Southern Japan Seminar 2014

Issues in Translation and Interpretation

"Translations of the Heian Masterpiece, The Tale o/Genii"
by S. Yumiko Hulvey
Univers ity of Florida
Murasak i Shikibu, a woman of the mid- He ian period, is the author of Genji

monogafari (The Tale o/Genii, ca. II ttl c., hereafter the Genii), the masterpiece of the
Japanese literary canon that has been translated several times in both Japanese and
Eng lish. All four translations in Japanese were produced by famous literary figure s:
Yosano Akiko ( 1878-1942), Tanizaki Jun'ichiro (1886-1965), Enchi Fum iko (19051986), and Setouc hi Jakucho (1922-). Of trans lations in to Engli sh, the first was by
Suematsu Kencho (1855- 1920), a Japanese diplomat who graduated from the University
of Cambridge in 1884 with a Law degree and who produced a partia l translation of the

Genii (the first seventeen chapters) while in Cambrid ge, England. In addition to the
partial trans lat ion by Helen Craig McCullough (19 18-1998) published in 1994 (Genji and

Heike), three complete Engli sh translations belong to Arthur Waley (18 89-1966), Edward
G. Seidensticker ( 1921-2007), and Royall Ty ler (1936-), academics in England, the
Un ited States, and Australia. Let me present a brief survey of translations of the Heian
literary masterpiece.
The earliest modern Japanese translation was prod uced by Yosano Akiko, a
female poet famous for the collection Midaregami (Tangled Hair. 190 1), whose abrid ged
version Shin )'Clkll Genii lIIonagalari (A New Translation of The Tale a/Genii, 1912-13),
was followe d two decades later by the complete translation , Shin Shin 'yaku Genii

mOl1ogatari (A New, New Translation of The Tale o/Genii, 1938-39}.1 Both the

I Gayle Ro.... lcy. YOJano A/ako and The Tall' aiGe,'.!i Ann Arbor. r>oll Ce mer for Jol,ancsc Stud,es. 2000

abridged and complete versions of the Yosano Genji are in print today. Gayle Rowley
translates Yosano 's ideas on translating the Genji:
I eli minated those detail s which being far removed from modern li fe we can neither
identify nor sympathi ze with, and thus only resent for their needless nicety. My principal
aim has been to bring forth as directly as possible the spi rit of the original through the
instrument of the modern language. I have endeavored to be both scrupulous and bold. I
did not always adhere to the expressions of the original author; I did not always translate
literally. I-laving made the spirit of the original my own, I then ventured a free
lranslati on.2
Yosano worked independently on her tran slation because she felt a kindred spirit to the
pioneering work of Murasaki Shikibu of the J-Ieian period (794-118 5).
Tani zaki JlIn'ichiro 's third wife Matsuko asked him to translate the Genji even
though he was not a fan. Ibuki and Rowley 's art icl e -'The Tani zaki Genji" suggests that
hi s role in the translation was more akin to that of a supervisi ng editor rather than a
translator? Matsllko was obsessed with the abridged version of the Yosano Genji and
wanted her husband to produce a complete translation that would be useful for well-bred
yo ung ladi es like she and her sisters to read. 4 Even though Tani zaki produced three
versions of hi s Genji tran slations, in the 19305, 19505, and 19705, to the end remarks
disparaging the Genji escaped his lips. It seems that some women translators treat the
Genji with more affection.
Enchi Fumiko, the third translator of the Genji devoted six years of her literary
career to the Genji, since she was an avid lover of the classical maste rpiece like Yosano
Akiko. Enchi was the daughter o f Ueda Kazutoshi ( 1867-1 937), famous philologist,
editor of Dai NiholJ kokugojilen, and professor at Tokyo University. With access to her
1 Ibuki Kru:uko and G G. ROIllc)" "The Tani7.J.::i GenJ" In cepuon. Process, and Allerthoughs " With translations by lbomas Harpel o f
Tanmdl Jun'ichlr~'s "On Translating tne Tale afGttnJl into Modem Japanese" (1938) and "Some MaliCIOUS Remarks" ( 1965). In the
Grand Old Man and thc GICa! TradlilOn. Essays on TaJllzakl Jun'lchlr~ In Ii onor of Adnana Boscaro Edi ted by LUisa Sienati WId
l1ouna\'entura Rupertl Center for Japanese Studies. Thc Un,vcrslly of Michlgwl, 2009 22-52.
, Ibukl and Ro\\ ley, p 41-42
Ibukl and ROI\ley stHlC Ihat Morita Matsuko was obsessed by YosaRo Aklko's IrnnslallOIl oflhe G,>njl and wanted her husband 10
produce hiS own translation. p 30.

