ECONOMIC ANNALS, Volume LIV, No.

180, January March 2009

UDC: 3.33 ISSN: 0013-3264

SCIENTIFIC PAPERS

Biljana Bogievi Miliki

and Neboja Janiijevi*

DOI:10.2298/EKA0980040B

CULTURAL DIVERGENCE AND PERFORMANCE

EVALUATION SYSTEMS: A COMPARATIVE
STUDY OF THREE SERBIAN COMPANIES
ABSTRACT: Many authors have argued
that human resource systems are the
business practices most likely to be affected
by the cultural context within which
they are applied. Among other HRM
practices cultural differences significantly
affect performance evaluation, causing
various difficulties and inefficiencies
in the implementation of performance
evaluation systems (PES). In order to
provide for a deeper understanding of
difficulties in the implementation of PES

JEL CLASSIFICATION: M12, M14

40

Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade

within specific cultural contexts, this paper

therefore intends to explore the design and
implementation of performance evaluation
systems in three Serbian companies. The
research findings point out the importance
of building more culturally sensitive PES,
calling attention to some possible directions,
particularly in Serbia.
KEY WORDS: performance evaluation
system,
national
culture,
cultural
divergence

CULTURAL DIVERGENCE AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

1. INTRODUCTION

Many authors have argued that human resource systems are the business practices
most likely to be affected by the cultural context within which they are applied
(Laurent, 1986; Li, Karakowsky, 2001; Schneider, 1992). Fombrun et al`s model
(the so-called Michigan approach) and Beer et al`s model (the so-called Harvard
model) have described the influence of political, economic and cultural contexts
on HRM practices (Fombrun et al, 1984; Beer et al, 1984). The influence of national
culture on HRM practices and policies is particularly convincingly claimed by the
proponents of the cultural divergence perspective (Holden, 2001), who suggest that
cultural differences cause differences in organisational behaviour including work
motivation, communications, conflicts, work-orientation, definition of goals,
performance appraisal and rewarding, decision making and management style
(Rollinson & Broadfield, 2002). Therefore, cultural values do have a prevailing
influence on the everyday work-related behaviours of employees and managers
(Schuler et al., 2001). On the other hand, the convergence perspective proposes
that convergence of management systems and practices is the main result of the
globalization process, which will unify not only institutional contexts in different
countries, but will also lead to the convergence of national cultures (Vertinsky et
al., 1990; Ralston et al., 1997). It may therefore be expected that cultural differences
will become less important in future (Child & Tayeb, 1983), and will result in the
formation of one, that is, the best, management model (Prentice, 1990).
Some studies argue that much of our knowledge of HRM practices in organisations
is based upon research conducted in single cultures or about diversity within a
given culture (e.g., United States, United Kingdom, or China), while what is needed
is more discussion and research about the influence of multiple cultures on HRM
practices (Triandis, Wasti, 2008; Hofstede, 1980, 1991, 2001a, 2001b; GomezMejia et al., 2001). It has been suggested that cultural differences significantly
affect, among other HRM practices, performance evaluation (Li, Karakowsky,
2001; Ferris, Treadway, 2008), causing various difficulties and inefficiencies in the
implementation of performance evaluation systems (PES).
This study, therefore, intends to address the challenges of implementing PES within
a specific cultural context, by investigating the design and implementation of PES
in three Serbian companies. We believe that this kind of research will deepen
our understanding of the more efficient application of PES within specific, often
incompatible cultural settings. Based on the literature overview, we firstly define
the PE and PES, as well as the interdependencies between the characteristics of
national culture and PES offered by the relevant literature. Then we describe the
41

Biljana Bogievi Miliki and Neboja Janiijevi

context for the research and research methodology, present the research findings,
discuss them, and draw some conclusions and implications for primarily Serbian
management, but also for the management of companies operating in cultures
with similar characteristics. Finally, we address the contributions in this paper
and indicate some possible directions for further research.

