Arab British Academy for Higher Education.

AStudyabout
Research&Research
Methods

Preparedby:
Eng.AhmadNouri

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Arab British Academy for Higher Education.

Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................................3
Meaningofthewordresearch(5)......................................................................................3
WhatisResearch? ..........................................................................................................3
WhyResearch?...............................................................................................................4
ResearchApproaches ......................................................................................................5
Typesofbusinessresearch ..............................................................................................5
Thehallmarkofscientificresearch ...................................................................................5
Thebuildingblocksofscience ..........................................................................................6
Theresearchprocess ......................................................................................................7
(1)TheBroadProblemArea ............................................................................................7
(2)PreliminaryDataCollection ........................................................................................7
(3)ProblemDefinition .....................................................................................................9
(4)TheoreticalFramework ............................................................................................ 10
(5)GenerationofHypotheses ........................................................................................ 12
(6)ScientificResearchDesign ........................................................................................ 13
(7)DataCollectionMethods ........................................................................................... 25
(8)ResearchReport ...................................................................................................... 30
References ................................................................................................................... 32

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Introduction

ThisisastudytogoindeepanalysisofResearchandtheMethodsthatareusedto
completeandpublishtheResearch.
Researchisacommonlyusedtoolinscience,business,andsocietyandinthedayto
dayindividualprocess.Someoftheresearchesarewrittensuchasscience,business
andsocial,andsomearenotsuchastheindividualone,ex.Whenanindividual
wantstobuysomethinghesearchesforqualityandprice(It'satypeofunwritten
research)

Meaningofthewordresearch(5)

Noun

Systematicinvestigationtoestablishfactsorcollectinformationonasubject

Verb

Tocarryoutinvestigationsinto(asubject)[OldFrenchresearchertosearchagain]

WhatisResearch?

Carefulstudyandinvestigation,especiallyinordertodiscovernewfactsor
information(1)

Avoyageofdiscovery;Ajourney;Anattitude;Anexperience;Amethodofcritical
thinking;Acarefulcriticalenquiryinseekingfactsforprinciples.(2)

Scientificresearchdiffersfromotherkindsofresearchinthatitisacontinuedsearch
forscientificknowledgeandunderstandingbyscientificmethods.(3)

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DefinitionsofOriginality(4)
Sayingsomethingnobodyhassaidbefore
Carryingoutempiricalworkthathasnotbeendonebefore
Synthesizingsomethingthathasnotbeenputtogetherbefore
Makinganewinterpretationofsomeoneelsesmaterialorideas
Takinganewtechniqueandapplyingittoanexistingarea
Takinganexistingtechniqueandapplyingittoanewarea
Continuingapreviouslyoriginalpieceofwork
Beingcrossdisciplinaryandusingdifferentmethodologies
Testingexistingknowledgeinanoriginalway"
"Anorganized,systematic,databased,critical,objective,scientific,inquiryor
investigationintoaspecificproblem,undertakenwiththepurposeoffinding
answersorsolutiontoit."(6)

WhyResearch?

Researchisawayto:
1. Developtheindependentlearningabilityrequiredforcontinuingprofessional
development.
2. Facechallenges.
3. Findfacts.
4. Solveaproblem.
5. Investigateforabettersolution.
6. Servethesociety.
7. Earnadegree.

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ResearchApproaches

Therearetwoapproachesforresearch:
1. QualitativeResearch
a. Aimedatexploringandunderstandingmeaningsandexperience
b. Dataisoftenusedtoverifyanexistingtheory,andthehypothesisis
formulatedatthebeginningoftheresearch.
2. QualitativeResearch
a. Triestomeasurevariables
b. Aninitialhypothesismaybeformulatedatthebeginning
c. Thedatacollectedisoftenusedtoevolveanongoinghypothesis

Typesofbusinessresearch

1. Appliedresearch:Tosolveacurrentproblemfacedbythemanagerinthe
worksetting,demandingatimelysolution.Itisthetypeofresearchdone
withtheintensionofapplyingtheresultsofthefindingstosolvespecific
problemscurrentlybeingexperiencedintheorganization.
2. Basicresearch:Togenerateabodyofknowledgebytryingtocomprehend
howcertainproblemsthatoccurintheorganizationcanbesolved.Itisdone
chieflytoenhancetheunderstandingofcertainproblemsthatcommonly
occurinorganizationalsettings,andseekmethodstosolvethem.Itiscalled
basicorFundamental,orpureresearch.

Thehallmarkofscientificresearch

1. Purposiveness:e.g.Focusingonemployee'scommitmenttothe
organization,anincreaseinthecommitmentwilltranslateintoless
turnover,lessabsenteeismandprobablyincreaseinperformancelevels.
2. Rigor:connotescarefulness,scrupulousness,andthedegreeof
exactitudeinresearchinvestigation.
3. Testability.
4. Replicability.
5. PrecisionandConfidence:
a. Precision:referstotheclosenessofthefindingstoreality.
b. Confidence:referstotheprobabilitythatourestimationsare
correct.

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6. Objectivity:theconclusionsshouldbebasedonthefactsofthefindings
derivedfromactualdata,andnotonourownsubjectiveoremotional
values.
7. Generalizability:referstothescopeofapplicabilityoftheresearch
findingsinoneorganizationsettingtoothersettings.
8. Parsimony:Simplicityinexplainingthephenomenaorproblemsthat
occur,andingeneratingsolutionsfortheproblem,isalwayspreferredto
complexresearchframeworkthatconsidersanunmanagednumberof
factors.

Thebuildingblocksofscience

Observation

Research
Design

Interpretation

Identification of
Problem area

Concepts

Data
Analysis

Theoretical
Framework

Hypotheses

Data
Collection

Pure and or Applied Research

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Theresearchprocess

(1)TheBroadProblemArea
1. Thebroadproblemareareferstotheentiresituationwhereoneseesa
possibleneedforresearchandproblemsolving.
2. Thebroadproblemareamaycontain:
1. Currentexistingproblems
2. Asituationrequiringimprovement.
3. Conceptualissuethatneedstobetightened

(2)PreliminaryDataCollection
Therearetwotypesofdata:
1. Secondarydata:Datathatalreadyexistanddonothavetobe
collectedbytheresearcher(Statisticalbulletins,government
publications,informationpublishedorunpublishedandavailable
fromeitherwithinoroutsidetheorganization)

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2. Primarydata:Datagatheredforresearchfromtheactualsiteof
occurrenceofevents(Observation,questionnairestoindividuals).

1.Backgroundinformationoftheorganizationsuchas:

Theoriginandhistoryofthecompany.

Sizeintermsofemployees,assets,orboth.

Charter:purposeandideology.

Location.

Interdependentrelationshipswiththeexternalenvironment.

Financialpositions.

2.Structuralfactorsandmanagementphilosophysuchas:

Rolesandpositionsintheorganization.

Extentofspecialization.

Communicationchannels.

Controlsystems.

Coordinationandspanofcontrol.

Rewardsystems.

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Workflowsystems.

3.Perceptions,attitudes,andbehavioralresponsessuchas:

Natureofthework.

Workflowinterdependencies.

Participationindecisionmaking..

Clientssystems.

Opportunitiesforadvancementintheorganization.

Organizationsattitudestowardemployeesfamilyresponsibilities.

LiteratureSurvey

Literaturesurveyisthedocumentationofacomprehensivereviewofthe
publishedandunpublishedworkfromsecondarysourcesofdataintheareas
ofspecificinteresttotheresearcher.

Thepurposeoftheliteraturereviewistoensurethatnoimportantvariableis
ignoredthathasinthepastbeenfoundtohaveanimpactontheproblem.

Agoodliteraturereviewensuresthat:
1. Importantvariablesthatarelikelytoinfluencetheproblemsituationarenot
leftoutofthestudy.
2. Aclearerideaemergesastowhatvariableswouldbemostimportantto
consider(parsimony),whytheywouldbeconsideredimportant(Developing
theoreticalframework).
3. Testabilityandreplicabilityofthefindingsofthecurrentresearchare
enhanced.
4. Theproblemstatementcanbemadewithprecisionandclarity.
5. Onedoesnotruntheriskofreinventingthewheel.
6. Theprobleminvestigatedisperceivedbythescientificcommunityasrelevant
andsignificant.

(3)ProblemDefinition
1. Symptoms:areindicatorsoftheproblem(lowproductivity,declining
customerbase).

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2. Problem:anysituationwhereagapexistsbetweentheactualanddesired
idealstate.
3. Problemisaclearprecisestatementofthequestionorissuethatistobe
investigatedwiththegoaloffindingananswerorsolution.

(4)TheoreticalFramework

Variables:
Avariableisanythingthatcantakeondifferingorvaryingvalues.

