Traveling Waves

Introduction
Sine wave pattern continues to move in uninterrupted fashion until it encounters another wave along the medium or until it
encounters a boundary with another medium. This type of wave pattern that is seen traveling through a medium is sometimes
referred to as a traveling wave.

Traveling Waves
Traveling waves are observed when a wave is not confined to a given space along the medium.
The most commonly observed traveling wave is an ocean wave. If a wave is introduced into an elastic cord with its
ends held 3 meters apart, it becomes confined in a small region. Such a wave has only 3 meters along which to travel.
The wave will quickly reach the end of the cord, reflect and travel back in the opposite direction.
Any reflected portion of the wave will then interfere with the portion of the wave incident towards the fixed end. This
interference produces a new shape in the medium that seldom resembles the shape of a sine wave.
Subsequently, a traveling wave (a repeating pattern that is observed to move through a medium in uninterrupted
fashion) is not observed in the cord. Indeed there are traveling waves in the cord; it is just that they are not easily
detectable because of their interference with each other.
In such instances, rather than observing the pure shape of a sine wave pattern, a rather irregular and non-repeating
pattern is produced in the cord that tends to change appearance over time.
This irregular looking shape is the result of the interference of an incident sine wave pattern with a reflected sine wave
pattern in a rather non-sequenced and untimely manner.
Both the incident and reflected wave patterns continue their motion through the medium, meeting up with one
another at different locations in different ways.
For example, the middle of the cord might experience a crest meeting a half crest; then moments later, a crest
meeting a quarter trough; then moments later, a three-quarters crest meeting a one-fifth trough, etc. This
interference leads to a very irregular and non-repeating motion of the medium.
The appearance of an actual wave pattern is difficult to detect amidst the irregular motions of the individual particles.
When the proper frequency is used, the interference of the incident wave and the reflected wave occur in such a
manner that there are specific points along the medium that appear to be standing still.
Because the observed wave pattern is characterized by points that appear to be standing still, the pattern is often
called a standing wave pattern. There are other points along the medium whose displacement changes over time, but
in a regular manner.
These points vibrate back and forth from a positive displacement to a negative displacement; the vibrations occur at
regular time intervals such that the motion of the medium is regular and repeating. A pattern is readily observable.

Title: < Traveling Waves>

Description: < Sine wave pattern continues to move in uninterrupted fashion until it encounters another wave along the
medium or until it encounters a boundary with another medium. This type of wave pattern that is seen traveling through a
medium is sometimes referred to as a traveling wave.>
Tags :<travelling-wave,sine-wave>
Branch: <EEE>
Question:1. Explain Traveling wave?
2. Describe in brief Traveling wave?

Wave equation for uniform Transmission lines

Introduction

Conductors and insulating medium maintain the same cross-sectional geometry along the entire transmission line.
Transmission lines and waveguides offer an alternative way of transmitting signals in the form of guided wave propagation.

Wave equation for uniform Transmission lines

We will combine the telegrapher equations to form one differential equation for V (z)
and another for I(z). First, take the derivative with respect to z of the first telegrapher
equation:

Note that the second telegrapher equation expresses the derivative of I(z) in terms of V(z):
Combining these two equations, we get an equation involving V (z) only:

Where it is apparent that:

In a similar manner (i.e., begin by taking the derivative of the second telegrapher equation), we can
derive the differential equation:
We have decoupled the telegraphers equations, such that we now have two equations involving
one function only:
Note only special functions satisfy these equations: if we take the double derivative of the
function, the result is the original function (to within a constant).
Since the transmission line wave equation is a linear differential equation, a weighted
superposition of the two solutions is also a solution
In fact, it turns out that any and all possible solutions to the differential equations can be expressed in this simple form
Therefore, the general solution to these wave equations (and thus the telegrapher equations)
are:
We can alternatively write these solutions as:

The two terms in each solution describe two waves propagating in the transmission line, one wave (V+(z) or I+(z) ) propagating
in one direction (+z) and the other wave (V-(z) or I-(z) ) Propagating in the opposite direction (-z).