father's extensive library, Enchi developed an avocation as a scholar of the classics from
an early age and produced an oeuvre replete with multiple allusions to the Heian period
masterpieces by women. No wonder the Enchi Genji (1967-72) feels as if it were one of
Enchi's own creations since she breathed life into the translation. Enchi too felt a kindred
spirit with Murasaki Shikibu's Genji, even though her translation reflects an Edokko
sensibility of one born and raised in the Kanto.
Finally, the fourth translation by Setouchi lakucho (I-Iarumi) was pub li shed in
1997 by an I-novelist (warakllshi-sh6selslI) with a torrid past, who renounced the world in
1973 and became a nun, just as women did in the Heian period in which the Genji is set.
Unlike Heian women who became nuns, lakucho lives the life of a superstar featured
constantly in various popular media such as magazines and television although she is
now ninety-one years old. s For all her stated devotion

10

The Tale o/Genji, she has

accused Genji of rape, whi le Royall Ty ler has come to Genji's defense in "Marriage,
Rank, and Rape in The Tale o/Genji.',6
Let us now turn our attention to English translations of the Genji that make the
Heian masterpiece accessible to students in the United States. These are all translations
by male scho lars of England, the United Stales, and Australia: Waley, Seidensticker, and
Ty ler. The Waley Genji was replaced by the time I entered graduate school so the
Seidensticker Genji was the staple for most of my academic career. However when the
Tyler translation was published in 2001 I made the transition. For the sake of time I will

, Royall Tyler. "Some Viells o f Tlte Tale ofGl! nji," p, 9 : "According to the aniclc. which was primcd by newspapers acros~ America,
Setouchi "sees in the novel a strong feminist l oice, protestin g Ihe co nditi ons ofwomell at the time" and argues that 'the key figures"
in the talc are "the women \\ hom [G enji) uscs and di sc ards." " Wh ile GenJ i's liaisons arc l1 orm~lly described as seducti ons, the
intervicwer ..... rote. " Ms. Setouch i scoffs at thaI. ' It was all Tilpe. not seducti on, ' she says ,"
htlp:flww ......jpf.org. aulonlineaMlclcsfprofilelroyalltylcr- ge nji -lcct-english.pdf
For Genj i'S defense. see Royall Tyler's " Marriage. Rank, and Rape in The rulf' ofGenji, .' IIIIUll!Clions: Gender, Hlslory and
Culture in Ihe Asian COn/ex t. lss uc 7. Milrch 2002, hllp ;ffinterscctions.anu.edu.aulissuc7Ityler,html

not be discuss ing the partial translations, since I have more than enough territory to cover
with the complete translations.
j-IO\y