TypesofVariables:
1.Thedependentvariable:itisthevariableofprimaryinteresttothe
researcher.Example:Abasicresearcherisinterestedininvestigatingdebtto
equityratioofmanufacturingcompanies.
2.Theindependentvariable:Itisonethatinfluencesthedependentvariable
ineitherapositiveornegativeway.Thevarianceinthedependentvariableis
accountedforbyindependentvariable.

3.Themoderatingvariable:Itisonethathasastrongcontingenteffecton
theindependentvariabledependentvariablerelationship.

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4.TheInterveningVariable:Itisonethatsurfacesbetweenthetimethe
independentvariablesstartoperatingtoinfluencethedependentvariable
andthetimetheirimpactisfeltonit.

Thetheoreticalframeworkisthefoundationonwhichtheentireresearch
projectisbased.Itisalogicallydeveloped,described,andelaborated
networkofassociationsamongthevariablesdeemedrelevanttotheproblem
situationandidentifiedthroughsuchprocessesasinterviews,observations,
andliteraturesurvey.
Componentsoftheoreticalframework:

Agoodtheoreticalframeworkidentifiesandlabelstheimportantvariablesin
thesituationthatarerelevanttotheproblemdefined.Therearefivebasic
featuresthatshouldbeincorporatedinanytheoreticalframework:
1. Thevariablesconsideredrelevanttothestudyshouldbeclearly
identifiedandlabeledinthediscussions.
2. Thediscussionsshouldstathowtwoormorevariablesarerelatedto
oneanother.Thisshouldbedonefortheimportantrelationships
thataretheorizedtoexistamongthevariables.
3. Ifthenatureanddirectionoftherelationshipscanbetheorizedon
thebasisofthefindingsofpreviousresearch,thenthereshouldbe
anindicationinthediscussionastowhethertherelationshipswould
bepositiveornegative.
4. Thereshouldbeaclearexplanationofwhywewouldexpectthese
relationshipstoexist.Theargumentscouldbedrawnfromthe
previousresearchfindings.
5. Aschematicdiagramofthetheoreticalframeworkshouldbegivenso
thatthereadercanseeandeasilycomprehendthetheorized
relationships.

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(5)GenerationofHypotheses

Hypothesesdefinition:Itcanbedefinedasalogicallyconjecturedrelationship
betweentwoormorevariablesexpressedintheformoftestablestatement.
StatementofHypotheses:Format
I.

PropositionsandIfThenStatements:
a. Proposition:Ex.Employeeswhoaremorehealthywilltakesick
leavelessfrequently
b. IfThen:Ex.Ifemployeesaremorehealthy,Thentheywilltakesick
leavelessfrequently.
II. DirectionalandNondirectional:
a.
Directional:Ex.Thegreaterthestressexperiencedinthejob,
thelowerthejobsatisfactionofemployees.
b.
Nondirectional:Ex.Thereisarelationshipbetweenageand
jobsatisfaction.
III. NullandAlternativeHypotheses:
a.
NullHypotheses:isapropositionthatstatsadefinitive,exact
relationshipbetweentwovariables.Thenullstatementisexpressed
asnosignificantrelationshipbetweentwovariablesornosignificant
differencebetweentwogroups.
b.
AlternateHypotheses:istheoppositeofnull,itisastatement
expressingarelationshipbetweentwovariablesorindicating
differencesbetweengroups.

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(6)ScientificResearchDesign

1)PurposeoftheStudy

1/1:Exploratorystudies
1. ExploratoryStudy:isundertakenwhennotmuchisknownaboutsituationat
hand,orwhennoinformationisavailableonhowsimilarproblemsor
researchissueshavebeensolvedinthepast.
2. Exploratorystudiesareundertakentobettercomprehendthenatureofthe
problem,sinceveryfewstudiesmighthavebeenconductedinthatarea.

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1/2:DescriptiveStudies
1. Adescriptivestudyinundertakeninordertoascertainandbeableto
describethecharacteristicsofthevariableofinterestinsituation.
2. Thegoalofthedescriptivestudyistoofferaprofileortodescriberelevant
aspectsofthephenomenaofinteresttotheresearcherfromanindividual,
organizational,industryoriented,orotherperspective.

1/3:HypothesisTesting
1. AHypothesistesting:Itexplainsthenatureofcertainrelationships,or
establishesthedifferencesamonggroupsortheindependenceoftwoor
morefactorsinasituation.