Therefore, we call the differential equations introduced in this handout the transmission line wave equations.

Title: < Wave equation for uniform Transmission lines>

Description: < Conductors and insulating medium maintain the same cross-sectional geometry along the entire transmission
line. Transmission lines and waveguides offer an alternative way of transmitting signals in the form of guided wave
propagation.>
Tags :<wave-equation,uniform-transmission-line>
Branch: <EEE>
Question:1. Derive the Wave equation for uniform Transmission lines?
2. Explain in brief Wave equation for uniform Transmission lines?

Velocity of Wave Propagation

Introduction

If a voltage is initially applied to the sending end of a line, that same voltage will appear later some distance from the sending
end. This is true regardless of any change in voltage, whether the change is a jump from zero to some value or a drop from
some value to zero. The voltage change will be conducted down the line at a constant rate.

Velocity of Wave Propagation

The velocity of propagation is therefore related to the values of L and C. If the inductance and capacitance of the rf line are
known, the time required for any waveform to travel the length of the line can be determined. To see how this works, observe
the following relationship:
Q = IT
This formula shows that the total charge or quantity is equal to the current multiplied by the time the current flows. Also:
Q = CE
This formula shows that the total charge on a capacitor is equal to the capacitance multiplied by the voltage across the
capacitor If the switch in the figure below is closed for a given time, the quantity (Q) of electricity leaving the battery can be
computed by using the equation Q = IT. The electricity leaves the battery and goes into the line, where a charge is built up on
the capacitors. The amount of this charge is computed by using the equation Q = CE.
Since none of the charge is lost, the total charge leaving the battery
during T is equal to the total charge on the line. Therefore:
Q = IT = CE
As each capacitor accumulates a charge equal to CE, the voltage across
each inductor must change. As C1 in the figure above charges to a
voltage of E, point A rises to a potential of E volts while point B is still at
zero volts. This makes E appear across L2. As C2 charges, point B rises to
a potential of E volts as did point A. At this time, point B is at E volts and
point C rises. Thus, we have a continuing action of voltage moving down
the infinite line.
In an inductor, these circuit components are related, as shown in the formula

This shows that the voltage across the inductor is directly proportional to inductance and the change in current, but inversely
proportional to a change in time. Since current and time start from zero, the change in time (DT) and the change in current
(DI) are equal to the final time (T) and final current (I). For this case the equation becomes:
ET = LI
If voltage E is applied for time (T) across the inductor (L), the final current (I) will flow. The following equations
show how the three terms (T, L, and C) are related:
For convenience, you can find T in terms of L and C in the following manner. Multiply the
left and right member of each equation as follows:
This final equation is used for finding the time required for a voltage change to travel a unit
length, since L and C are given in terms of unit length. The velocity of the waves may be
found by:

Where: D is the physical length of a unit

This is the rate at which the wave travels over a unit length. The units of L and C are henrys and farads, respectively. T is in
seconds per unit length and V is in unit lengths per second.

Title: < Velocity of Wave Propagation>

Description: < If a voltage is initially applied to the sending end of a line, that same voltage will appear later some distance
from the sending end. This is true regardless of any change in voltage, whether the change is a jump from zero to some value
or a drop from some value to zero. The voltage change will be conducted down the line at a constant rate.>
Tags :<velocity-of-wave-propagation>
Branch: <EEE>
Question:1. Explain Velocity of Wave Propagation?
2. Derive the expression of Velocity of Wave Propagation?

Surge impedance
Introduction
The impedance of a circuit, which when connected to the output terminals of a uniform transmission line, makes the line
appear infinitely long. Under these conditions, the transmission line has no standing waves, and the ratio of voltage to current
at any given frequency is the same at any point of the line. Its symbol is Z0. Also called characteristic impedance.