a translator justifies his new translation offers a chance to glimpse both

motivation and method behind the theory of translation. Seidensticker begins with an
apology of sorts in his article, "Chiefly on Translating the Genji,"7 citing that there is no
such thing as a "perfect translation" before he proceeds to declare that it is easier to
translate prose rather than poetry and modern rather than old languages. Seidensticker
declares that, "the most difficult stage in a literary translation is that of seeking to put the
translat ion into acceptable language, by which is meant language that con veys in some
measure the literary aptness of the original" (16). He continues that "the process of
beating a literal translation into what seems acceptable Engl ish has generally taken as
long as all other stages combined, including ascertaining what the original means, putting
it into a literal draft, and annotating" (16).
When justifying the new translation, Seidensticker stated about the Waley Genji:
It is often said that Waley was a lover of simp licity, but his Genji translation does
not support the statement. It is a highly ornate piece of work, adding much that may
seem very nice but represents elaboration upon the original. I f it is the translator's
duty to imitate, then he should not replace sparseness of detail by a rich profusion.
An editor may suggest additions and deletions and improve by these devices, but
they probably lie beyond the realm of translation (23).

Seidensticker continues by examining the opening paragraph of the Waley Genji:

There are more than twice as many words in the Wa ley translation of the samc
passage ... Already we have in it, however, instances of the sort of thing he does so
frequently. Mezamashiki mono is rendered as "the upstart who had dispelled their
dreams. " This is very ingenious and not at all displeasing, but it is a literal rendition
of an expression whose sense had departed rather far from those literal origins. "Still
less were her former companions, the minor ladies of the Wardrobe, content to see
her raised so far above them," says Waley' s second sentence. Again the trans lation is
marked by an ingenious and not unpleasant and yet misleading sort of literalness.
, JOllmal ofJapaneS<! Studies 6. 1 (1980): 15-47,

K6i may originally, as the words suggests, have had to do with the royal wardrobe,
but by the period of the Genji they were lesser concubines, ladies not of sufficiently
good family to be major consorts. In hi s first sentence Waley seems to render k6i as
"gentlewomen of the Chamber," which indeed they were , and the higher-ranking
ny6go seem to be called "women of the Wardrobe," which they were not (24-25).

Furthermore, Seidensticker states:

Perhaps Waley was right , if we may assume that the ingenious embellishment was
for purposes of imitating the rhythm of the original . Whether or not that was his
intention is by no mcans clear, and his willingness to make radical deletions may
suggest that no consistent principle was operative. Il may be that what did operate
was rather more the matter of what "sounded good"-and what interested him (25).
These ideas might provide some insight into what translators arc faced with when
deciding what path a translation is to follow. Another problem Seidensticker mentions is
the lack of names in the original that he solved by referring to characters by stable names
throughout the Genji. Royall Tylcr used the lack of names in the origina l Genii as one of
his justifications for undertaking the new translation. The Tyler Genii certainly has a
languid feel in terms of pace that Seidensticker mentioned above about the WaIey Genii,
and the rapid-paced feel of the Seidensticker Genii might be due to its spate of short
sentcnces. Yct the raison d'etre for the Tyler Genii, the intention to follow the original in
choosing to forgo names for the continua ll y changing titles, ironically becomes the
source of confusion for readers and thereby a source of criticism. s Students complain that
the lack of constant names make them re-read passages a number of times before they
understand exactly who's who and who did what to whom. However the Tyler Genji has
produced lovely translations of poetry, a languorous pace that more approximates the
original, and a marvelous nuanced translation with copious exp lanatory notes. He even
provides interpretation in The Disasler of Ihe Third Princess that is an invaluable

For details on Tyler 's ideas on tran slat ion, see "Translat in g Th e Talc of Genj i:'
hllp:l/wwW.C5sc.rn onas h.cdu .ut.Jf-j\\blt)lcrlcct urc. html

teaching tool. Many female writers have been inspired by hi storical masterpieces and
continue to allude to works written by women in earlier times. Kurahashi Yumiko (19352005) is one who found inspiration from writers of the past, and now I would like to lum
our attention to translating narratives with multiple allusions.