2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Relevant literature offers various definitions of performance evaluation (or

performance appraisal) suggested by different authors (Bernardin, Beatty, 1984;
Latham, Wexley, 1981; Anderson, 1996). Nevertheless, all definitions contain
the underlying thesis that PE is the process by which an employees contribution
to the organisational goals during a specified period of time is evaluated, thus
tying it to the creation of value for the organisation (Lawler et al., 1995:630).
It may also be defined as a formal, structured system for measuring, evaluating
and influencing an employees job-related attributes, behaviours and outcomes
(Schuler, Jackson, 1996:344), referred to as the PES. Performance in this context
may be regarded either as the measurable outcomes that are produced or as
behaviours exhibited in order to perform certain job activities over a specific
period of time (Bernardin, Beatty, 1984:12). To be effective, a PES in any
organisation has to provide clarification and communication of all the objectives
which the system intends to achieve (Anderson, 1996:99): it is often seen as the
tool for providing strategy-consistent behaviour and for reinforcing the desired
organisational values. As such, it is considered to meet the following needs: (1)
provide adequate feedback to an individual on his or her performance; (2) serve
as a basis for modifying or changing behaviour into the desired working habits;
(3) provide data for managers to judge future job assignments, compensation,
promotions, transfers, or termination; (4) present a basis for the coaching and
counselling of the individual by his superior (Fisher et al, 1993). Since performance
information influences decisions about salary, promotions, termination, and
other key decisions that affect the well-being of employees, PES are affected by
legal acts and are expected to result from identifiable job-related criteria. To be
effective, a PES should not be regarded individually, as an independent system,
but rather as providing an adequate link and fit with other organisational
features (Mohrman et al, 1989). As the most important organisational factors
many authors suggested the following: strategy (Butler et al, 1991), organisational
culture (Resnick-West, Von Glinov, 1990), organisational politics (Ferris,
Judge, 1991), and national culture (Ferris, Treadway, 2008; Schuler et al., 2001;
Weinstein, 2001; Schuler, Rogovsky, 1998; Ralston et al., 1995; Kim et al., 1990; Li,
42

CULTURAL DIVERGENCE AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

Karakowsky, 2001; Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, 2004). According to some

studies, in the majority of articles national culture has been most frequently used
as an explanatory variable in discussing differences or similarities between HRM
practices in different countries (Clark et al., 1999).
There is abundant evidence that the level of individualism/collectivism in
national culture significantly influences some choices in the design of the PES.
Individualism (IDV) is compatible with the developed and formalised PES based
on evaluation of individual performance. Therefore management by objectives
(MBO) is most widely adopted in Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian cultures
(Schuler, Rogovsky, 1998). On the other hand, collectivistic cultures strongly
resent evaluation of individual performance, and in practice obstruct the use
of elaborated, detailed and formalised PES and, consequently, MBO. The face
concept which is built into all collectivistic cultures is the principal reason for this
(Hofstede, 2001a; Schuler et al, 2001; Schneider, 1992). It is believed that explicit
and public evaluation of individual achievement could harm a groups harmony,
and therefore it is not well accepted.
Whereas individualistic cultures favour pay for performance based on individual
performance, such as bonus and commission, the collectivistic cultures more
commonly prefer group or team incentives (Schuler, Rogovsky, 1998), which is the
reason why seniority and skills are preferred as the starting point for determining
individual incentives.
On the other hand, the Uncertainty Avoidance (Hofstede, 1980) primarily
influences the level of uncertainty and risk incorporated in the PES design.
Consequently the highly structured and formalised PES is seen as more
compatible with low Uncertainty Avoidance (UA), since PES is an uncertain and
open process associated with high risk for both managers effectuating evaluation
and the evaluated staff. For this reason, the MBO is much more present in cultures
characterised with low UA (Hofstede, 2001a).
Regarding the Masculinity (MAS) dimension, Hofstede (2001a) suggests that
masculinity cultures, owing to their result-oriented concept, are compatible
with implementation of the system where compensation is related to individual
performance. However in femininity (low MAS) cultures the individual
performance as a criterion for evaluation of individual performance is less
important and is inseparable from individual personality, so that the possibilities
for implementation of the PES are limited. Femininity cultures are related to
the external control locus that releases an individual from responsibility for the
43

Biljana Bogievi Miliki and Neboja Janiijevi

individual achievement, i.e. result, which is one of key reasons for difficulties
encountered in implementation of the PES within femininity cultures (Hofstede,
2001a).
Regarding the Power Distance (PD) dimension (Hofstede, 1980), the MBO is more
probable in cultures with low PD, since they imply open and two way discussion
of the objectives and achieved outcome between the employees and managers
(Hofstede, 2001a).
A more careful analysis of the impact of certain dimensions of national culture
on the PES suggests that there is a correlation between the impacts of some
dimensions of national culture on the PES. For example, a high degree of UA
affects the PES in a similar way as collectivism, femininity and even high PD. On
the other hand, individualism, low UA, masculinity and low PD have a similar
effect on the PES. Further simplification may lead us to the conclusion that two
ideal cultural patterns are differentiated, A and B, implying suitability for two
opposing models of PE (see Table 1).
Table 1. Impact of cultural patterns on performance evaluation
CULTURAL
PATTERN
Design of the
PES

A
LOW PD and UA,
HIGH IDV and MAS
Objective
Individual
Formalised
Developed
Positive for MBO

B
HIGH PD and UA,
LOW IDV and MAS
Subjective
Group
Informal
Undeveloped
Negative for MBO

3. CONTEXT FOR THE RESEARCH

The transition of the ex-socialist countries towards a market economy assumes

changes in the institutional and economic settings, and consequently changes
in how firms operate and how managers and employees behave (Bogievi
Miliki, 2007). This process has led Serbian companies to introduce management
technologies and systems generally recognized and applied in developed market
economies and successful companies world-wide (Bogievi Miliki et al, 2008).
Among others, the PES is one which in recent years has gained broad awareness
and recognition, becoming the institutionally accepted pattern of behaviour
44

CULTURAL DIVERGENCE AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

among Serbian companies, regardless of their size, maturity, industry sector,

or ownership structure: furthermore, the PES has been introduced within all
governmental bodies and courts as obligatory, required by positive legislation.
However most Serbian organisations expressed considerable dissatisfaction with
the evaluation process (Bogievi Miliki et al, 2008), as in other organizations
world-wide (Ferris, Treadway, 2008; Laud, 1984; Carson et al, 1991; Meyer,
1980). Still there is evidence that the increasing number of Serbian companies
necessitates the introduction of the PES (Bogievi Miliki et al, 2008), in spite
of the fact that Serbian national culture, characterised by high collectivism (Low
IDV), uncertainty avoidance, power distance and femininity (Hofstede, 2001b),
presents a rather unsuitable environment for the effective implementation of the
objective, formalised, individual, well-developed PES (See Table 1). The PES, as
such, was designed and applied within the Anglo-Saxon cultures, and according
to Hofstede`s research (2001b), there are major differences between Serbian and
Anglo-Saxon cultures in terms of all of Hofstede`s cultural dimensions.

4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research method was selected to suit the research aim. We used a qualitative
research method: a multiple case study method of three selected Serbian
companies, which is suitable for exploring relatively unknown phenomenon.
In selecting companies we followed three criteria: (1) access to companies,
(2) companies have introduced the PES and have some experience with its
implementation, and (3) selected companies are from both public and private
sectors, in order to see whether some lessons can be learned and transferred from
one sector to the other.
We selected three organisations: Tarket, National Bank of Serbia and Telekom
Serbia. All the selected organisations have a few years experience with
implementation of the PES, presenting suitable ground for this research. Tarket
was established in 2002 as a joint venture of the European leading manufacturer
of floor coverings, a French-German MNC Tarkett Sommer and the leading
Serbian manufacturer of floor coverings, Sintelon. The company employs
about 360 employees, with a very simple, functional structure and relatively
few organisational units and hierarchy levels, but with many teams. The annual
output is 20.6 millions m2 of floor coverings, while the sales amount to 55 million
euros. National Bank of Serbia (NBS) is the Serbian central bank, which employs
2,651 employees. It has a very tall functional structure with many organisational
45

Biljana Bogievi Miliki and Neboja Janiijevi

units on different hierarchical levels, and extremely high centralisation. Telekom