2)TheTypesofInvestigation
1. Acausalstudy:Whentheresearcherwantstodelineatethecauseofoneor
moreproblems.
2. Acorelationalstudy:Whentheresearchisinterestedindelineatingthe
importantvariablesthatareassociatedwiththeproblem.
3. Examples:
1. Acausalstudyquestion:Doessmokingcausescancer?
2. Acorelationalstudyquestion:Aresmokingandcancerrelated?

3)Extentofresearcherinfluence.
1. Theextenttowhichtheresearcherinterfereswiththenormalflowofworkat
theworkplacehasadirectbearingonwhetherthestudyundertakeniscausal
orcorelational.
2. Acorelationalstudyisconductedinthenaturalenvironmentofthe
organization.

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3. Inacausalstudy,theresearchertriestomanipulatecertainvariablessoasto
studytheeffectsofsuchmanipulationonthedependentvariables.

4)TheStudySetting

1. FieldStudies:arecorelationalstudiesdoneintheorganization.
2. FieldExperiments:studiesconductedtoestablishcauseandeffect
relationshipsusingthesamenaturalenvironmentinwhichemployees
normallyfunction.
3. Labexperiments:experimentsdonetoestablishcauseeffectrelationships
beyondthepossibilityoftheleastdoubtrequirethecreationofanartificial,
contrivedenvironmentinwhichalltheextraneousfactorsarestrictly
controlled.

5)UnitofAnalysis
1. Itreferstothelevelofaggregationofthedatacollectedduringthe
subsequentdataanalysisstage.
2. Examplesofthedifferentunitsofanalysisare:
1. Individual.
2. Dyads.
3. Groups.
4. Organizations.
5. Culture.

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6)Timehorizon
1. Crosssectionalstudies:dataaregatheredjustonce,perhapsoveraperiodof
daysorweeksormonths,inordertoansweraresearchquestion.
2. Longitudinalstudies:tostudypeopleorphenomenaatmorethanonepoint
oftimeinordertoanswertheresearchquestion.

MeasurementofVariables
HowVariablesaremeasured?
Datarepresentingseveraldemographiccharacteristicsareobtainedby
askingemployeessimplequestion:

Howlonghaveyoubeenworkingintheorganization?

Whatisyourjobtitle?

Otherinformationcouldbecheckedthroughcompanyrecordssuch
asabsenteeismoremployeeperformance.

Objectivevs.SubjectiveNature
Therearevariablesthatlenditselftoobjectiveandprecise

measurementandtheotherismorenebulousbecauseofitssubjective
nature.suchasmotivation,satisfaction,involvement,buyersbehavior.
Abstractnotionsarebrokentoobservablecharacteristicsbehaviorsso
thattheycanbemeasuredinatangibleway

`Operationalizingtheconcepts

OperationalDefinition
Operationalizing,oroperationallydefiningtheconcept,torenderit
measurable,isdonebylookingatthebehavioraldimensions,facets,or
propertiesdenotedbytheconcept.Thesearethentranslatedinto
observableandmeasurableelementssoastoformanindexof
measurementoftheconcept.Operationallydefiningaconceptinvolvesa
seriesofsteps.

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OperationalizingtheConceptofAchievementMotivation

WeexpectthatpeoplewithhighAchievementMotivationwouldhave
thefollowingcharacteristicswhichwewillcalldimensions
1.Drivenbyworkandconstantlyworkingtodrivethesatisfactionof
havingAchievedandaccomplished
2.Findithardtorelaxordevotetheirattentiontootherthanwork
relatedactivity.
3.Prefertoworkontheirownratherthanwithothers(becauseof
wantingtoachieve)
4.Engageinchallengingjobsratherthaneasyroutineonesbutatthe
sametimenotexcessivelychallengingjobsbecausetheirprobabilityof
theiraccomplishmentisnotveryhigh.
5.Theywouldliketogetfrequentfeedbackfromtheirsuperiorsand
colleaguesastheygoalongtoknowhowtheyareperforming.
ElementsofDimension1
Beconstantlyworking(countthenumberofworkinghours)
Reluctanttotaketimeofffromwork(countofdaysoffworked)
Preserveeveniftherearesomesetbacks(keeptrackforhow
frequentlypeoplecontinuetopreservedoingtheirjobsdespitefailures.
ElementsofDimension2

Howoftendoyouthinkofworkwhileyouareawayfromthe
workplace?
Whatareyourhobbies?
Howdoyouspendyourtimewhenyouarenotattheworkplace?
ElementsofDimension3

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Impatientwithineffectivenessandreluctanttoworkwithothers.

ElementsofDimension4
Ameasureofhoweagerpeoplearetoseekchallengingjobscanbe
foundbyaskingemployeeswhatkindsofjobstheyprefer.
Employeespreferencescouldvaryfromfairlyroutinejobstojobswith
progressiveincreaseinchallenge

ElementsofDimension5
Wanttoknowothersopiniononhowwelltheyareperformingboth
positiveandnegative.
Constantlyseekingfeedbackfromdifferentsources(trackinghow
oftenindividualsseekfeedback)

ScaleDefinition
Ascaleisatoolormechanismbywhichindividualsaredistinguishedon
howtheydifferfromoneanotheronthevariablesofinteresttoourstudy.

Thescalecouldbeagrossone(Broadlycategorizeindividualson
certainvariables),oritcouldbefinetunes(differentiateindividualsonthe
variablewithvaryingdegreeofsophistication).

Scales

Nominal Scale

Ordinal Scale

Interval Scale

Ratio Scale

NominalScale
Anominalscaleisonethatallowstheresearchertoassignsubjectsto
certaincategoriesorgroups(suchasmale&femaleforexample).

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Nominalscalescategorizeindividualsorobjectsintomutually
exclusiveandcollectivelyexhaustivegroups.
Theinformationthatcanbegeneratedfromnominalscalingisto
calculatethepercentage(orfrequency).

ExampleofNominalScale:

Nationality:

American

Japanese

Chinese

Russian

Australian

Polish

German

Swiss

Indian

Zambian

Others.

OrdinalScale
Anordinalscalerankordersthecategoriesinsomemeaningfulway(not
onlycategorizesthevariablestodenotedifferencesamongthevarious
categories).
InanordinalScale,thecategoriesaretobeorderedaccordingtosome
preference.
ExampleofOrdinalScale:

JobCharacteristic

Rankingofimportance

____

Theopportunityprovidedbythejobto:

1Interactwithothers

2Useanumberofdifferentskills

____

3Completeawholetaskfrombeginningtoend

____

4Serveothers

____

5Workindependently

____

IntervalScale
Anintervalscaleallowsustoperformcertainarithmeticaloperations
onthedatacollectedfromtherespondents.

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Intervalscaleallowsustomeasurethedistancebetweenanytwo
pointsonthescale.Thishelpsustocomputethemeans&thestandard
deviationsoftheresponsesonthevariables.

Exampleofintervalscale:

Indicatetheextenttowhichyouagreewiththefollowingstatementsas
theyrelatetoyourjob,bycirclingtheappropriatenumberagainsteach,
usingthescalegivenbelow.

Strongly

Disagree

NeitherAgree Agree Strongly

Disagree

NorDisagree

Agree_

12345__

Thefollowingopportunitiesofferedbythejobareveryimportanttome:
aInteractingwithothers

bUsinganumberofdifferentskills 1

cCompletingataskfrombeginning 1

toend
dServingothers

eWorkingindependently

RatioScale
Theratioscaleovercomesthedeficiencyofthearbitraryoriginpoint
oftheintervalscale,inthatithasanabsolute(incontrasttoanarbitrary)
zeropointwhichisameaningfulmeasurementpoint.
Theratioscalenotonlymeasuresthemagnitudeofthedifferences
betweenpointsinthescalebutalsotapstheproportionsinthedifferences.
Itisthemostpowerfulofthefourscalesbecauseithasauniquezero
origin&subsumesallpropertiesoftheotherthreescalestocalculatethe
ratiooftheweightsoftwoindividuals.

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ExampleofRatioScale
Howmanyotherorganizationsdidyouworkforbeforejoiningthissystem?

Howmanystoresdoyouoperate?

Propertiesofthefourscales
Scale

Differences

Order

Distance

Unique
origin

Nominal

Yes

No

No

No

Ordinal

Yes

Yes

No

No

Interval

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Ratio

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

RatingScale
Thefollowingratingscalesareoftenusedinorganizationalresearch:
zDichotomousscale:
Thedichotomousscaleisusedtoelicitayesornoanswer.Notethata
nominalscaleisusedtoelicittheresponse:
Doyouownacar?()Yes()No
Doyousmoke?()Yes()No
Doyouplayfootball?()Yes()No
zCategoryscale:
Thecategoryscaleusesmultipleitemstoelicitasingleresponseasper
thefollowingexample.Thisalsousesthenominalscale.

