Hydrocarbon:

Source rock and

Origin

Both inorganic and organic theories have been suggested to explain the
origin of oil and natural gas. Although some gases (especially CH4) and
individual components in petroleum may originate by inorganic processes,
the weight of evidence strongly supports an origin in organic
matter produced at and near the earths surface.
Inorganic hypotheses
Cosmic origins?Consolidation of H and C during consolidation of the
Earth? Carbonaceous chondrites and space dust contain hydrocarbons
evidence of primary organic source?
Petroleum should be more widespread in space and time if there was a
cosmic source.
Reactions of metal carbides within the Earth?
FeC2 + 2H2O = C2H2 [acetylene] + Fe(OH)2
Al4C3 + 12H2O = 3CH4 + 4Al(OH)3
Fischer-Tropsch reaction:
CO2 + H2 = CO + H2O, then CO + 3H2 = CH4 + H2O
There is no evidence that metal carbides exist in the mantle .

Hydrocarbons in igneous rocks as evidence?Hydrocarbons, including bitumens, can be

found in igneous rocks:

1. In vesicles and inclusions in alkaline igneous rocks (e.g. Arendal, Norway). Origin is
controversial.

2. In thermal aureoles around basic intrusions in sediments. Can be explained by

distillation of kerogen in surrounding sediments due to heat of the intrusionpetroleum
may be incorporated in the igneous rocks as they cool.

3. In weathered and fractured igneous rocks. Normally explained by hydrocarbon migration

into the rocks from a sedimentary (organic) source.

Mantle degassing?Polymerization of inorganic gases such as CH4 that are produced in

the mantle. It is difficult to produce the range of complex hydrocarbons by polymerization;
also problems of permeability and porosity in lower crust.

Main problems with inorganic theories of petroleum genesis:

Poor correlation between petroleum and volcanism

Paucity of Precambrian oil

Isotopic evidence favours organic origin

Petroleum is optically active linked to organic origin

Presence of homologous series

Geological association with sedimentary basins

GENERAL MODEL FOR ORIGIN AND MATURATION OF PETROLEUM

GENERAL MODEL FOR ORIGIN AND MATURATION OF PETROLEUM

 Most organic matter [C] fixed by photosynthesis in upper 100150

m is recycled in the water column by passing through the food
chain.
Phytoplankton (diatoms, algae: primary producers of OM) are
oxidised or eaten by zooplankton. Both types of plankton are then
consumed by other higher organisms. They defecate, producing
pellets that contain the indigestible part of the organic matter.
The pellets sink relatively quickly to the bottom, whereas plankton
are commonly degraded in the water column.
The organic matter that arrives on the ocean (or lake) floor can then
be consumed by benthic organisms.
Only a few percent of the organic matter produced is buried in
sediments, especially in the deepest parts of the oceans.

 High organic productivity in the oceans depends mainly on

adequate sunlight and availability of nutrients.
In surface waters, sunlight generally is not a limiting factor
except seasonally (winter) at high latitudes.
Nutrients (mainly N and P) have a very heterogeneous
distribution in marine waters. The highest concentrations are
commonly found in coastal regions, where they are landderived (e.g., soil erosion with leaching to rivers), and in zones
of upwelling. Upwellings are present mainly on the western
margins of the continents

Propane

Isooctane

 ~100 mg of crushed rock placed into the Rock-Eval

instrument.
first heated to 300C for 3 minutes in inert atmosphere
(helium).
"free hydrocarbons" are thermally desorbed from the
sample.
The abundance measured using a flame ionisation detector
(FID) and recorded as the S1 peak in units of mg HC.g rock-1.
The sample is then pyrolysed by increasing the temperature
of the furnace from 300C to 550 or 600C at a rate of
25C.min-1
The amount of hydrocarbons (pyrolysate) generated during
this period is again measured using a FID and reported as the
S2 peak, in units of mg HC.g rock-1 (equivalent to kg
HC.tonne rock-1).
The temperature at which the maximum rate of pyrolysate
generation occurs is referred to as the Tmax, measured in C.

238U

Spontaneous Fission

Arrhenius equation

 Combined isoreflectance and

structure map, Woodford Shale,
Vitrinite reflectance values in
general increase with depth of
burial,
but strong cross-cutting
relationships of the isoreflectance
and structure contours
suggest that there may have
been local thermal disturbances
superimposed on the burial-related
maturation.

Plot of temperature versus diagenetic illite

Mineralogical indices. Diagenesis of clay-rich content measured by X-ray diffraction.
sediments as a function of depth and
Increasing illite content severely reduces
temperature
permeability. The main thermal interval for
illite formation is 120150 C.

Plot of temperature versus quartz cement

content and porosity

Timing of quartz cementation derived from

the combination of temperatures of
cementation from fluid inclusion analysis
(green bars) with paleotemperature from
burial history (red line), North Sea.
The temperature range of quartz
cementation is based on fluid inclusion
analysis of authigenic quartz cements. Quartz
cementation took place 3510 Myr ago.

Maximum depths of burial can be estimated from

VR values from empirical relations
(Barker & Pawlewicz 1986):
ln (Ro) = 0.0096.T 1.4

Saturated hydrocarbons: each carbon

atom is completely saturated with
respect to hydrogen
Aromatics: unsaturated hydrocarbons
with cyclic structures
NSO compounds/ heterocompounds:
contain atoms other than carbon and
hydrogen (N, S; O). Resins and the
asphaltenes.

Gross composition of 636 crude oils in terms of the three main groups
of compounds found in petroleum. Normal (non-degraded) crudes
typically contain 6080% saturates, and less than 20% NSO compounds.

Typical distributions of n-alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics

~<35-500oC

Bermer

Bombay High

Assam Bombay high

Cambay shales