Surge impedance
The current that flows is determined when a unit EMF is suddenly inserted in series in an infinitely long isolated conductor of
zero resistance. The current equals the transient surge admittance and its reciprocal is the transient surge impedance. The
surge impedance increases with time in a determinable manner from a very small value. When such a conductor forms only
the connecting leads to a pair of infinitely long parallel conductors, the surge impedance approaches the conventional value
for the parallel lines.
From this simple model we can derive a value for the characteristic impedance, which is the instantaneous impedance the
signal sees as it walks down the line. The impedance seen in each step, Z, is just the basic definition of impedance:
Z = V/I
The voltage is the voltage of the signal launched into the line, V, and the current, I, is the charge that flows out of your foot,
Q, in the time for each step, t:
I = Q/ t
The charge that flows out of your foot (coming ultimately from the battery), is the charge needed to charge up the apacitance,
C of one footprint, to the voltage
of the signal, V:
Q= CV
We can relate the capacitance of one footprint to the capacitance per length, CL, of the transmission line and the speed of the
signal, v, down the line. We need to remember that the length of a footprint is our speed, v, times the time to take each step,
t.
C = CL v

Combining all the pieces, we can write the instantaneous impedance as:
Z = V/I = V/( Q/ t) = V/( C V/ t) = V/(CL v t V/ t) = 1/(CL v)
We see that the instantaneous impedance is related to the capacitance per length of the transmission line and the speed of
the signal. This is also the definition of the characteristic impedance of the line. To distinguish the term characteristic
impedance from the actual impedance, Z, we add a small zero to it. We have just derived the characteristic impedance of a
transmission line as:
Z0 = 1/(CL v)
If the capacitance per length of a line and the speed of a signal are constant down its length the line will have constant
characteristic impedance, and would be called a controlled impedance line. This simple expression allows us to tie our
intuition about capacitance to our newfound intuition for characteristic impedance. It says that if you increase the
capacitance per length of a line, as for example, making the signal line wider, you will decrease the characteristic impedance
of the line.

Title: < Surge impedance>

Description: < The impedance of a circuit, which when connected to the output terminals of a uniform transmission line,
makes the line appear infinitely long. Under these conditions, the transmission line has no standing waves, and the ratio of
voltage to current at any given frequency is the same at any point of the line. Its symbol is Z0. Also called characteristic
impedance.>
Tags :<Surge-Impedance,>
Branch: <EEE>
Question:1. Explain surge impedance?
2. Describe the Surge impedance?

Bewlays lattice diagram

Introduction
The diagram overcomes the difficulty of otherwise keeping track of the multiplicity of successive reflections at the various
junctions.
Bewlays lattice diagram
Bewlays lattice diagram show the position and direction of motion of every incident, reflected, and transmitted wave on the
system at every instant of time.
Consider a transmission line having a resistance r, an inductance l, a conductance g and a capacitance c, all per unit length.
is the propagation constant of the transmission line, and E is the magnitude of the voltage surge at the sending end,

If

Then the magnitude and phase of the wave as it reaches any section distance x from the sending end is Ex given by
Ex=E.

=E

Where

)
=E

represent the attenuation in the length of line x.

represents the phase angle change in the length of line x.
Therefore
= Attenuation constant of the line in neper/km.
= Phase angle constant of the line in rad/km.
It is also common for an attenuation factor k to be defined corresponding to the length of a particular line. i.e.
k =

for a line of length l.

The propagation constant of a line of a line of series impedance z and shunt

admittance y per unit length is given by

Similarly the surge impedance of the line (or characteristic impedance) Zo

When a voltage surge of magnitude unity reaches a junction between two sections with surge impedances Z1 and Z2, then a
part is transmitted and a part is reflected back. In traversing the second line, if the attenuation factor is k, then on
reaching the termination at the end of the second line its amplitude would be reduced to K . The lattice diagram may now
be constructed as follows. Set the ends of the lines at intervals equal to the time of transit of each line. If a suitable time scale
is chosen, then the diagonals on the diagram show the passage of the waves.
In the Bewley lattice diagram, the following properties exist.
(1) All waves travel downhill, because time always increases.
(2) The position of any wave at any time can be deduced directly from the diagram.
(3) The total potential at any point, at any instant of time is the superposition of all the waves which have arrived at that point
up until that instant of time, displaced in position from each other by intervals equal to the difference in their time of arrival.
(4) The history of the wave is easily traced. It is possible to find where it came from and just what other waves went into its
composition.
(5) Attenuation is included, so that the wave arriving at the far end of a line corresponds to the value entering multiplied by
the attenuation factor of the line.

