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Significance
Every computer connected to the Internet or on a network needs to have an antivirus program
installed. Virus prevention is an essential component needed by everyon
Viruses
A virus is a software program that infects computers without the owners' permission. Viruses
are different from other forms of malware in that viruses are spread from one computer to the
next.
Antivirus
Antivirus software scans for infections on a computer. Some antivirus programs include
automated scheduled scannings and additional features.
Types of Antivirus
Commercial antivirus and Internet security programs are available, such as Norton and
McAfee. Free programs include AVG Free and Avira.
A routing protocol uses metrics to determine which path to utilize to transmit a packet across an
internetwork.
The metrics used by routing protocols include:
• Number of network layer devices along the path (hop count)
• Bandwidth
• Delay
• Load
• MTU
• Cost
Routing protocols store the results of these metrics in a routing table.
Interior vs. Exterior Routing Protocols
Some routing protocols are designed for use within an organization, while other routing
protocols are designed for use between organizations.
The current lead Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) is OSPF. Other Interior Gateway Protocols
include IS-IS, RIP, and EIGRP.
The current lead Exterior Gateway Protocol is BGP. The current revision of BGP is BGP4. There
are no other Exterior Gateway Routing protocols in current competition with BGP4.
Distance Vector vs. Link State Routing Protocols
Routing protocols such as RIP and EIGRP are Distance Vector routing protocols. These are
called Distance Vector protocols because they base routing decisions on the "distance" of the
remote destination in terms of the number of network layer hops which the packet will have to
traverse.
OSPF and IS-IS are Link State routing protocols. They are called Link State protocols because
they base routing decisions on messages received from other routers in the internetwork which
give information about state of the links connected to them.
---------------What Is an IP Address?
An IP address is an address used to uniquely identify a device on an IP network. An IP network
is nothing but a connection of multiple computers forming a network. An IP address can be
given to any kind of network component that has to communicate over the network, such as
computers, servers, routers, switches, etc. Any two computers, or any other network devices,
cannot communicate with each other if they do not have an assigned IP address. They are
designed to uniquely identify each network device and allow them to communicate with each
other, regardless of the physical location of the sender and receiver.
Hence, an IP address is the unique identity of any network device where each one should have
their own IP address defined. On the Internet, computers are recognized by their IP addresses
only. IP addresses have an equal significance as the postal addresses have for human beings. Can
you send a letter to anyone if you do not know where he/she lives? This should explain the
importance of an “IP address”.
An IP address is 32 (thirty two) bits in length, which can be divided into a network portion and a
host portion with the help of a subnet mask. It is represented in form of four octets, where 1 octet
= 8 bits. Each octet is converted to a decimal format and is separated by a dot (‘.’). For this
reason, an IP address is said to be expressed in a ‘dotted decimal format’.
Examples of IP addresses in decimal format: 10.1.1.1, 255.255.255.255, 220.3.1.5
The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 in decimal format. The ‘dotted decimal format’ is
used to make it easier for the humans to read and remember the numbers, but computers use IP
addresses in a binary format only.
Example of an IP address in binary format: 10011101.11100010.10101110.11101000
Public IP Address : It is a unique IP address assigned by IANA (Internet Assigned
Network Authority). Duplication of the public IP addresses is impossible; hence
these addresses need to be bought.
Summary: Every device on an TCP/IP network must have a unique IP address. IP addresses are
assigned, either automatically by DHCP, or by manual configuration.
Given that IP address must be unique for every computer attached to the internet,how is it
possible that we do not plug in IP addresses for the computer we want to connect?
Well, every device connected to the internet must have a unique IP, it's true. And they're
assigned one of two ways: static or dynamic. But there's also a useful trick that lets multiple
computers share a single IP address ... and that trick is called a router.
•
Static IP addresses are exactly that: static or unchanging. They are assigned by your network
administrator or ISP, and yes, you do have to configure the computer or other internet device
manually to respond to that specific address.
But, as you point out, most folks don't need to do that. So how do they get their IP addresses?
Enter the dynamic IP address and "DHCP" or Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
Using DHCP (which is the default for Windows TCP/IP connections) the computer broadcasts a
special request for an IP address to the network. An upstream device, commonly belonging to
your ISP, responds with an IP address that the computer then configures itself to use. Especially
when many computers aren't connected continuously, this allows the ISP to reuse the IP
addresses of computers that have disconnected from the internet.