Serbia is the national telecommunication public company, which provides fixed
and mobile telephony services in Serbia. The Greek partner owns nearly 20% of
the total capital. It employs nearly 11,000 workers and is characterised by a very
complex matrix structure, many organisational units and hierarchical levels.
Currently employees salaries are under the tight control of the IMF and the
Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Serbia.
Research design. The research took place during 2006. Data was collected
through interviews with raters and ratees, managers and specialists from the
HR Department, top management, performance evaluation forms and internal
company documents (Internal Act on PES). The design of the PES introduced in
the selected companies has been analysed through the following characteristics:
measurement content and instruments, measurement process, measurement
frequency, who are the raters and ratees, indicators of PE ineffectiveness
(existence of rating errors, what types of rating errors are dominant, level and
areas of ratees and raters dissatisfaction with PES), and probable sources of that
ineffectiveness.
Data analysis. To see whether PE in selected companies suffers from rating errors
we perform descriptive statistics (Mean and Frequencies of ratings per rater) to
investigate the presence of Leniency and Central Tendency and compare average
ratings with the midpoint of the rating scale. Since the data on all employees`
ratings was not available we could not investigate the eventual presence of a halo
error. Additionally we used the results of questionnaires about the employees
satisfaction with the PE in selected companies, which revealed the main sources
of employees` dissatisfaction with PES in each company. Interviews with raters
indicate the level of their satisfaction with the PES and possible sources of their
dissatisfaction.

5. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Characteristics of PES design in three selected Serbian companies are presented

in Table 2.

46

CULTURAL DIVERGENCE AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

Table 2. Design of the PES in selected companies

Criteria
Positive
legislation
Design
Level of control

TARKET
Not obligatory

TELEKOM SERBIA
Not obligatory

NBS
Obligatory

Elitist
Comprehensive,
detailed, objective,
formalised, low
level of freedom for
supervisors

Egalitarian
Comprehensive,
detailed, objective,
formalised, low level of
freedom for supervisors

Egalitarian
Comprehensive,
detailed, objective,
formalised, low
level of freedom
for supervisors

Raters

Immediate
supervisors
All employees

Immediate supervisors

Immediate
supervisors
All employees

Ratees

Management and key

resources / all employees
with university degree
(total of 1,732)

Evaluation cycle Quarterly for

employees, and
yearly for managers

Once a year

Quarterly

Feedback
interview
Type of
performance

Obligatory

Obligatory

Obligatory

Results and
Behaviour-based
appraisal

Results and trait-based

appraisal

Trait-based
appraisal

Instrument

Mixture of Objective
and Subjective
measures: Graphic
Rating Scale and
BARS

Mixture of Objective
4-point Graphic
and Subjective measures: Rating Scale
MBO and 5-point
Graphic Rating Scale

Level of
measuring
Link with
reward

Individual

Individual

Individual

Direct

Direct

Direct

Research findings regarding rating errors and level of satisfaction with the PES in
all selected companies are presented in Table 3.

47

Biljana Bogievi Miliki and Neboja Janiijevi

Table 3.Identified problems with the PES implementation in

selected companies
Rating errors
Type of rating
errors

TARKET
YES
Positive leniency
(Average rating 0.68 on the
five point scale from -2 to
+2, 52% of ratings in the
range from 0 to 1, standard
deviation of ratings 0.19.)
Intentional

Unintentional/
intentional
Reasons for
To maximise the incentive
inflating ratings an employee is eligible
to receive and to avoid
confrontation with an
employee
Feedback
interview
Employees`
satisfaction
Reasons for
employees
dissatisfaction

Managers`
satisfaction
Reasons for
managers
dissatisfaction

48

TELEKOM SERBIA
YES
Positive leniency
(Average rating 3.97
on the 5-point rating
scale: average rating
per rater is ranging
from 2.82 to 4.89)
Intentional

To maximise
the incentive an
employee is eligible to
receive and to avoid
confrontation with an
employee
In practice almost never held In practice often
by middle managers
avoided by middle
managers
70% dissatisfied
80% dissatisfied