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1.WhereinCairodoyoureside?
a)Maadi.
b)MisrElGadeda.
c)Helwan.
d)Shoubra
e)Others(specify..)

zLikertscale:
Thelikertscaleisdesignedtoexaminehowstronglysubjectsagreeor
disagreewithstatementsona5pointscalewiththefollowinganchors:
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Neither Agree Nor

Disagree

Agree

Strongly
Agree

zNumericalscales
zSemanticdifferentialscale:
1. Severalbipolarattributesareidentifiedattheextremesofthescale,
andrespondentsareaskedtoindicatetheirattitudes,onwhatmaybe
calledasemanticspace,towardaparticularindividual,object,orevent
oneachoftheattributes.Thisistreatedasanintervalscale
2. Example:
Responsive

------------------------------------------------------------

Unresponsive

Beautiful

------------------------------------------------------------

Ugly

Courageous

-----------------------------------------------------------

Timid

zItemizedRatingScale:
A5pointor7pointscalewithanchors,asneeded,isprovidedforeach
itemandtherespondentstatestheappropriatenumberonthesideof

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eachitem,orcirclestherelevantnumberagainsteachitem.The
responsestotheitemsaresummated.Thisusesanintervalscale.
Example:Respondtoeachitemusingthescalebelow,andindicateyour
responsenumberonthelinebyeachitem:
1

Very Unlikely

Unlikely

Neither Unlikely nor

Likely

Likely

Very Likely

1. I will be changing my job within the next 12 months.

_____________

2. I will take on new assignments in the near future.

_____________

3. It is possible that I will be out of this organization with the next 12

months.

_____________

zFixedorconstantsumscale:
Therespondentsareaskedtodistributeagivennumberofpointsacross
variousitems.Thisismoreinnatureofanordinalscale.
Example:Inchoosingtoiletsoap,indicatetheimportanceyouattachto
eachoffollowingfiveaspectsbydistributingatotalof100pointsamong
them.
Fragrance
Color
Shape
Size
Texture of lather
Total points

100

zGraphicratingscale:
Agraphicrepresentationhelpstherespondentstoindicatetheiranswers
toaparticularquestionbyplacingamarkattheappropriatepointonthe
line.Thisisordinalscale.

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Example:Onascaleof1to10,howwouldyourateyoursupervisor?

Verybad

10

Excellent

zConsensusscale:
Scalesarealsodevelopedbyconsensus,wherepanelofjudgesselect
certainitemtheyfeelmeasuretheconceptdesiredtobemeasured.The
itemsarechosenparticularlybasedontheirrelevancetotheconcept.
Suchaconsensusscaleisdevelopedaftertheselecteditemsare
examinedandtestedfortheirvalidityandreliability.

Goodnessofthemeasures

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(7)DataCollectionMethods
DataCollectiondefinedas:
Theyareanintegralpartofresearchdesignasthereareseveraldata
collectionmethodseachwithitsownadvantages&disadvantages.
Sourcesofdata:
PrimaryData:
Datagatheredforresearchfromactualsiteofoccurrence ofevents.
SecondaryData:
Dataalreadyexistsascompanyrecordsorarchives,government
publications,industryanalysisofferedbythemedia,websites.

Data Collection Methods

Includes :-

Observations

Interviews
1.
2.
3.

Face To Face
Telephone
Computer Assisted

Questionnaires
1.
2.

Personally Administered
Through Mail

1.
2.

Individuals
Events
Without videotaping Or
Audio Recording

1. Interviews

Un Structured
Interviews

Structured
Interviews

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UnstructuredInterviews
Theyaresolabeledbecausetheinterviewerdoesntentertheinterview
withaplannedsequenceofquestionsthatwillbeaskedtothe
respondent.
ItsObjectiveistobringsomePreliminaryIssuestosurface&
understandthesituationinitstotallysothattheresearchercandecide
whatvariablesneedindepthinvestigations.
TheType&thenatureofthequestionsaskedtotheindividualsvary
accordingtotheirjoblevel&typeofworkdone,SoManagersattop&
middlelevelmightbeaskedmoredirectquestionsabouttheir
Perceptionsofproblems&situations,whileEmployeesatlowerlevel
maybeaskedbroad,openendquestions.

Example:

Tellmesomethingaboutyourunit&department&perhapseven
theorganizationasawhole,intermsofwork,employees&whateverelse
youthinkitsimportant.

Suchrequestmightelicitanelaborateresponsefromsome
respondentswhileothersmightjustgiveaonewordreplywhichisnot
informative.ex(good,boring,).
StructuredInterviews-:

Theinterviewerhasalistofpredeterminedquestionstobeposedto
therespondenteitherpersonallyorthroughthetelephoneormediumof
pc.

Thequestionsconsideredrelevanttotheproblemsthathassurfaced
duringtheunstructuredinterview&theresearcherwillnotethemdown.

Thesequestionswillbeaskedtoeverybodyinthesamemanner&the
interviewermustcomprehendthepurpose&thegoalofeachquestion.

VisualAids:

Aretoolsthatusedinconductinginterviewssuchas(Pictures,line
drawings,cards&othermaterials)&thesetechniquesareusefulin
marketingresearch,advertisinginordertocapturelikes&dislikesofthe
customertodifferenttypesofpackaging.

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Questioningtechniques:
Funneling:

Inthebeginningofanunstructuredinterview,itsadvisabletoask
openendquestiontogetageneralidea&formsomeimpressionsabout
thesituation.

Example:

Whataresomeofyourfeelingsaboutworkingforyour
organization?
Unbiasedquestions:

Questionaskedinawaythatwouldensuretheleastbiasinthe
response&mustnotbeloadedinordernottoinfluenceontheanswers
receivedfromtherespondent.

Example:

Tellmehowyouexperienceyourjob.
ClarifyingIssues:
TheResearchermustunderstandissuesasrespondentmeanstorepresent
themsoitsadvisabletorestateorrephraseimportantinformationgiven
byrespondent.
Example:
Thefacilitiesherearereallypoor.Weoftenhavetocontinueworking
evenwhenwearedyingofthirsty.
Helpingtherespondenttothinkthroughissues:
IftherespondentisnotabletoverbalizeherperceptionsorrepliesIdont
knowsotheresearchershouldaskthequestioninasimplewayor
rephraseit.
Takingnotes:
Theresearchermusttakenotesastheresearcheristakingplaceorassoon
astheinterviewisterminatedespeciallyifthereismorethanoneinterview
intheschedule&itwillbebettertorecordinterviewsontapesifthe
respondenthasnoobjection.

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FaceToFace&Telephoneinterviews
MostUnstructuredinterviewsinorganizationalresearchareconducted
facetoface.whileStructuredinterviewscouldbeeitherfacetofaceor
throughtelephone.
FaceToFaceAdvantages:
Researchercanadaptthequestionsasnecessary,clarifydoubts,&
ensurethattherespondentunderstandbyrepeatingorrephrasingthe
questions.
Researchercanalsopickuphowtherespondentisnervousorunder
pressurethroughhisbodylanguage&itsobviouslybeimpossibletodetect
thisinatelephoneinterview.
FaceToFacedisadvantages:
Geographicallimitation&Highcostoftraininginterviewers.
TelephoneInterviewadvantages:
Differentnumberofpeoplecanbereached(acrossthecountryoreven
internationally)inashortperiodoftime.
Peoplefeelmorecomfortablewhileintroducingthemselvesthrough
phonethanfacetoface.
TelephoneInterviewDisadvantages:
Therespondentscallcouldbeterminatedwithoutwarningbefore
finishingtheinterview.

ComputerAssistedinterviewing:
Thereare2typesofCAI:
ComputerAssistedtelephoneinterviewingCATI:
Usedinresearchorganizationassurveyscanbeobtainedfrom
peopleallovertheworldsincepcisnetworkedinthetelephonesystem.
ComputerAssistedPersonalInterviewingCAPI:
Respondentcanuseintheirowncomputerstorunprogramsby
themselvesoncetheyreceivethesoftware&entertheirresponse.

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Questionnaires

Aquestionnaireisapreformulatedwrittensetofquestionstowhich
respondentrecordtheiranswersusuallywithinrathercloselydefined
alternatives.

