Chemical Signals and

Cell Communication
Chapters 11 & 45

Chemical signals
Within cells
2nd messengers and related molecular pathways

Between cells
In an organism
Hormones
Neurotransmitters
Some 2nd messengers

Between organisms
pheromones

Communication between cells in direct contact - REVIEW

Fig. 11.4
Also review Figs. 6.27, 6.29, 6.30 & 7.7

Local and long-distance CELL COMMUNICATION by chemical signaling in animals

Examples: histamine (left),

Neurotransmitters ACh, GABA (middle)

Examples: hormones
ADH, aldosterone,
insulin, glucagon

Electrical signaling, too! (Neurons, Nervous System, and Muscle)

Fig. 11.5
Also review Fig. 40.6 and see additional classifications in Fig. 45.2

One example of chemical communication

between individuals (pheromone signaling):
Dictyostelium discoidium
(slime mold Dicty, a model organism)
aggregate (by chemotaxis) to form fruiting
bodies in response to a concentration
gradient of a chemical signal (pheromone
gradient) released by other Dicty
YouTube video of Dictyostelium aggregation
Also see pheromone signaling by ants, Fig. 45.3

Receptor location varies with hormone type: water soluble vs. lipid soluble hormones
e.g., ADH vs. testosterone

Steroid hormones:
LIPOPHILIC (can
diffuse across
membranes
without a
transporter, but
bind to proteins for
transport in blood,
cytoplasm, etc.)

Fig. 45.5
Also review Fig. 11.5c
and see Figs. 11.9 & 45.7

Major endocrine glands in humans: Hormonal signaling

Fig. 45.9

Differences in hormone solubility and structure

Review (Ch 4):

Steroid
hormones
testosterone
and estradiol

Fig. 45.4

A simple endocrine pathway

Fig. 45.10

Homeostatic (negative feedback) regulation of blood glucose (cellular fuel)

Hormone
(protein)
Pancreas
Increase glucose
transport into cells;
storage as glycogen
in liver and muscle
(decrease blood
glucose)

Hyperglycemia
Hypoglycemia
Increase glycogen
breakdown and
release of glucose
into blood (increase
blood glucose)
Pancreas
Hormone
(protein)

Fig. 41.21

Roles of PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH) in calcium homeostasis in mammals

Fig. 45.19

A chemical signal can cause different responses in different cell types!

Fig. 45.8
Also see Fig. 11.17

Different responses due to:

Different effector (response) machinery?
Different intracellular signal transduction pathways?
Different receptors in plasma membrane?

What happens after

a cell receives
a chemical signal?

Overview of CELL SIGNALING SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION

Fig. 11.6

Phosphorylation cascade an amplifying transduction pathway

Fig. 11.10
Also see amplification
example in Fig. 11.16

AMPLIFICATION

How does phosphorylation

cascade shut off? Signal
molecule dissociates from
receptor, phosphorylation stops,
and dephosphorylation by
protein phosphatase enzymes

G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) function

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are

integral membrane proteins:
7 transmembrane -helices

Fig. 11.8a,b
Also see Fig. 11.7 & 11.12

Receptor tyrosine kinases receptor and kinase are parts of same TM protein

An example of PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION

Fig. 11.8c
by protein kinase enzymes

Cyclic AMP (cAMP) an important second messenger

Adenylyl cyclase enzyme for synthesizing cAMP (from ATP)

- an example of an enzyme activated by G-proteins
Phosphodiesterase enzyme for degrading cAMP (to AMP)
Fig. 11.11

BSC 2010

Chase

Cell Communication and Chemical Signals

Motivation: Cells can coordinate their actions through communication; chemicals such as
hormones are one mechanism for communication within a cell, between and among cells
(nearby or distant) in a complex organism, and between individual organisms. Note that we
discuss chemical communication and other forms of communication (e.g., electrical and
mechanical) in many other parts of this course.
This is analogous to human communication. There are many different kinds of communication
(e.g., verbal, written, visual) through many different types of media reach only one person, a
select group of people, or anyone who is paying attention (e.g., person-to-person contact,
wide-spread media). Sometimes only people who know a specific language or code can
understand a message that is widely broadcast. Sometimes you leave messages just for
yourself (e.g., a reminder note). Some messages last a long time (decades, centuries and
millennia), or may disappear quickly (e.g., SnapChat, provided that no one captures a screen
shot!).
Objectives:
Describe the three main stages of cell signaling, including hormonal signaling.
Describe how phosphorylation propagates and amplifies signal information; describe the
advantages of using a multistep pathway in the transduction stage of cell signaling.
Define the term second messenger. Briefly describe the role of these molecules in
signaling pathways.
Describe how cyclic AMP (cAMP) is formed and how it propagates signal information.
Describe how the cytoplasmic concentration of calcium ion ([Ca2+]) can be altered and
how this increased pool of Ca2+ is involved with signal transduction.
Describe how signal information is transduced into cellular responses in the cytoplasm
and in the nucleus.
Describe the organization of a stimulus, receptor, control center, efferent signal, and
effector in a simple endocrine pathway; describe an example of a negative feedback
loop in an endocrine pathway involved in homeostasis.
Discuss how and why different target cells exposed to the same signaling molecule
(e.g., a hormone) may respond in different ways.
Local chemical signaling
[Autocrine]
Paracrine
Synaptic signaling (nervous system, neuro-muscular junctions)

BSC 2010

Chase

Signal-transduction pathway
Reception
Transduction
Response
Ligand / Receptor
G-protein/G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)
Receptor tyrosine kinases
Ligand-gated ion channel
Protein phosphorylation
Protein kinase
Protein phosphatase
Phosphorylation cascade
Amplification
Second messenger
Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
Adenylyl cyclase
Phosphodiesterase
Calcium ion (Ca2+)

BSC 2010

Chase

Endocrine [and neuroendocrine] system / endocrine glands / hormones

(not a complete list of glands or hormones!)
Homeostasis and negative feedback
Chemical diversity of hormones: amines; steroids; peptides, proteins and glycoproteins
Pancreas [also see Nutrition]
Alpha cells - glucagon
Beta cells - insulin
Parathyroid glands parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Adrenal glands epinephrine (adrenaline)
[Hypothalmus]
[Pituitary gland ADH]
Pheromones

cAMP is an important second messenger (intracellular part of signal)

cAMP binds to and

allosterically activates
cAMP-dependent
protein kinase A (PKA)

Fig. 11.12
Also see amplification
example in Fig. 11.16

PHOSPHORYLATION CASCADE

Maintenance of calcium ion (Ca2+) concentrations in an animal cell

Calcium ion (Ca2+) is

another important
second messenger
[Ca2+]o = 10-3M
(extracellular)
[Ca2+]i = 10-7 10-5M
(intracellular, cytosolic)
Note storage of Ca2+ in
some organelles
Also note LARGE
electrochemical
gradient for Ca2+
Fig. 11.13

Ligand-gated Ion Channel

Ligand may OPEN or CLOSE channel

When OPEN, ions diffuse down their electrochemical gradient(s)
Many, but not all, channels are specific for an ion
Fig. 11.8c
e.g., Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl-