Unit 4

Motivation
1. Concepts
Introduction
Motivation is a reason or set or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior,
especially human
behavior as studied in psychology and neuropsychology. The reasons may
include basic needs
(e.g., food, water, shelter) or an object, goal, state of being, or ideal that is
desirable, which may
or may not be viewed as "positive," such as seeking a state of being in which
pain is absent. The
motivation for a behavior may also be attributed to less-apparent reasons
such as altruism or
morality.
What is Motivation ?
The word motivation is coined from the Latin word "movere", which means to
move. Motivation
is defined as an internal drive that activates behavior and gives it direction.
The term motivation
theory is concerned with the processes that describe why and how human
behavior is activated
and directed. It is regarded as one of the most important areas of study in the
field of organizational behavior. There are two different categories of
motivation theories such as content
theories, and process theories. Even though there are different motivation
theories, none of them
are universally accepted.

Advantages of Motivation

Q. Give the advantages of motivation

A positive motivation philosophy and practice should improve "productivity,
quality and
service." Motivation helps people to:
_ achieve goals
_ gain a positive perspective
_ create the power to change
_ build self-esteem and capability
_ manage their own development and help others with theirs

Q. Discuss about the importance of motivation

Q. What are the different types of motivation?
Reward and Reinforcement
A reward is that which follows an occurrence of a specific behavior with the
intention of
acknowledging the behavior in a positive way. A reward often has the intent
of encouraging the
behavior to happen again.
There are two kinds of rewards, extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are
external to, or
outside of, the individual; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are
internal to, or
within, the individual; for example, satisfaction or accomplishment.
Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one
based on enjoyment, the
other on obligation. In this context, obligation refers to motivation based on
what an individual
thinks ought to be done. For instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission
may lead to helping
others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.
A reinforcer is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to
create a measured
increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of
something to the environment.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in an activity for its
own sake, without some
obvious external incentive present. A hobby is a typical example.
Intrinsic motivation has been intensely studied by educational psychologists
since the 1970s, and
numerous studies have found it to be associated with high educational
achievement and
enjoyment by students.
There is currently no "grand unified theory" to explain the origin or elements
of intrinsic motivation. Most explanations combine elements of Bernard
Weiner's attribution theory, Bandura's work on self-efficacy and other studies
relating to locus of control and goal orientation.

Thus it is thought that students are more likely to experience intrinsic

motivation if they:
1. Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control

(eg. the amount of

effort they put in, not 'fixed ability').
2. Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (eg. the
results are not determined by dumb luck.)
3. Are motivated towards deep 'mastery' of a topic, instead of just rotelearning 'performance' to
get good grades.
Note that the idea of reward for
achievement is absent from this
model of intrinsic motivation,
since rewards are an extrinsic factor.
In knowledge-sharing communities
and organizations, people often cite
altruistic reasons for their
participation, including contributing
to a common good, a moral
obligation to the group,
mentorship or 'giving back'. This
model of intrinsic motivation has
emerged from three decades
of
research
by
hundreds
of
educationalists and is still evolving. In work environments, money is typically
viewed as an important goal (having food, clothes etc.)
may well be more powerful than the direct motivation provided by an
enjoyable workplace.
Coercion
The most obvious form of motivation is coercion, where the avoidance of pain
or other negative
consequences has an immediate effect. Extreme use of coercion is
considered slavery. While
coercion is considered morally reprehensible in many philosophies, it is
widely practiced on
prisoners, students in mandatory schooling, within the nuclear family unit (on
children), and in
the form of conscription. Critics of modern capitalism charge that without
social safety networks,
wage slavery is inevitable. However, many capitalists such as Ayn Rand have
been very vocal
against coercion[citation needed]. Successful coercion sometimes can take priority
over other types of
motivation. Self-coercion is rarely substantially negative (typically only
negative in the sense that
it avoids a positive, such as undergoing an expensive dinner or a period of
relaxation), however it

is interesting in that it illustrates how lower levels of motivation may be

sometimes tweaked to
satisfy higher ones.
Self control
The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of
emotional intelligence; a
person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservative definition
(as measured by
many intelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to
certain tasks. Yale
School of Management professor Victor Vroom's "expectancy theory"
provides an account of
when people will decide whether to exert self control to pursue a particular
goal.
Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates
behaviour that is aimed
at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual
and may not require
external stimuli to encourage the behaviour. Basic drives could be sparked by
deficiencies such as
hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives
might be the desire
for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner
pleasing to others.
By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the
example of training
animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat
motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the
treat is removed from the process.