Questionnairesareanefficientdatacollectionmethodswhenthe
researcherknowsexactlywhatisrequiredandhowtomeasurethe
variablesofinterest

Questionnairescanbeadministeredpersonally,mailedtothe
respondentsorelectronicallydistributed.
Personallyadministeredquestionnaires

Whenthesurveyisconfinedtoalocalareaandtheorganizationis
willingandabletoassemblegroupsofemployeestorespondtothe
questionnairesattheworkplacepersonallyadministeringthequestionnaires
isagoodwaytocollectdata.
Mailquestionnaires

Themainadvantageofmailquestionnairesisthatawidegeographical
areacanbecoveredinthesurveytheyaremailedtotherespondentswho
cancompletethemattheirownconvenience,intheirhomes,andattheir
ownpace.

Thereturnratesofmailquestionnairearetypicallylow.

Guidelinesforquestionnairedesign

Questionnairedesignershouldfocusonthreeareas

1.

Thewordingofthequestions.

2.

Planningofcategorizingtheissues.

3.

Thegeneralappearanceofthequestionnaire.

Othermethodsofdatacollection

Observationalsurveys

Ismadebygatheringdatawithoutaskingquestionsofrespondents.
Peoplecanbeobservedintheirnaturalworkenvironmentsorinthelab
setting,andtheiractivitiesandbehaviorsorotheritemscanberecorded

Theresearchercanplayoneoftworoles:

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1.

Nonparticipantobserver

Hecancollecttheneededdatawithouttryingtobecomeanintegralpart
oftheorganizationalsystem.
2.

participantobserver

Theresearcherenterstheorganizationortheresearchsettingactually
becomingapartoftheworkteam.
Structuredobservationalstudies

Wheretheobserverhasapredeterminedsetofcategoriesof
activatestobestudied
Unstructuredobservationalstudies

Iftheresearcherhasnodefiniteideasoftheparticularaspectsthat
needsfocustheobserverwillrecordalmosteverythingthatisobserved.

(8)ResearchReport

Researchproposal
Theresearchproposaldrawnupbytheinvestigatoristheresultofaplanned,
organized,andcarfuleffort,andbasicallycontainsthefollowing:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Thebroadgoalsofthestudy.
Thespecificproblemtobeinvestigated.
Detailsoftheprocedurestobefollowed.
Theresearchdesignofferingdetailson:
a. Thesamplingdesign.
b. Datacollectionmethods.
c. Dataanalysis.

5.Timeframeofthestudy,includinginformationonwhenthewritten
reportwillbehandedovertothesponsors.
6.Thebudget,detailingthecostswithreferencetospecificitemsof
expenditure.

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Thereport
Itisimportantthattheresultofthestudytherecommendationstosolvethe
problemareeffectivelycommunicatedtothesponsor,sothatthesuggestions
madeareacceptedandimplemented.

Thewrittenreport
Thewrittenreportenablesthemanagertoweightthefactsandarguments
presentedtherein,andimplementtheacceptablerecommendations.

Integralpartsofthereport
TheTitlePage:Thetitleofthereportshouldsuccinctlyindicatewhatthe
studyisallabout.
TableofContent:Thetableofcontentwithpagereferenceusuallyliststhe
importantheadingsandsubheadingsinthereport.
TheResearchProposalandtheAuthorizationLetter:Acopyofboth.
TheExecutiveSummaryorSynopsis:Theexecutivesummary(orsynopsis)isa
briefaccountoftheresearchstudythatprovidesanoverview.
TheIntroductorySection:theintroductorysectionstartswithastatementof
theproblemunderinvestigation.
TheBodyoftheReport:Inthispart,thedetailsoftheinterviewsconducted,
theliteraturesurvey,thetheoreticalframework,andthehypothesesare
furnished.
TheFinalPart:Thefinalpartofthereportwillcontaintheconclusionsdrawn
fromthefindings.Inmostcases,alistofrecommendationsfor
implementationwillfollow.
Acknowledgments:helpreceivedothersincludingthepeopleparticipatedin
thestudy.

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References

(1)Oxfordpaperbackdictionary,3rdedition
(2)ResearchMethodologybyDr.MSSridhar,Head,Library&Documentation,ISRO
SatelliteCentre,Bangalore560017

(3)THEPRINCIPLESOFSCIENTIFICRESEARCH,ByPAULFREEDMAN,B.Sc.,M.I.E.E.,
F.I.E.S.,HeadofLampResearch,Messrs.CromptonParkinson,Ltd.

(4)ApresentationbyDr.AdelM.Zayed,oneofmyinstructorsinmyMBA.
(5)Website:http://www.thefreedictionary.com/research
(6)ResearchmethodsforBusiness,ForthEdition,byUmaSekaran,SouthIllinois
UniversityatCarbondale.

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