If you need your computer to be identifiable on the internet ... for example if you're running a
web server or want people to be able to connect to your machine, you'll probably need or use a
static IP address. On the other hand, if all you do is connect out to surf or read email, as most
users do, then a dynamic IP address is the easiest to configure.
Routers are devices that allow multiple computers to "share" a single IP address. The device
that's connected to the internet is the router, and it has a unique IP address. The router can then
act as the DHCP server to the local network handing out local IP addresses to the computers
connected to it. As traffic flows across the router, it does the job of translating the IP addresses
from the local addresses it has assigned, to the external IP address it was assigned, and routing
the right bits of data to the right computer ... hence the name.
One of the many side effects of using a router is that it can be assigned a static address on the
internet, d hand out dynamic IP addresses locally, vice versa, or any combination.
It is done at Start, Settings, Control, Panel, Network, the Properties of the instance
of the TCP/IP protocol bound to (associated with) the network adapter, IP Address
Tab. They are known as static IP addresses. 192.168.0.1 is usually assigned to the
computer with the Internet sharing software and 192.168.0.2, 192.168.0.3, etc. are
usually assigned to the client computers. The subnet mask should be 255.255.255.0
on all of the computers. You will need to enable DNS (domain name service) in the
DNS Configuration tab and enter the IP addresses of your ISP’s (Internet Service
Provider) DNS servers. Most ISPs have a primary and secondary DNS server and
that info is usually provided in the paperwork the ISP sent you when you signed-up.
It is also usually available on the ISPs web site. I do not like proxy servers. NATs
(Network Address Translators) are easier to install. Discussion of other solutions
starts at http://duxcw.com/faq/ics/waysshare.htm.
Technically, a "public" address would be an address that anyone can use. Such as:
192.168.x.y
These public address that anyone can use are "classful" or based on older Class A,B,
and C IP networks.
Note:
Application layer: Provides a means for the user to access information on the network through an
application. This layer is the main interface for the user to interact with the application and therefore the
network.
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI
application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with
software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside
the scope of the OSI model.
Application layer functions typically include
identifying communication partners,
determining resource availability,
and synchronizing communication.
When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and
availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit.
When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient
network resources for the requested communication exist.
In synchronizing communication, all communication between applications requires cooperation
that is managed by the application layer.
Some examples of application layer implementations include Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
Or
The Application Layer is the highest layer of the OSI architecture, the purpose of which is to
serve as a window between correspondent application processes so that they may exchange
information on the open environment. The progams which use the Application Layer are known
as Application Processes. A user program may interface directly with the Presentation Layer in
which case it must include protocol modules to initialise communication with peer application
processes, establish the appropriate Presentation context and transfer files or messages.
Alternatively, the user process may include available modules which suppport commonly
required application related services. Such modules are referred to as Application Specific
Elements and are defined as an integrated set of functions which together provide one or more
application related communication capabilities. These capabilities are defined by a protocol in a
very similar manner to that used to specify a service provided by the layer below. The protocol
may specify direct use of presentation layer services and/or those provided by other ASEs. The
grouping of a user process (or application entity), relevant ASEs and interfaces between them is
known as an application process.
Application Layer protocols are classified into Common Application Specific Elements (CASE)
and Specific Application Specific Elements (SASE). CASE elements are commonly required by
user elements and SASEs, whereas SASEs are only included in an application process when their
particular service is specifically required. For more information on SASEs Group Xs project can
be consulted (LINK).
There are four CASEs currently defined. These are...
1. Association Control ACSE,
Common data representation formats, or the use of standard image, sound, and video formats,
enable the interchange of application data between different types of computer systems. Using different
text and data representations, such as EBCDIC and ASCII, uses conversion schemes to exchange
information with systems. Standard data compression schemes enable data that is compressed. or
encrypted at the source device to be properly decompressed, or deciphered at the destination.
Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with a particular protocol stack.
Some well-known standards for video include QuickTime and Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG).
QuickTime is an Apple Computer specification for video and audio, and MPEG is a standard for video
compression and coding.