Q. What are the different theories of motivation?

2. Abraham Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory :
One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of
needs theory put
forth by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow saw human needs in the form
of a hierarchy,
ascending from the lowest to the highest, and he concluded that when one
set of needs is satisfied,
this kind of need ceases to be a motivator.

As per his theory this needs are :

(i) Physiological needs :
These are important needs for sustaining the human life. Food, water,
warmth, shelter, sleep,
medicine and education are the basic physiological needs which fall in the
primary list of need
satisfaction. Maslow was of an opinion that until these needs were satisfied to
a degree to
maintain life, no other motivating factors can work.
(ii) Security or Safety needs :
These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing a
job, property, food or
shelter. It also includes protection against any emotional harm.
(iii) Social needs :
Since people are social beings, they need to belong and be accepted by
others. People try to
satisfy their need for affection, acceptance and friendship.
(iv) Esteem needs :
According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they
tend to want to be
held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need produces
such satisfaction as
power, prestige status and self-confidence. It includes both internal esteem
factors like selfrespect, autonomy and achievements and external esteem
factors such as states, recognition and attention.
(v) Need for self-actualization :
Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the drive to
become what one is

capable of becoming, it includes growth, achieving one s potential and selffulfillment. It is to

maximize one s potential and to accomplish something.
As each of these needs are substantially satisfied, the next need becomes
dominant. From the
standpoint of motivation, the theory would say that although no need is ever
fully gratified, a
substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. So if you want to motivate
someone, you need to
understand what level of the hierarchy that person is on and focus on
satisfying those needs or
needs above that level.
Maslow s need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among
practicing managers.
This can be attributed to the theory s intuitive logic and ease of
understanding. However, research does not validate these theory. Maslow
provided no empirical evidence and other several studies that sought to
validate the theory found no support for it.

3. Frederick Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory

Frederick has tried to modify Maslow s need Hierarchy theory. His theory is
also known as two factor theory or Hygiene theory. He stated that there are
certain satisfiers and dissatisfiers for
employees at work. In- trinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while
extrinsic factors are

associated with dissatisfaction. He devised his theory on the question : What

do people want
from their jobs ? He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when
they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he
received, he concluded that
opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying
characteristics from a job
does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He states that presence of
certain factors in the
organization is natural and the presence of the same does not lead to
motivation. However, their
nonpresence leads to demotivation. In similar manner there are certain
factors, the absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence
has motivational impact.

Examples of Hygiene factors are :

Security, status, relationship with subordinates, personal life, salary, work
conditions, relationship
with supervisor and company policy and administration.
Examples of Motivational factors are :
Growth prospectus job advancement, responsibility, challenges, recognition
and achievements.
4. McClellands Theory of Needs
David McClelland has developed a theory on three types of motivating
needs :

1. Need for Power

2. Need for Affiliation
3. Need for Achievement
Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and
control. They like to
be at the center and are good orators. They are demanding in nature, forceful
in manners and
ambitious in life. They can be motivated to perform if they are given key
positions or power
positions.
In the second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to
affiliate themselves
with individuals and groups. They are driven by love and faith. They like to
build a friendly
environment around themselves. Social recognition and affiliation with others
provides them
motivation.
People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of
failure. Their need
for achievement is moderate and they set for themselves moderately difficult
tasks. They are
analytical in nature and take calculated risks. Such people are motivated to
perform when they see
atleast some chances of success.
McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy the need for
power and achievement
increased rather than Affiliation. He also observed that people who were at
the top, later ceased to
be motivated by this drives.

5. Porter and Lawler Model:

Q. Explain Porter and Lawler Model of Motivation and how managers can benefit
from understanding the model?
Porter and Lawler proposed a comprehensive model of motivation encompassing the
moderating effects of abilities and traits and role perception and accelerating roles of
perceived equitable rewards and perceived Effort-Reward probability.
Fig. Porter and Lawler Model:
The model highlights two important factors which facilitate or influence to put more
effort in work. They are the valence and perceived EffortReward probability (i)
Valence: The first factor concerns the extent to which the value of reward (valence)
that is likely to be received from their job influences the amount of effort. For instance, if
a person is showing more interest towards the reward or expected outcome, the chances
of putting more effort in his or her work will be very high. If the expected reward is not
attractive enough, he will lower his effort.
(ii) Perceived EffortReward probability: The second factor states the
influence of perceived effort.reward probability. If a person feels that the probability of
getting reward is very high for given level of effort, he will more likely to put high level
of effort in his work.