"Translat ing and Interpreting Allusions in Kurahashi Yumiko's Yume no kayoiji (Path of
Dreams, 1989)"
by S. Yumiko Hulvey
University of Florida

INTRODUCTION

A translator is one who acts as a bridge from one language to another, usually
from one more obsc ure into one more familiar. Then we might infer that a translator's job
is to convey as closely as possible the meaning of the original into another language.
However, when one attempts to translate a language that is no longer spoken or used
today into another language that does not even belong to the same group of languages,
such as Indo-European languages, the process is made all the more compli cated because
one must span huge chasms of time, linguistics, and culture to make the translation
meaningful and sign ificant. Thus interpretation becomes another tantamount effort.
Although my speciali zation is classical Japanese literalure, the topic of my talk today
focuses on a modern Japanese text that makes heavy use of intertextual allus ions to the
classical literary canon of the past. I will limit myself to discussing translat ions that arc
text-centered, one that allows time to consult dictionaries and research sources to flesh
out an accurate and hopefully literary result. And I strive to teach students how to manage
reading texts published and disseminated for native speakers of Japanese.

My fie ld is classical Japanese literature written fro m the tenth to the fourteenth
centuries . or texts from the I-Ieian and Kamakura periods, but I can only teach the canon
in English translat ion _My love for the classical canon led me to search for modern
literary texts that contain echoes of the past that I could introduce to students in 4,h year
Japanese al the Unive rsity of Florida. At first I chose writers like Akutagawa RyGnosuke
who used Konjakll monogatari (Tales of Times Now Past, ca. late I i

cent ury) as

inspiration fo r some of hi s short narrati ves in Rashomon and later Enchi Fumiko whose
avocation as a classical scholar led her to set some o f her narratives in the Heian period,
such as A Tale of False Oracles (Na mamiko monogalari). However, a colleague stated
that Akutagawa's works were too easy while Enc hi 's texts were dense and difficult. I
contin ued my search for narrati ves that might capture the imaginati on of my student s and
satisfy my need for the classical canon. Somehow whil e browsing the shelves of lhe
library, I came across Kurahashi Yum iko's Ylime no kayoiji (Path of Dreams, 1989) that
contained multiple intertextual allusions to literary texts and hi storical fi gures from the
classical canon. Some of Kurahashi's short narratives had been publi shed in The Woman

with the Flying Head and other Stories by Kurahashi YIIII/ik.o translated by Sakaki
Atsuko in J997, but there were others in the co ll ection Path of Dreams that were virgi n
territory. I decided to give Path of Dream!) a try for the 4th year Japanese class. During
the course of reading thi s co ll ection with my student s, I have come to appreciate the
genius of thi s writer who captured the interest of my students and inspired their curiosity
in the classical Japanese literary canon and the historical past of Japan . The reaction of
the last class was most gratifyi ng and I am happy to have fo und a fin al topic to research
before J leave UF and my students behind.

PAnl OF DREAMS

Path 0/ Dreams is a collection of twentyone short narratives, seventeen of whic h

is connected by the appearance of the female protagonist, Keiko. Another unifier of this
collection is communion with the "other" world, or the spirit '",orld inhabited by people
that have gone to Hades (or Yomi in Japanese). The tit le of the vol ume, Path a/Dreams,
placed last in the co ll ection, hi nts at how visits to the other world occur but Keiko is not a
part this narrative.
In this series of narratives, Kurahashi Yumiko, reaches back into history,
resuscitates people, such as emperors, pocts, wri ters, and so on, to cavort with Keiko in
racy adventures. Flowing throughout all the narratives are Oagrant displays of sex uality
and forays into taboo topics such as bestiality, incest, vampirism , and the like, to explore
uncharted territories. It is writing in the fan tastic mode at its best with escapades designed
to engage our attention by even play ing wit h the concept of time: dipping into the past for
historical characters, forg ing into the present wit h progressive feminist agendas, and
glancing into the future with cosmologica l physics.
These briefsevenpage narratives by Kurahashi remind mc of poetry collections
li ke the Shinkokinshfi (The New Collection of Ancient and Modern Japanese Poetry,
1205) that link short 31syll able poems by assoc iat ion and progression and honkadori
(allusions to poetry from earlier anthologies) into sequences that expand the limit of
individual poems into something greater than the sum of its parts. In addi tion, these
intertextual all usions to classical Japanese poetry,

No plays,

Western cult ure, and the like,

expand the boundaries of these short narratives onto the world stage. Further fue led by
scientific images of dark holes, dark matter, and celestial bodies noating in space, the

venue expands into the universe. These stories carry echoes of topics, themes, characters,
and situations from the past that resonate in the present and prognosticate the future,
defying both time and space. My talk today will be restricted to di scussi ng just the first of
seventeen Keiko-centered narratives in the Path of Dreams so I will have time to trace
allusions embedded in --Beneath Cherry Blossoms" (I-lana no slli/a).

APPLIED TRANSLATION

What are the steps to begin translati ng a text? In my classes, the first step is to
provide lexical knowledge. I make vocabulary li sts to distribute to students, so that we
arc literally on the same page. These lists provide pronunciations of characters (SinoJapanese or ol1-yomi, and/or native Japanese or kun-yomi) and their meaning in context
selected on my understanding of the text. (If stude nts were reading these on their own,
they would consult dictionaries and chose which of the various definitions fit the
particular needs of the sentence in question.) Second, comprehension of the grammatical
structures is essential to arrive at the correct translation of the meaning of the original.
(As the instructor, I guide students' reading and interpretation in class, and later collect
their translations, correct them, and return them so they can either accept or reject
revisions in MSWord. They submit corrected versions as final subm issions for each text.)
Next, translators must provide interpretat ion and infonnation for any cu ltural or literary
allusions readers might require to fully comprehend the writer's intention for its inclusion.
For example, in the casc of Kurahashi Yumiko, when she cites a poem written in class ical
Japanese by Saigyo who lived during the I-feian period (794-1185), the task fall s on the
translator not only to provide a translati on of the poem for its meaning. but also to
provide hi storical informati on about the poet and his place in literary hi story to which the

author must have been hinting by featuring this particular poem in the narrative. Thus my
lexicon also must contain relevant information about other texts to which Kurahashi' s
narratives allude. (Students need most guidance on intertextual allusions since they have
limited knowledge of the classical Japanese literary canon to which the author makes
frequent reference .) At times I wonder how many nati ve Japanese readers understand
these literary allusions since not eve ryone in the reading audience is as erudite as Sei
Shonagon of Pillow Book fame or as eager to flaunt their knowledge before the world. I
must admit I am game to trace the literary sources that inspired our author to include
these references. So let us see where this will lead us. I will concentrate on unraveling the
sources for the first of seventeen Keiko-centcred narratives in the Path of Dreams, so that
the example of the first may set procedures for the rest to follow. In class we read the first
seven narratives in the collection, each narrative in the original is set at seve n pages each,
quite an accomplishment in holding to a speci fied length for seventeen linked narratives.

SOLVING THE MYSTERY OF INTERTEXTUAL ALLUS IONS

To trace sources of intertextual allusions seem a bit like so lving a mystery. In the
first narrati ve by Kurahashi titled " Hana no shita" (Beneath Cherry Blossoms, 1989),
there are three allusions to Saigyo. One is a poem by Saigyo with the first line negawaku

wa. In this case, it happens to be one ofSaigyo's most famous poems about cherry
blossoms, so it was easy enough to translate. But in order to do justice to the poem and
poet, one needs to find the collection in which the poem was memorialized. So I began
the investigation by going to the library to consult volumes of the Kokka taikan (~!lik*

tiJl Compendium of National

Poetry) and look for Saigyo's poem in the vo lumes of the

10

personal poetry collections

(;fL.*m shikashii), not among the volumes of imperi al poetry

co ll ections (WJJm4t chokllsenshli) because I was looking for a named poet. By following
leads such as the first line index in Kokka Taikal1. I learned it was located in Book 1 No.
77 in Saigy6's personal poetry collection ca lled Sankasllli (Poems of a Mountain Home).
Here is my translation:
negawaku wa
hana no shita nite
haru shi namu
sono kisaragi no
mochizuki no koro

Would that I cou ld

beneath cherry blossoms
die in spring
around the second month
under a full moon.

