1.

Steady sinusoidal state

1.1. Introduction
The objective of this chapter is to review the concepts and techniques
regarding the analysis of circuits subject to sinusoidal excitations (current and
voltage sources) after all transient components of the response have vanished
and the steady or permanent state has been reached (Sinusoidal Steady State,
SSS). This analysis is also commonly referred (in electricity Power
applications) as Alternative Current (AC) analysis.
Sinusoidal waveforms play a very important role in electrical circuits because
of the following reasons:

As studied in the previous chapter, the natural response of the circuits

often includes sinusoidal components.

This wave forms are easy to generate both in power and electronic
circuits.

The response of any linear circuit subject to sinusoidal excitations will

be sinusoidal of the same frequency as the sources.

Any periodic excitation can be decomposed (by means of Fourier

decomposition) in a sum of sinusoidal components. This is valid also
for non periodic functions (Fourier transform).
Consequently, the knowledge of the response of a circuit to sinusoidal
excitations of different frequencies, will give the required information about
the circuit performance when subject to any kind of voltage and current
forms.
The analysis described in this chapter can be performed by the application of
the general circuit equations described in chapter 2, but some simplifications
that easy very much the analysis can be easily derived and this is the
objective of this chapter.
The connection between temporal and sinusoidal analysis will be described in
the next section and simplifying tools well be derived in the next sections.
Special emphasis will be devoted to power and energy conditions in SSS.

1.2. Sinusoidal Steady State and temporal analysis

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1, where the inductor is initially
discharged.

Three phase circuits

Figure 1. Voltage source in series with a resistor and an initially discharged inductor

being the value of the voltage source:

e( t ) E 0 cos t

2 E cos t

(3-1)

where E is the effective value of the sinusoidal waveform.

1.3. Sinusoidal magnitudes and phasors

The computations performed in the last example may appear like a bit
cumbersome but the same results can be easily developed as it is shown in
this section.
It is well known the relation between sinusoidal and complex magnitudes
(Euler):
e j cos( ) j sin( ),

(3-2)

It is possible to state, by using this equation, any sinusoidal magnitude just by

taking real or imaginary part of a phasor:

Ao cos( t ) Re A0 e j ( wt )

and:

(3-3)

Ao sin( t ) Im A0 e j ( wt ) Im A0 e j e jwt ) Im A0 e jwt

(3-4)

where A0 is an static vector (that represents the position of the phasor in

t=0), that rotates counterclockwise because the application of ejt.
And graphically:

Figure 2. Graphic representation of a phasor

In order to use these relations for SSS analysis, consider the same circuit as
used in the previous section.

Figure 3. Voltage source in series with a resistor and an inductor

Where the original voltage source (of effective value E) is replaced by the
following one:

Three phase circuits

e( t )

2 E cos t e j 2 E sin t e E 0 e je e jt

2 E e je e jt

2 E e jt

(3-5)

what results to add to the original excitation a component multiplied by the

complex versor j.
Because of the linearity of the ideal electric circuits, the impact of this
component of the excitation will be an additional component to the response
that will appear also multiplied by j. Consequently, the response (the current
i(t) in this example) will have the form:

i( t )

2 I cos t i j

2 I sin t i I 0 e ji e jt

2 I e ji e jt

2 I e jt

(3-6)

The analysis of this new circuit is performed by the application of Kirchhoff

laws, considering the new complex magnitudes. The application of the 2 nd KL
is:

2 E e jt ( R L

d
)
dt

2 I e jt

(3-7)

As the derivative of Kejwt is kjejt, the above equation is equivalent to the

complex and static equation:
E ( R jL ) I

(3-8)

then:
I

and

E
I
( R jL )

E
R

( L )2

i e with arctg

This result can be directly obtained from the transformed circuit:

(3-9)

Figure 4. Voltage source in series with a resistor and an inductor: transformed circuit

Summarizing, the procedure to analyze the circuit using phasors is as follows:

1. Select real or imaginary projections to find the time values from
complex rotating phasors.
2. Replace all the independent sources by constant complex sources.
3. Draw the transformed circuit, by replacing D operator by j
(replacing operational by complex impedances and admittances).
4. Solve the circuit and find all complex magnitudes.
5. Find the time values by taking real or imaginary part (according to 1)

1.4. SSS response of basic elements.

The response of the different ideal elements of a circuit under sinusoidal
excitation in considered now. It is going to be considered, for that purpose,
that a voltage:
u( t )

2 U cos ( t u )

(3-10)

Is applied and, in permanent sate, a current:

i( t )

2 I cos ( t i )

(3-11)

will circulate across the element. In order to use phasors, a phasor will be
associated to every temporal variable:

Three phase circuits

u( t ) U U u ; i ( t ) I I i

1.4.1

(3-12)

Resistance

The complex impedance of this element has only real part and the relation
between the complex voltage and current is:
U RI

U u R I i

U RI

and

u i

(3-13)
That is: the voltage and current magnitudes are related by R and the angles
are the same: the voltage and current phasors are in phase.
The representation of these magnitudes and the associated complex diagram
are shown in the next figure:

Figure 5. Complex voltage and current magnitudes related by R

1.4.2

Inductor

The complex impedance of this element is jL, and has only imaginary part
(referred as reactance) that is positive.
U RI

U u R I i

U RI

and

u i

(3-14)
That is: the voltage and current magnitudes are related by R and the angles
are the same: the voltage and current phasors are in phase.
The representation of these magnitudes and the associated complex diagram
are shown in the next figure:

Figure 6. Complex voltage and current magnitudes related by L

1.4.3

Capacitor

The complex impedance of this element is 1/jC = -j/C, and has only
imaginary part (referred as capacitive reactance) that is negative.

1
I
jC

U u

1
I
C

1
L / 2 I i
C

and

u i

(3-15)

That is: the voltage and current magnitudes are related by 1/C and the
angle of the voltage is delayed 90 with respect to the angle of the current.

Figure 7. Complex voltage and current magnitudes related by C

Three phase circuits

The representation of these magnitudes and the associated complex diagram

are shown in Figure 7.

1.5. General two port element

Any linear passive element or association of elements that present to
terminals can be replaced (by performing series and parallel combinations) for
Sinusoidal Steady State analysis, by an equivalent element as shown in the
figure:

Figure 8. Representation of a linear passive element for SSS

Characterized by their complex impedance or admittance, those are static

complex values that relate the voltage and current phasors:
U Z I ( R jX ) I

U ZI

and

U u Z I i

u i ;

a tan g

(3-16)

or, alternatively:
I Y U ( G jB ) U

The operational
parameters.

I YU

and

impedance

I i Y U u

i u ;
and

admittance

a tan g
are,

obviously,

(3-17)
inverse

The real and imaginary parts of the impedance are called Resistance (R) and
Reactance (X), respectively.
The associated time and phasor representations are as shown in Figure 9:

Figure 9. Voltage and current in a linear passive element

The real part of the complex admittance is referred as Conductance (G),

always positive for passive elements, and the imaginary part Susceptance (B),
which can be positive or negative. In case the susceptance is positive, the
element has Capacitive behavior and in case is negative, the elements has
inductive behavior. For capacitive behavior, the admittance angle (equal
to ) is positive and the current is advanced an angle with respect to the
voltage. For inductive behavior, the current is delayed respect to the voltage
Some examples are proposed to work the concepts developed in this section.
Problem 3.1
The effective value of the voltage source in the circuit is 200 V. The
current in the A-meter is 10 A, and the value of the resistance is 10 .
Find the value of VR and VX and draw the phasor diagram.

Figure 10. Problem 3 .1

Solution: VR = 100 V and VX= 173.21 V

Three phase circuits

Problem 3.2
Compute, in the circuit of the figure, R, XC and E.

