Before humans had been sent into space, many scientists made predictions about the effect

microgravity might have on the human body, predictions which often were in contradiction with
each other. Heart specialists said that the heart would race uncontrollably, or it would stop
beating altogether. Psychologists predicted that astronauts would either experience euphoria or
become profoundly depressed. It was thought that their bones would become soft, their eyeballs
would change shape such that their vision would be impaired, and their ability to think clearly
would be affected. Doctors were not sure that food could be swallowed in space, and if
swallowed, whether digestion would occur. We now know these fears to be foundless, but there
are many real physical problems associated with microgravity.
Space Adaptation Sickness (SAS)
One common problem, experienced by more than half of the Space Shuttle astronauts, is Space
Adaptation Sickness (SAS). There are a number of symptoms associated with SAS including
disorientation, pallor, malaise, loss of motivation, irritability, drowsiness, stomach awareness,
and infrequent but sudden vomiting. Symptoms of SAS typically peak sometime during the first
two days of the flight, then dissipate completely by the third or fourth day. The effects can range
from mild to severe, with most people experiencing mild symptoms. In a study of 57 cases of
SAS, 46% were considered mild, 35% moderate, and only 11% severe (2). Although the
symptoms are not debilitating in most cases, any mission-critical activities such as EVAs are not
scheduled until several days into the flight, after the time when SAS symptoms have usually
disappeared.
Some researchers believe that SAS may be related to spacecraft size, with the likelihood of
experiencing SAS being less in smaller spacecraft. This conclusion is based on the fact that none
of the astronauts in early space missions, which were conducted in extremely small capsules,
reported suffering from the symptoms associated with SAS, but 60-70% of the Space Shuttle
astronauts experience these symptoms on their first Shuttle flights (3).
There is no way to predict who will and wont be susceptible to SAS. In general, women are less
affected than men, and experienced crew members are less likely to suffer from SAS than the
less experienced members.
Fluid Shift
In the presence of gravity on Earth, blood pools in the lower part of the body. After a day or so in
the microgravity of space, however, fluids begin to shift toward the head. Faces become visibly
puffy as fluids pool in the facial tissues, and some astronauts have complained of feeling "stuffy
headed". Since fluid pooling in the head is not a usual condition, the body perceives this as
excess fluid and begins to eliminate it. This shift of fluid and consequent elimination stabilizes in
about five days. In this time, blood plasma is decreased by approximately 12%, and total body
water is decreased by about 2 3%.
This normal response to microgravity causes no difficulties while in space, but the body must readapt to a normal gravity environment upon return to Earth. Fluid shifts downward, resulting in
low blood pressure, weakened pulse, dizziness and possible fainting. There are several measures

astronauts can take to facilitate the re-adaptation to 1-G, with vigorous exercise during the
mission being but one measure. Another aid is the use of a lower body negative-pressure device,
a sack-like device that is pumped up once on the lower body in order to help redistribute fluids in
the body, similar to the way they would be in normal gravity environments. Finally, astronauts
typically increase their body fluids just before returning to Earth by drinking extra fluids and
using salt tablets to aid in the retention of fluid.
Muscles
On Earth, our muscles are constantly working whether walking, lifting, even sitting or standing
upright during all of these normal activities our muscles are working against gravity to some
degree. In a micro gravity environment, there is no appreciable force of gravity for the muscles
to work against, so muscle tone is lost. This deconditioning is evident in as few as five days and
is progressive. During longer flights, muscles can shrink in size and lose their strength. As the
muscles continue to atrophy, they become less resistant to fatigue, and one may experience
uncontrolled muscle twitches and a loss of fine motor control. There is a danger of the weakened
ligaments and muscles tearing under stresses that would not be a problem under normal
circumstances.
As an example, after a 211 day tour of duty on Mir, cosmonauts Berezovoy and Lebedev
returned to Earth so debilitated that they had to be carried off their spacecraft, and could barely
walk for a week. They required extensive rehabilitation to return to their pre-flight levels of
fitness (4). However, the loss of muscle strength and control can be kept to much lower levels by
exercising regularly during the mission. A good example of the success of exercise is Shannon
Lucid, who after 188 days on board Mir, was able to walk off the spacecraft unassisted, and who
experienced a lesser degree of muscle debilitation than she would have had she not exercised
regularly during the mission.
But exercise alone is not enough. It is believed that astronauts may lose as much as 25% of their
muscle mass during extended missions. Scientists are therefore working to gain a better
understanding of how the muscle breakdown actually occurs, and are developing more
sophisticated methods to increase muscle mass through the use of hormones and even gene
therapy (5).
Bone Mass Loss
It has been found that due to microgravity astronauts experience a progressive loss of calcium
and bone mass over time. Changes in bone density is due in part to the reduced work load on the
skeletal structure, and also to the loss of calcium that occurs. This loss of calcium leads to a loss
of bone mass, which weakens bones and leaves them more susceptible to fractures and breaks.
Moreover, when the calcium leaves the blood stream, it is processed by the kidneys to be
eliminated in urine. This increase in calcium in the kidneys can contribute to the formation of
kidney stones.
In a Skylab IV study of the calcium levels of the astronauts on an 84-day tour of duty. Loss of
calcium through urination increased daily until it peaked then leveled off at about 30 days.