Here I adhe red to a Ji nebyJine correspondence between the transliterat ion and the
Engli sh translat ion by which I mean: negawaku 1\10 is translated as "would that I could"
and so forth. Someti mes it is possible to adhere to a line.by.line correspondence between
trans literat ion and translation throughout the entire poem as I was abl e to do here, but
other times it is impossible since Engli sh demands a verb earli er than is provided in
Japanese because ve rbs are located in sentence fina l pos ition. Now that the poem has
been properly identified and translated for meaning. the translator must explai n who the
poet Saigyo is to readers who have never studied class ica l Japanese literary hi story and
speculate why Kurahashi might have felt inclined to incl ude hi s poem in her modern
narrative.
Biographical information on Saigyo begins with re vea li ng hi s name before he
renounced the world and took on the name by which he is known today. I-Ie was born
Salo Norikiyo ( 111 8- 1190), an ari stocratic samurai who served as one of the elite private
guards known as the North Face (/lokumen no bush;) for Retired Empc rorToba (r. 1107-

11

1123; 1103-1156).9 While still only twenty-two in 1140, Saigyo suddenly renounced the
world and retired from soc iety to pursue otherworldly activities. Various reasons have
been suggested why such an affluent you ng aristocrat would renounce the world, but
suffice it to say that he thereafter concentrated on poetry and travelled extensively around
the country even though the Genpei Civil War (1180-1185) restricted hi s journeys for a
while toward the end of hi s life. So now that we know who the poet is we have to
continue the investigation to find Ollt why this particular poem by thi s poet might have
been included in this particular narrative.
Kurahashi's initial narrative in Path of Dreams is "Beneath Cherry Blossoms"
(Hana no shita). In classical Japanese poetry

Ciolfi: waka or jjilfl: tanka), hana ({~)

usually defined as flowers, but specifically refers to "cherry blossoms"

is

(l.k sakllra). Thus

by referring back to Saigyo's poem, negawaku wa, the title of Kurahashi's first narrative
is revealed to be an allusive variation (honkadori) 10 the Sankashu 1.77 poem. Honkadori
or an allusive variation was a wok" technique Llsed to expand the original co nfines ofa
3 I-syllable poem. Brower and Miner in Japanese Court Poetry provide a definition:
"Echoing of the words, sometimes only the situation or conception of a well-known
earlier poem in such a way that recognizable elements are incorporated into a new
meaning, but one in which the meaning of the earlier poem also enter, in a manner
distinguished from mere borrowing and use of similar materials and expressions" (506).
By borrowing a line from Saigyo's poem and using the line as the title of her literary
creation, Kurahashi is utilizi ng a centuries-old technique from the waka literary tradition
in the twentieth century. I can't think ora more wonderful way to pay tribute to the past
than by bringing a twelfth century poem into a twentieth century text except perhaps by
bringing the poet back to life and have him interact with the protagonist of her narrative.
' llurtOt1 WatsOt1. SlIIg),O.- Poem! 0/ a !>IOIm/amllollle. Nc\\ York Co lumbia Ul1iversll y Press. 1991 2

12

Saigyo is resuscitated in "Beneath Cherry Blossoms" because he so loved cherry

blossoms that he expressed a desire to pass away beneath cherry blossoms in full bloo m
and then did exactl y that. By passi ng away just as he stated in hi s poem, his already
considerable reputat ion as a poet was enhanced into prophetic proportions after his
demi se. Kurahashi takes this aspect ofSaigyo's claim to fa me and brings him back to life
so her femal e protagonist Keiko can interact with the poet-priest in her creative narrative.
In addition to the famous poem by Saigyo. there are further references to Saigyo that
continue to expand the boundaries of this shon seven-page narrati ve.
First some li nes from a No play written by Motokiyo Zeami (ca. 1363-144 3) of
the Muromac hi peri od (1337-15 73), entitled Saigyozakllra (Saigyo's Cherry Blossoms),
is incorporated in the text by havin g the resuscitated character of Saigyo chan t the lines to
Keiko :
anshitsu no hana wa
hana ippon
waga hitori
nagamuru mono rno
nagameraruru 1110110
waga to hana to yori
hoka ni wa nashi to
omoishi ni