Figure 11. Problem 3 .2

Solution: R= 8 , XC=6 , E=200 V

Problem 3.3
The circuit of the figure is in SSS, and e1( t )
e2 ( t )

2 10 cos ( 100t ) V and

2 20 cos( 100t ) V. Compute u(t) and draw the phasor diagram

for all the involved currents and voltages.

Figure 12. Problem 3 .3

Solution: u( t )

2 10 cos ( 100t

)
2

1.5.1

Power and Energy in Sinusoidal Steady State

According to the concepts defined in chapter 1 and the results obtained in the
last section, the instantaneous power absorbed by a two terminals element
can be computed, assuming that the voltage and the current are:
u( t )

2 U sin ( t )

and

i( t )

2 I sin ( t )

(3-18)

as:

pa ( t ) u( t ) i ( t ) 2 U I sin( t ) sin( t )
UI cos( ) cos( 2 t )

(3-19)

The power generated would be the opposite value: p G(t) = -pa(t)

This absorbed power is represented in Figure 13, where it is possible to
identify two components: the average power P UI cos( ) , that is the
Active or Real Power, and a time varying components that is also periodic
and sinusoidal with double frequency than the voltage and current one:

pv ( t ) UI cos( 2 t )

(3-20)

Figure 13. Instantaneous power absorbed by a two terminals element

It is important to point out that, as passive elements are being considered

(positive real part of the impedance), the average or active power will be

Three phase circuits

positive (absorbed real power) but the instantaneous power may be negative,
as stored energy (in capacitors or inductors) is being returned to the supply
network.
Measurement devices such as voltage and current meters usually provide
effective values and the main reason for that is power magnitudes can be
directly computed by using these values.
The energy dissipated in this two terminal element, from t 0 to t, can be easily
computed:
W t 0 ,t

p( t ) dt

t0

UI cos cos( 2 t ) dt

(3-21)

t0

In case the considered interval t- t0 corresponds to an exact number of periods

(nT), the energy will be:

W n T ) nT UI cos
1.5.2

(3-22)

Power and Energy in Sinusoidal Steady State

Particularizing the above results to the basic circuit elements, the results
presented following are obtained.

1.5.2.1 Resistance
The complex impedance of this element has only real part what implies that
the complex impedance angle =0. Therefore, the active power and time
varying absorbed power for this element are:
P UI

and

These are shown in the next figure:

pa ( t ) UI 1 cos( 2 t )

(3-23)

Figure 14. Instantaneous power absorbed by a resistance

This element is always absorbing power and transforming it into heat. As it is

not able to store energy, it cannot give back to the supply network (not
negative absorbed power at any time).

1.5.2.2 Inductor
The complex impedance of this element is jL, what implies that the complex
impedance angle =90 degrees. Therefore, the active power and time varying
absorbed power for this element are:
P 0

and

p a ( t ) UI cos( 2 t ) U I sin( 2t )
2

(3-24)

This is depicted in the next figure:

Three phase circuits

Figure 15. Instantaneous power absorbed by an inductor

This element is only capable of storing energy in the form of magnetic fields.
Consequently, it do not dissipate (absorb) any active power and the power is
always fluctuating from the network to the inductor and vice versa and the
size of this fluctuation is UI, that is defined as the Reactive Power (that is a
fictitious power thad does not produce any work) absorbed by the inductor.

1.5.2.3 Capacitor
The complex impedance of this element is j/C, what implies that the
complex impedance angle =-90 degrees. Therefore, the active power and
time varying absorbed power for this element, as depicted in Figure 16, are:
P 0

and

pa ( t ) UI cos( 2 t ) U I sin( 2t )
2

(3-25)

This element is only capable of storing energy in the form of electric fields.
Consequently, it do not dissipate (absorb) any active power and the power is
always fluctuating from the network to the capacitor and vice versa and the
size of this fluctuation is UI, that is defined as the Reactive Power (that is a
fictitious power that does not produce any work) generated by the capacitor.