There are other two significant factors which facilitate to maximize the amount of
performance. (i) They are individuals abilities and role perception.
(i) Abilities and Traits: If an individual has requisite abilities, skills and traits to
perform the assigned job, he will produce more results than others who do not have such
skills to such type of tasks. Traits include endurance, perseverance and goal-directedness
which are relevant for doing any tasks.
These abilities and traits will moderate the effortperformance relationships.
(ii) Role Perception: If an individual has very clear role perception, that is, very clear
job descriptions of what he is supposed to do in his tasks without any ambiguity or
confusion, the person will deliver more output. The accuracy of role perception is another
variable that moderate the effortPerformance relationship. That is, only those who
perceived their role as it is defined by the organization will be able to perform when they
put forth the required effort in their job.
Types of rewards: Performance will result in getting various rewards. This can be
classified into intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards are those which are
derived within oneself by getting the feelings of job satisfaction, self-esteem, sense of
competence and realizing ones own potentialities. Extrinsic rewards are those external
rewards that are given by others in the work environment such as money, promotion,
security, incentives etc. Both these types of rewards will result in satisfaction. Once
again, the RewardSatisfaction relationships is moderated by the perceived equitable
rewards, that is, satisfaction will be experienced only when the person feels fairly and
rewarded for his efforts.

Implications of Porter and Lawler Model:

Porter and Lawlers model is of great significance to managers since it sensitizes them to
focus attention on the following to keep their employees motivated.
i) Assigning right type of jobs to right types of person, ensuring perfect match between
person and job.
ii) Providing a clear job descriptions and highlighting what a person is expected of in his
work (role perception)
iii) Assigning the proper performance levels such s quantity, waste control number of
customer attended etc.
iv) Ensuring that the rewards given to their employees are very attractive to them.
If high levels of motivation are to be induced, managers should ensure that the employees
perceive a direct link between performance and desired rewards. If significant changers
in performance levels are desired, the rewards given must also be significant and valued
enough by the employees to change their effort levels. The Porter and Lawler model is
useful in understanding by the dynamic of motivation at the work place.

5. Application of motivation
Q. Describe the applications of motivation
6. The Role of Motivation in Organizational Behavior
Q. Describe the Role of Motivation in Organizational Behavior

 Motivation and Organizational Theory

As organizational theory states, employees need to be motivated to actualize their potential and there are
several ways of enabling them and empowering them to do so. These include the role of reward systems in
motivating employees according to their needs for extrinsic or external motivation and by providing them
opportunities that appeal to their intrinsic or internal motivation needs. The other factors that motivate
employees are the kind of job that they are asked to perform, the added benefits like extended vacations
and perquisites like company provided accommodation and funding for kids schooling as well as provision of
medical insurance coverage for the employees and their families. In recent years, there has been lot of
emphasis on motivating employees by organizing offsite events and fun and recreation events where the
employees let their hair down and indulge in the much-needed stress relieving activities. Further, many
employees are motivated because of the presence of famous business leaders in the top management of
the company as is the case with Apple, Microsoft, Infosys, and the TATA Group.

Some Factors that can Motivate Employees

The organizational structure is another aspect that can motivate employees. For instance, it has been found
that flat organizations as opposed to hierarchical organizations motivate employees more. Next, the
organizational culture plays an important role in motivating employees. The examples of Google, Facebook,
and startup companies where the organizational culture is open and collegiate are relevant in this regard.
Third, the HR managers have an important role to play in motivating employees by interacting with them,
finding their grievances, and proposing solutions to behavioral problems. There are many multinationals like
Fidelity where the HR managers hold one on one sessions with the employees to foster an open and
inclusive culture where employees do not hold anything back and where they are encouraged to be as
forthright as possible. Fourth, organizations that promote diversity as an organizational imperative are
known to motivate women employees who feel less threatened and less insecure than in organizations
where bias and prejudice are rampant. Fifth, many organizations have the habit of saying one thing and
doing something else altogether which means that they are hypocritical in their approach. Such
organizations cannot motivate the employees particularly at the lower levels since the fresh recruits and
those with less experience often look to the senior managers and the leadership for integrity and
consistency.