Title: < Bewlays lattice diagram >

Description: < The diagram overcomes the difficulty of otherwise keeping track of the multiplicity of successive reflections at
the various junctions.>
Tags :<bewlays-lattice-diagram>
Branch: <EEE>
Question:1. Explain Bewlays lattice diagram?
2. Describe in brief Bewlays lattice diagram?

Corona
Introduction
Corona, also known as partial discharge, is a type of localized emission resulting from transient gaseous ionization in an
insulation system when the voltage stress, i.e., voltage gradient, exceeds a critical value. The ionization is usually localized
over only a portion of the distance between the electrodes of the system. Corona can occur within voids in insulators as well
as at the conductor/insulator interface.

Corona
Corona Inception:-Corona inception voltage is the lowest voltage at which continuous corona of specified pulse amplitude
occurs as the applied voltage is gradually increased. Corona inception voltage decreases as the frequency of the applied
voltage increases. Corona can occur in applications as low as 300V.
Corona Extinction:-Corona extinction voltage is the highest
voltage at which continuous corona of specified pulse
amplitude no longer occurs as the applied voltage is gradually
decreased from above the corona inception value. Thus, once
corona starts, the voltage must be decreased to get it to stop.
Corona Detection:-Corona can be visible in the form of light,
typically a purple glow, as corona generally consists of micro
arcs. Darkening the environment can help to visualize the
corona. We once attached a camera (set to a long exposure
time) to a viewing window in a vacuum chamber to confirm
that corona was indeed occurring, and thereby confirming our
suspicions. You can often hear corona hissing or cracking.
Thus, stethoscopes or ultrasonic detectors (assuming you can
place them in a safe location) can be used to find corona. In
addition, you can sometimes smell the presence of ozone that
was produced by the corona. The corona discharges in
insulation systems result in voltage transients. These pulses
are superimposed on the applied voltage and may be
detected, which is precisely what corona detection equipment looks for. In its most basic form, the following diagram is a
corona (or partial discharge) measuring system:
It is important that the voltage source and the coupling capacitor exhibit low noise so as not to obscure the corona. In its
simplest form the pulse detection network is a resistor monitored by an oscilloscope. Dont dismiss this simple technique as
crude, as we once used this method to observe the presence of corona in an improperly terminated high voltage connector,
even after a dedicated corona tester failed to find any.
Corona Effects:-The presence of corona can reduce the reliability of a system by degrading insulation. While corona is a low
energy process, over long periods of time, it can substantially degrade insulators, causing a system to fail due to dielectric
breakdown. The effects of corona are cumulative and permanent, and failure can occur without warning. Corona causes:

Light
Ultraviolet radiation
Sound (hissing, or cracking as caused by explosive gas expansions)
Ozone
Nitric and various other acids
Salts, sometimes seen as white powder deposits
Other chemicals, depending on the insulator material
Mechanical erosion of surfaces by ion bombardment
Heat (although generally very little, and primarily in the insulator)
Carbon deposits, thereby creating a path for severe arcing

The major advantage is that there is zero mass that needs to be moved to create the sound, so that transient response is
improved.

Title: < Corona >

Description: < Corona, also known as partial discharge, is a type of localized emission resulting from transient gaseous
ionization in an insulation system when the voltage stress, i.e., voltage gradient, exceeds a critical value. The ionization is
usually localized over only a portion of the distance between the electrodes of the system. Corona can occur within voids in
insulators as well as at the conductor/insulator interface. >
Tags :<corona>
Branch: <EEE>
Question:1. What is corona?
2. Explain in brief, Corona?