The PES does not make the

difference between high and
low performers;
Receive subjective
evaluation;
Immediate supervisors middle managers have no
authority to evaluate;
Generally
dissatisfied
PES is a waste of time,
Dissatisfied with the
evaluation criteria,
Do not see the PES as a part
of their job

NBS
YES
Positive leniency
(Average rating 2.85 on
the 4-point rating scale:
average rating per rater
is ranging from 1.75 to
3.73)
Intentional
To maximise the
incentive an employee
is eligible to receive and
to avoid confrontation
with an employee
In practice often
avoided by middle
managers
Nearly 100% dissatisfied

Performance criteria
are not relevant for
many jobs
Performance criteria
has not been explained
well allowing for
high subjectivity in
evaluation
Generally dissatisfied Generally dissatisfied
Receive subjective
evaluation;
Little attention put
on the PES by middle
managers

PES is a waste of
time,
PES makes differences
between employees
PES creates
ground for their
confrontation with
employees

Performance criteria
are not relevant for
many jobs
PES creates ground
for their confrontation
with employees
PES makes differences
between employees
Some blue-collar
workers should not be
evaluated

CULTURAL DIVERGENCE AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

Data in Table 3 clearly indicates the following: (a) ratings are biased in all selected
companies, intentionally in all cases; (b) in all selected companies both employees
and managers expressed their dissatisfaction with PES. Research findings
actually reveal that middle managers represent the most important source of
PES violation in Serbian companies, primarily during its implementation either
through intentional biasing the ratings or avoiding the feedback interview (see
Table 3). Research findings suggest that the design of PES implemented in selected
companies (see Table 2) is highly incompatible with the Serbian national culture.
High collectivism and external locus of control, deeply rooted in Serbian national
culture, are inconsistent with evaluation of individual performance. Moreover,
these cultural dimensions can explain why raters inflate their ratings and avoid
feedback interviews: to avoid confrontation with their subordinates.
However, high collectivism and external locus of control cannot fully explain
the ineffectiveness of the PES in Serbian companies, especially employees
dissatisfaction with the system. Other cultural characteristics, such as high UA,
high PD and femininity (Low MAS) are also important and may contribute
to a deeper understanding of the problems in the implementation of the PES
in Serbian companies. For example high PD is not only negatively correlated
with the feedback interviews but also with employees` acceptance of the
formal authority of their supervisors - middle managers - to evaluate them. In
accordance with the family metaphor of the organisation, employees consider
only a leader of an organisation to be entitled, as head of the family, to evaluate
everyones performance. Furthermore, since the individual performance is
inseparable from an individual personality in femininity cultures, employees
reject evaluations based primarily on objective results, without provision for
the individual characteristics of employees: educational level, personal traits,
working experience and so on.
Such findings imply that corrective action regarding the design and implementation
of PES in Serbian companies should be done in the short term and should be
led by strategically deciding between three possible alternatives, offered by the
Convergence Divergence debate (Ralston et al., 1997; Vertinsky et al., 1990):
(1) to reject the PES as definitely unsuitable to the Serbian cultural context until
the culture becomes more Western, congruently with the hypothesis of cultural
convergence; (2) to search for a PES that will be fully adjusted to the specific
Serbian cultural context, which is congruent with the hypothesis of cultural
divergence; and (3) to make an attempt to develop a PES that is sufficiently suited
to the Serbian national culture to be acceptable in Serbian companies, while
maintaining its main functions and roles. Such a PES would be an efficient drive
49

Biljana Bogievi Miliki and Neboja Janiijevi

for pushing Serbian national culture in a direction that is more consistent with
contemporary management theory and practice. We believe that the latter is the
appropriate choice for transition economies, which are searching for a quick
transition towards a market economy.
Therefore, based on research findings, we make an attempt to develop a PES which
will be culturally more sensitive and, thus, more efficient within the Serbian
cultural context (see Table 4). We propose a PES which will have two conflicting
but equally important roles: (1) to help HR managers in Serbian companies cope
with the evaluation process in the culturally incongruent context, and (2) to
facilitate changes of work-related values deeply rooted in Serbian national culture.
The contradictory roles of the proposed PES implies its paradoxical nature: on
one hand it has to be consistent with the prevailing cultural values to the extent
that it gains acceptance from managers and employees, and on the other hand it
has to be sufficiently inconsistent with the dominant cultural values to be able to
initiate change towards the Western cultural pattern.
Table 4. Proposed PES for Serbian companies
CRITERIA
Design
Level of control
Raters
Ratees
Evaluation cycle
Feedback interview
Types of performance
Instrument
Level of measuring
performance
Link with reward