Salary and Benefits are not the only Motivators

Having covered the various aspects of how the organizations can motivate the employees, it needs to be
mentioned that mere reliance on salary and benefits cannot motivate employees completely. With the advent
of the software and services sector, the attraction of being sent onsite has become an important motivator
for the employees who when given the chance to go onsite ramp up on their performance noticeably. Apart
from this, the fact that the brand image of the organization makes a lot of difference to the motivation levels
of the employees is another factor. For instance, many graduates have their own preferences for dream
companies or companies that they would like to work in after graduation. This important motivator attracts
the best talent to those companies that are often viewed as the benchmark for industry peers. Of course, if
the image does not meet up to reality or if the hype is without substance, many employees lose motivation to
work in such companies.

Concluding Thoughts
Finally, as discussed above, there is no set formula on what organizations can do or cannot do to motivate
the employees. The best approach would be to let employees find their own niche within the organization
and let them actualize their potential instead of forcing them to do work that is not to their liking. Apart from
this, many industry veterans are also of the view that employees have to find their company that suits them
and hence, clinging on to jobs that do not motivate them is counterproductive.

7. Importance of motivation
Q. Explain the importance of motivation
Motivation is a very important for an organization because of the following benefits it provides:

1. Puts human resources into action

Every concern requires physical, financial and human resources to accomplish the goals. It is
through motivation that the human resources can be utilized by making full use of it. This can be
done by building willingness in employees to work. This will help the enterprise in securing best
possible utilization of resources.

2. Improves level of efficiency of employees

The level of a subordinate or a employee does not only depend upon his qualifications and abilities.
For getting best of his work performance, the gap between ability and willingness has to be filled
which helps in improving the level of performance of subordinates. This will result intoa.
b.
c.

Increase in productivity,
Reducing cost of operations, and
Improving overall efficiency.

3. Leads to achievement of organizational goals

The goals of an enterprise can be achieved only when the following factors take place :a.
b.
c.
d.

There is best possible utilization of resources,

There is a co-operative work environment,
The employees are goal-directed and they act in a purposive manner,
Goals can be achieved if co-ordination and co-operation takes place simultaneously which
can be effectively done through motivation.

4. Builds friendly relationship

Motivation is an important factor which brings employees satisfaction. This can be done by keeping
into mind and framing an incentive plan for the benefit of the employees. This could initiate the
following things:
a.
b.
c.

Monetary and non-monetary incentives,

Promotion opportunities for employees,
Disincentives for inefficient employees.

In order to build a cordial, friendly atmosphere in a concern, the above steps should be taken by a
manager. This would help in:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Effective co-operation which brings stability,

Industrial dispute and unrest in employees will reduce,
The employees will be adaptable to the changes and there will be no resistance to the
change,
This will help in providing a smooth and sound concern in which individual interests will
coincide with the organizational interests,
This will result in profit maximization through increased productivity.

2. Leads to stability of work force

Stability of workforce is very important from the point of view of reputation and goodwill of a
concern. The employees can remain loyal to the enterprise only when they have a feeling of
participation in the management. The skills and efficiency of employees will always be of
advantage to employees as well as employees. This will lead to a good public image in the market
which will attract competent and qualified people into a concern. As it is said, Old is gold which
suffices with the role of motivation here, the older the people, more the experience and their
adjustment into a concern which can be of benefit to the enterprise.

From the above discussion, we can say that motivation is an internal feeling which can be understood only
by manager since he is in close contact with the employees. Needs, wants and desires are inter-related and
they are the driving force to act. These needs can be understood by the manager and he can frame
motivation plans accordingly. We can say that motivation therefore is a continuous process since motivation
process is based on needs which are unlimited. The process has to be continued throughout.
We can summarize by saying that motivation is important both to an individual and a business. Motivation
is important to an individual as:
1. Motivation will help him achieve his personal goals.
2. If an individual is motivated, he will have job satisfaction.
3. Motivation will help in self-development of individual.
4. An individual would always gain by working with a dynamic team.
Similarly, motivation is important to a business as:
1. The more motivated the employees are, the more empowered the team is.
2. The more is the team work and individual employee contribution, more profitable and successful is
the business.
3. During period of amendments, there will be more adaptability and creativity.
4. Motivation will lead to an optimistic and challenging attitude at work place.