Among the well-known graphic image formats are Graphics Interchange Format (GIF), Joint Photographic
Experts Group (JPEG), and Tagged Image File Format (TIFF). GIF is a standard for compressing and
coding graphic images. JPEG is another compression and coding standard for graphic images, and TIFF
is a standard coding format for graphic images.
server based offers better security, monitor users, more technical and time
consuming to set-up, less likely to cause problems if set-up correctly, any amount of
comps etc....
In a Peer to peer network, all nodes are equal. They are both client and server. Most
P2P networks use a mesh topology.
In the client/server model, the data is centralised with all data residing on a single
node (the server) clients request the data and the server sends it. Data on one
client must pass through the server to be available to another client. Most
client/server networks use a star topology.
Client Server has the advantage of centralised management and data integrity
whilst P2P has the advantage of faster data transfer and avoids network
bottlenecks.
What Is DHCP?
DHCP, the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, describes the means by which a system can
connect to a network and obtain the necessary information for communication upon that
network. FreeBSD versions prior to 6.0 use the ISC (Internet Systems Consortium) DHCP client
(dhclient(8)) implementation. Later versions use the OpenBSD dhclient taken from
OpenBSD 3.7. All information here regarding dhclient is for use with either of the ISC or
OpenBSD DHCP clients. The DHCP server is the one included in the ISC distribution.
29.5.2 What This Section Covers
This section describes both the client-side components of the ISC and OpenBSD DHCP client
and server-side components of the ISC DHCP system. The client-side program, dhclient,
comes integrated within FreeBSD, and the server-side portion is available from the net/isc-
dhcp3-server port. The dhclient(8), dhcp-options(5), and dhclient.conf(5) manual pages, in
addition to the references below, are useful resources.
29.5.3 How It Works
When dhclient, the DHCP client, is executed on the client machine, it begins broadcasting
requests for configuration information. By default, these requests are on UDP port 68. The server
replies on UDP 67, giving the client an IP address and other relevant network information such
as netmask, router, and DNS servers. All of this information comes in the form of a DHCP
“lease” and is only valid for a certain time (configured by the DHCP server maintainer). In this
manner, stale IP addresses for clients no longer connected to the network can be automatically
reclaimed.
DHCP clients can obtain a great deal of information from the server. An exhaustive list may be
found in dhcp-options(5).
Short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, a protocol for assigning dynamic IP addresses
to devices on a network. With dynamic addressing, a device can have a different IP address
every time it connects to the network. In some systems, the device's IP address can even change
while it is still connected. DHCP also supports a mix of static and dynamic IP addresses.
Dynamic addressing simplifies network administration because the software keeps track of IP
addresses rather than requiring an administrator to manage the task. This means that a new
computer can be added to a network without the hassle of manually assigning it a unique IP
address. Many ISPs use dynamic IP addressing for dial-up users.
Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the strength of a signal.
Attenuation occurs with any type of signal, whether digital or analog. Sometimes
called loss, attenuation is a natural consequence of signal transmission over long
distances. The extent of attenuation is usually expressed in units called decibels
(dBs).
16 16
Sequence Number
Acknowledgement Number
Option + Padding
Data
+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| Source Address |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| Destination Address |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| zero | PTCL | TCP Length |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+
The TCP Length is the TCP header length plus the data length in
octets (this is not an explicitly transmitted quantity, but is
computed), and it does not count the 12 octets of the pseudo
header.
Urgent Pointer: 16 bits
This field communicates the current value of the urgent pointer as a
positive offset from the sequence number in this segment. The
urgent pointer points to the sequence number of the octet following
the urgent data. This field is only be interpreted in segments with
the URG control bit set.
Options: variable
Options may occupy space at the end of the TCP header and are a
multiple of 8 bits in length. All options are included in the
checksum. An option may begin on any octet boundary. There are two
cases for the format of an option:
Note that the list of options may be shorter than the data offset
field might imply. The content of the header beyond the
End-of-Option option must be header padding (i.e., zero).
+--------+
|00000000|
+--------+
Kind=0
This option code indicates the end of the option list. This
might not coincide with the end of the TCP header according to
the Data Offset field. This is used at the end of all options,
not the end of each option, and need only be used if the end of
the options would not otherwise coincide with the end of the TCP
header.
No-Operation
+--------+
|00000001|
+--------+
Kind=1
+--------+--------+---------+--------+
|00000010|00000100| max seg size |
+--------+--------+---------+--------+
Kind=2 Length=4