1110

Cherry blossoms at the herm itage,

only one tree
for me alonethe one who looks,
the one loo ked at,
just me and the blossoms
thinking there was no one else
but me.

This quote comes from a mondo (PIl9~ dialogue) Saigyo delivers when visitors from the
capital intrude on his sol itary enjoyment of the lone cherry tree in bloom at his hut on the
western outski rts of the capital. Translati ng a Muromachi period text is no picni c, but
based on the grammar and modificat ion system of classical Japanese, I was able to arrive
at the essence ofa linc-by-line translation. Royall Tyler's trans lat ion of these
approximate lines from Saigyo 's Cherry Blossoms in Japanese

13

No

Dramas follows:

"But my hermitage boasts only this one tree, which I alone live here to enjoy; and I
confess myself somewhat distressed that its Oowcrs should have advertised the place to
one and all" (2 19).
The overall meaning of the two translations is approximately the same, but a couple of
lines in the original- nagamllrll mono mol nagamerarurll mono mo-that I translated are
not found in the published translation. Docs it make a difference when the libretti are
translated in a prose paragraph? Probably not, but if the goal is to achieve a line-by-line
translation alongside the transliteration, then I had to tran slate each line I transliterated
wi th an equivalent translation beside it. Furthermore, when the publisher does not object,
I prefer to provide the transliteration of the original in poetry and libretti since their aural
quality was important to audiences of poetry gatherings and theatre.
When I tracked down Tyler 's translation of Saigy6 Cherty Blossoms and read its
contents. I found several clements appropriated by Kurahashi for her narrative: the spirit
of the cherry blossoms, the hollow tree in bloom. and the topic of dreams.lO First for
instance, Saigyo and Keiko keep an assignation determined long ago and might suggest
the Buddhist notion of reincarnation. Next, the hollow tree in bl oo m in Saigyo 's Cheny

Blo.ysoms becomes the space for the consummation of their love spanning centuries. And
finally the dream motif circles back to the idea expressed in Saigyo's famous poem about
drawing final breath beneath cherry blossoms on a night with a full moon shining
overhead in the Second lunar month. (Kurahashi writes often of cherry blossoms in
various narratives in other collections as well.)
The next allusion was much more of a mystery than the quoted text above. It was
much harder to trace si nce it was embedded in a conversat ion just seven lines after the
cited text [rom Saigyo 's Cheny Blossoms. First Saigyo, then Keiko speaks these lines
10

Ro)'all Tyler, Smgyo-:llkura in JapwK'se N6 DrwIIIIS, New York: Penguin Classks. 1992: 219-220.

14

below, making me wonder what source might have contained such a conversation
between Saigyo and a wo man that might ha ve been a prostitute:

r ~ '''='-'(:' ~f;j:ffi 0) UJE 1-: 1;j' '!!:- ';( l.., -r ~ ,t~ t::n'? <:

-r l..,*,,=,t,:71' J

l.., t,:

to, iM U 'im-z'1t/i to h

rfl.'!!:- iIf:tcO)[itn' 2< Iv <: :to r"'JtIi~O)~ ? -z' l.., t,: n' to J
" ... When was it that you coldly refused to give me lodging one rain y ni ght?,,11
'It was because yo u mi stakenl y thought I was some harlot. "
As soon as I read the word ifslIzoya fla (when mi ght it have been), I knew the text was
most likely a quote from cl assica l Japanese. It occurred to me that another No play mi ght

be the source and searched for titles with like ly correspondents. I found one by the title of
Eguchi that I knew was the geographical location where asohi (talented entertainers who

sang popular songs, or imayo) and yahochi (prostitutes) congregated during the Heian
period from readings I had encountered teaching The Tale o/ fhe Heike. I learned that
Eguchi was another play that was written in the Muromachi period by Zeami , one of the

greatest masters of the No Theatre. 12 Thus it became clear that Kurahashi Yumiko was a
fan of the No Theatre, especially Zeami the most illustri ous writer and theorist. (She uses
No plays and No masks in various narratives in thi s collection and others.) So by alluding
10

this play, Kurahashi hi ghli ghts the historical context for the assignation that Saigyo

and Keiko conduct that ni ght (si nce she might be the reincarnation of the woman who
lived in Eguchi in the play reborn to ex perience the assignation with Saigyo in the
twentieth century) as they traverse both time and space to arrive in Sagano in western
Kyoto. The ramifications of the hi storical story of the past overlaps with the new
interpretation in the narrat ive present to create the same layered effec t that Kurahashi

Alludes to Zeami Motokiyo's No play I:.guchi when SaigyO Is refused lodging on a rainy night at the home o f a harlot. See
Royall Tyler,Japanese N6 Dramas. London: Penguin, 1992: 72.
II Ro)al1 T) Icr. Eguchi III JQ{X/flese 11'6 Dr/lm(ls. New York: I'cnguin Class1cs, 1992 : 72

II

15

describes when Saigyo's figure is layered onlO cherry blossoms in full bl oom since Ihe
earlier play Saig)'o 's Cheny Blossoms had implanted in our brain the fact that Saigyo is
the spirit of the cherry tree. My translation:
In just thi s way, thi s old cherry tree spread its branches with countless delicate
blossoms and leaves, and in the figure wearing a flowery mantle like glossily,
shiny haze, there was strange gentleness and magnificence. All thi s seemed to be
layered on the figure of Mr. Sato, no, the venerable priest Saigyo.
In this way I follow the clues embedded in the text, finding pleasure in so lving
enigmas. However, there are still others I have yet to solve. The titl e of the forty.eight
volume history, Genpeijosuiki (ib~PP:JM:~~ Chronicle of the Genpei War, late
is mentioned, and then is followed by an enigmatic phrase:
rivers, cherries. moon). A few lines later

r ~ t t i"nS t.:. 'J J

rtlJJ II {t.Ji J

14th

c.),

(mountains,

(The Unso licited Tale, or

The Confessions of Lad)1Nij6. late 13 th c.) is mentioned along with the author's name
[Go-Fukakusa'i n] Nij o who mimicked Saigyo' s travel s a couple of centuries later even
though she was a woman. In seeki ng the source of the phrase, I am faced with a dilemma:
which of the two titles am I goi ng to follow when I seek the source of the phrase? There
is also the possibility that it might not be rel ated to either. The phrase might refer to a line
from a famous Chinese poem written by someone on the continent o r by so meone in
Japan leamed in the art of Chinese composition si nce Kurahashi quoted a phrase by Bo
Chui (J. Bai Juyi 772-846) toward the end of this narrative. Or it might refer to the " ideal
of the eremitic life ... with a "keen sensiti vi ty to the beauties of nature" that Burton
Watson states was the inspiration for Saigyo' s renouncement of the world (4) that might
offer the best fit in thi s context. Translating such narrati ves replete with intertextal
allusions is exhi larating when a solution is found and fru strating when they prove elusive.
But it is all a part of the task o f the translator. I feci it is rather like probing into the mind

16

of the creative force behind the text and trying to discern what motivations might have
compelled the inclusion of so many other texts into the one being newly crafted. When
one is lucky enough to find a text that engages the pleasure of solving conundrums and
having students learn about the literary treasure store the past canon otTers then one can
truly say one is blessed. Let me end here and leave time enough to entertain questions.

17