50

DESIGN
Elitist targeted to different groups of employees
Semi-comprehensive, subjective, general, less
formalised, high level of freedom for supervisors
Higher managers with explicit role from companys
general manager
All employees or selected group of employees
Once a year
Obligatory, group interviews with possibility for
individual interviews
A combination of results-based appraisal, behaviourbased appraisal and trait based appraisal
Mixture of Objective and Subjective measures:
Graphic Rating Scale and Behaviourally Anchored
Rating Scale (BARS)
Primarily group and where necessary individual
Indirect with corrective role of higher management

CULTURAL DIVERGENCE AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

So, an ideal PES for Serbian companies would be one which is in its nature
elitist in the way that it targets different groups of employees. PES in Serbian
companies has to be less comprehensive, developed and detailed than is the case
in Western cultures. In addition PES in Serbian companies has to guarantee more
discretion for the supervisors who evaluate and more room for the exertion of their
subjective feelings about the individual contribution of employees. Only higher
managers, such as department heads, should be evaluators, with a very visible
role for the leader of the company in the evaluation process. The GM could check,
verify and even sign all evaluations done by raters, or in small companies should
be the only rater. Performance should be primarily measured on the group level
whenever possible and reasonable. Evaluation of individual contributions should
be left to the group itself under the leadership of a group leader. Consequently
feedback should be primarily a group interview, not individual, and should be led
by higher managers, and once a year by the leader of the organization. Further
feedback interviews or discussions of group results and individual contributions
should be done afterwards under the control of a higher level manager. PES in
Serbian organisations should be based on measuring a combination of objective
results and the behaviours and traits of employees. Results-based evaluation
should be facilitated through measurement of performance on the group level.
The rating instrument also has to be adjusted to this mix of measuring criteria .
Finally, ratings should not be directly linked to bonuses and rewards, at least not
in the short run. Group and individual ratings should be the base for individual
and group bonuses only on a yearly basis. Individual bonuses should be based on
a mixture of group, organisational and individual performances. There should
be reasonable room left for the general managers discretion to influence the final
allocation of bonuses through the evaluation of organisational units.
However the application of the proposed PES requires fulfilling some preconditions.
Measuring results on the group level requires a developed planning system which
unfortunately cannot be found in most Serbian companies. Furthermore the
majority of companies have no information system developed to a level that would
allow them to measure the objective results of individuals or groups. Finally, the
vast majority of managers at all levels do not see performance evaluation as a part
of their job. Bearing in mind that until recently any kind of formalised PES was
almost unknown in Serbian companies, it is clear that extensive training about
management instruments and technologies is necessary for Serbian managers.

51

Biljana Bogievi Miliki and Neboja Janiijevi

6. CONCLUSION

We believe that these findings contribute to the existing knowledge in at least two
important ways. Firstly, they will help to design more efficient PES within a specific
Serbian cultural context, and they show how to adjust other managerial tools and
systems to specific cultural contexts in order to improve their efficiency. Secondly,
the findings contribute to our understanding of national cultural changes and
the current cultural convergence-divergence debate. The paper suggests that the
middle road in this debate should be possible and would allow for adjusting
managerial systems to a specific cultural context, with a simultaneous change
of cultural values, in order to be more congruent with assumptions on which
managerial systems are based. However, this paper has several limitations and
only represents a first step in understanding some of the unique challenges and
responses of companies from specific cultural contexts in coping with their
problems with the implementation of PES. Future research should expand on the
present investigation, primarily by testing our findings through cross-cultural
longitudinal studies.

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