendix 4. The matrix of Vegetation cover change detected using the postclassification (ha)
1989
2005 Conservation Plantation Agriculture

forest
forest
Other
lands
Total
Conservation forest
20,200
1,625
1,771
23,596
Plantation forest
0
359
6,413
26,972
0
322
9,397
9,719
0
10,712
8,371
20,708
0
3,909
40,444
46,124
0
15,302
64,625
103,523
Agriculture
Other lands
Total
Appendix 5. The matrix of Vegetation cover change detected using the hybrid
approach (ha)
2005 Conservation Plantation Agriculture
1989
forest
forest
20,845
0
1,431
Conservation forest
0
0
0
Plantation forest
0
0
11,835
Agriculture
5,984
8,568
7,958
Other lands
26,829
8,568
21,224
Total
65
Other
lands
1,320
0
3,467
42,115
46,902
Total
23,596
0
15,302
64,625
103,523

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FACULTEIT GENEESKUNDE EN FARMACIE

Vakgroep Menselijke Ecologie

Integration of Land Susceptibility Classification System

Thesis Presented to Obtain the Degree of Master in Human Ecology

Ngo Dang Tri (Roll No. 82488)

Declaration and Approval

(Ngo Dang Tri)

Statement of the research problem...........................................................................................3

Research objectives ....................................................................................................................6

General objective ......................................................................................................... 6

Specific objectives ........................................................................................................ 6

Research questions .....................................................................................................................6

Definitions and concepts ............................................................................................................7

The research tools ......................................................................................................................8

Remote sensing (RS) ................................................................................................... 8

Geographical information system (GIS) ..................................................................... 8

Limitation and significance of the research .............................................................................9

Limitation of the research ........................................................................................... 9

Significance of the research ........................................................................................ 9

Research logical framework ....................................................................................................10

Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................12

Land classification ...................................................................................................................12

USDA land capability classification ......................................................................... 13

FAO land suitability classification ........................................................................... 15

Vegetation cover change detection .........................................................................................17

Post-classification change detection ......................................................................... 18

Image classification methods .................................................................19

Land cover map comparison ..................................................................21

NDVI image difference ............................................................................................. 21

Radiometric normalization .....................................................................22

NDVI calculation and image difference.................................................23

A hybrid approach for change detection .................................................................. 23

Chapter 3. STUDY AREA ....................................................................................................25

Study area .................................................................................................................................25

Bio-physical conditions ............................................................................................. 25

Topology and hydrology ........................................................................25

Land use .................................................................................................27

Ethnic Groups ........................................................................................27

Health Care ............................................................................................27

Cultivation practice and household incomes ..........................................28

Chapter 4. MATERIAL AND METHODS .........................................................................29

Methods and process................................................................................................................31

Land susceptibility classification .............................................................................. 31

Establishing factor maps ........................................................................33

Regression analysis ................................................................................37

Land susceptibility classification map ...................................................37

Vegetation change detection ..................................................................................... 37

Post-classification change detection.......................................................39

NDVI image difference ..........................................................................40

The hybrid approach for change detection .............................................40

The compatibility of vegetation change .................................................................... 41

Chapter 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .........................................................................42

Land Susceptibility Classification ............................................................................. 42

Vegetation change detection ..................................................................................... 43

Change detected using the post-classification ........................................43

Change detected using NDVI image difference .....................................45

Change detected using the hybrid approach ...........................................46

Accuracy assessment for change detection ............................................47

Compatibility of vegetation change........................................................................... 48

Why should we develop a new classification system oriented

towards forestry management and conservation activities for the Dakrong

Question 2: How is the efficiency of different methods of vegetation cover/use

Chapter 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...........................................55