However, the loss of calcium through defecation increased throughout the 84 days of the
mission, at which time the average calcium loss had increased to about 300mg per day (6).
The bone mass loss is approximately 1 1 % per month, so is negligible on short-duration
flights. In addition, the loss of bone density is reversible to some extent once the person is back
on the Earth. However, since the levels are generally not restored to their pre-flight levels, this
could preclude an astronaut from returning to space for a long-duration mission. For example, a
number of cosmonauts who have spent extended periods in space have begun to show signs of
osteoporosis (7). It is estimated that during a two to three year mission, the time necessary to
reach Mars, the crew members could lose 20% or more of their bone mass (8). In addition, recent
studies point to the possibility of tooth loss as well. While the bone density could be built up
again upon return to Earth, the tooth loss is permanent. Current methods of prevention include
doses of vitamins D and K, various pharmaceutical agents, exposure to UV light and resistive
exercises.
Immune System Changes
Evidence has shown that the immune system is most likely weakened to some extent for a
number reasons. First of all, the rapid loss of plasma volume and red blood mass during the
redistribution of bodily fluids due to microgravity can lead to a reduction in the red blood cell
count. Wounds take longer to heal, and people can be more susceptible to illnesses and
infections, including the activation of viruses already present in their bodies. The weakening of
the immune system can also be associated with lack of sleep, stress, isolation, and exposure to
space radiation. Because astronauts must live and work closely together in small quarters, the
likelihood of disease or infection spreading throughout the crew is increased in view of their
weakened immune systems.
Prevention methods can be straightforward, and sound similar to those that we undertake here on
Earth: get plenty of rest, eat well and exercise regularly. Drugs can be administered to restore
immunity, and special monitoring systems or "bacterial probes" can be spread throughout the
spacecraft to monitor the purity of the air and water.
Radiation
There are two primary sources of radiation that astronauts can be exposed to. The first form of
radiation is cosmic rays, energetic particles that originate outside our galaxy. Basically they are
atomic nuclei that have been accelerated to speeds up to 80% of the speed of light. The second
form of radiation consisists of energetic particles emitted by the Sun, particularly during solar
flares. Low levels of radiation do not pose a significant risk. But the effects of radiation are
cumulative, so exposure becomes increasingly dangerous as the length of the stay increases.
Therefore, the risks due to radiation increase arithmetically on long-duration flights. In addition,
crew members of long-duration interplanetary missions that travel through the Van Allen
radiation belts around the Earth will be exposed to a higher level of radiation than those
remaining in Earth orbit, such as Shuttle or International Space Station astronauts.

Some of the effects of space radiation seem more interesting than hazardous. For example, the
Apollo astronauts in transit to the Moon described seeing unidentified flashes of light. Even the
Mir astronauts noticed this, particularly when Mir passed through the "South Atlantic Anomaly."
It is thought that this phenomenon is caused by the high-energy particles striking the retina,
sending false signals to the brain that light-flashes occurred. Most effects of radiation are
dangerous, and can be responsible for the malfunction and death of bone, blood and other cells.
Cataracts can form in the eyes, and both benign and malignant tumors can form throughout the
body. Genetic code alteration can occur, causing infertility and sterility, or birth defects and still
births. Lymph tissue and bone marrow are particularly sensitive to radiation.
Nutritional Health
In the earliest days of the space program, meals were nothing more than edible paste in a tube, or
gelatin covered bite-sized pieces of food. Later in the program, meals were freeze dried or
dehydrated food stuffs, that would be injected with water before eating. In those early days, food
was designed to meet minimum nutritional needs, but was generally bland and boring.
Astronauts often described mealtime as being a necessary but annoying interruption to a busy
day. The situation has improved, and current Shuttle astronauts can choose from a menu of over
70 food items and 20 beverages. The situation will improve further for astronauts stationed on
the International Space Station, as they will have deliveries of fresh food to augment their
standard fare.
There are concerns with longer-duration space flights, however. It has been found that in general,
astronauts dont eat as much as they should, a problem which can lead to weight loss and other
nutritional concerns. In particular, low levels of vitamin D can pose a threat, as vitamin D is
essential for bone health. In a normal Earth environment, the body produces vitamin D when
exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light. However, the spacecrafts shielding does not allow the
inhabitants to be exposed to UV light, so the body is unable to produce vitamin D. This can
become quite problematic for those who are already experiencing bone density loss due to
microgravity. Prevention measures include doses of vitamin D and UV light treatments.

Conclusion
Space is an extreme environment, with many associated risks and dangers. Humans in space
must be protected from many hazards, from space radiation to the debilitating effects of
microgravity responsible for progressive loss of bone mass. A myriad of psychological stressors
exist as well, many which have not yet been addressed adequately. However, it is part of our
basic human nature to explore new environments and push boundaries beyond their current limit.
We have been extremely successful at dealing with the problems involved with sending humans
into space for short to medium periods of time. While there are marked differences between the
preparedness that is necessary for short-duration Earth orbiting missions and long-duration
missions to planets and beyond, humans will no doubt rise to the challenge and expand our
horizons to include deep space.