Figure 16. Instantaneous power absorbed by a capacitor

1.5.3

Reactive and Apparent Power

Some other concepts need to be defined in order to complete the power

analysis in sinusoidal static state. Consider, for that purpose, the complex
impedance for a passive element or association of elements that presents two
terminals:

Figure 17. Scheme for a group of passive elements

The resistance is always positive (active power absorbing element) and the
reactance may be positive (as in the figure) for inductive character or
negative for capacitive character.

Three phase circuits

By multiplying all the elements by the magnitude (effective) of the current, I,

a proportional triangle is obtained, where the voltage drop in the resistance
(RI or Ucos()) is in the real axis, the voltage drop in the reactance( XI or
Usin()) is in the imaginary axis and the hypotenuse represents the effective
value of the applied voltage (ZI or U).
If the new triangle is multiplied again by the current I, the following
magnitudes are obtained:

Figure 18. Power diagram for a group of passive elements

Real axis: RI2 = UI cos()=P that has been defined and the Active
or Real Power. The unit for this magnitude is watts (w).

Imaginary axis: XI2 = UI sin() that is defined as the absorbed

Reactive Power. The unit for this magnitude is the reactive voltamper (VAr) and physically represents (as mentioned before) the
power fluctuations in the reactive element. This power is not
producing any real work, but is forcing the circulation of
additional current in the line that feeds a load where some work
has to be performed.
According to this reactive power definition, an inductive load will
absorb reactive power and a capacitive load will generate (as
sin()<0) reactive power.

Total vector magnitude: UI that is defined as the apparent power

(by similarity with Direct Current circuits where the power is just
the product of current and voltage). The unit for this magnitude is
the volt-amper (VA).

All these power magnitudes are condensed in what is defined as Complex

Power, that is a new complex magnitude whose real part is the active power
P and the imaginary part is the reactive power:
(3-26)

S P j Q U I (cos j sin )

This complex power can be obtained from voltage and current phasors:
S P j Q U I {cos( u i ) j sin( u i )} U I

(3-27)

That is, by the product of the complex voltage and the conjugate of the
complex current.
According to that, the energy power behavior of any dipole (active or passive)
can be defined according to the following phasor diagram:

Figure 19. Phasor diagram for a dipole

Considering the applied voltage phasor as reference, the current will be in

any of the four quadrants depending on the impedance angle . The current
will be in the two right quadrants for passive elements (cos()>0) and in the
two left quadrants for active elements or generators. In the same way, the
element will be absorbing reactive power if the current is in the two lower
quadrants and generating reactive power if is in the two upper quadrants.

Three phase circuits

1.5.4

Boucherot Theorem

This theorem states that in a circuit in sinusoidal steady state there are
conservation of active powers by one side, and reactive powers on the other.
The first part (conservation of active powers) is a result of the energy
conservation but the conservation of reactive powers is not obvious, as they
are not linked to any real energy consumption or generation.
This theorem is very useful in circuit analysis in SSS and, although it can be
theoretically demonstrated, it can be validated through a problem, as
follows:

Example 3-1
Consider the circuit of the figure, formed dipoles (electrical elements or
association of them) D1 and D2 that are connected in parallel with an
inductive passive element characterized by its complex impedance
Z

3 4j

The three elements have the same applied U = 10 + 0j

Figure 20. Example of two dipoles connected in parallel

SOLUTION: Taking as reference the polarities described in Figure 20, the

complex absorbed power for each element can be computed:
Dipole 1: U 1 10 and I 1 ( 1 j ) :
And, therefore, the complex absorbed power is: S1 10 j10 , what
means that is generating 10 W and is absorbing 10 VAr.

Figure 21. Phasor diagram of dipole 1

Load: U L U 10 and I L

10
(6 8 j )

:
34j
5

Figure 22. Phasor diagram of load L

And, therefore, the complex absorbed power is: SL 12 j 16 , what

means that is absorbing 12 W and is absorbing 16 VAr.
Dipole 2: U 1 U 10 and I 2

1 13 j
:
5

Figure 23. Phasor diagram of dipole 2

And, therefore, the complex absorbed power is: S 2 2 j 26 , what

means that is generating 2W and is generating 26 VAr.

Three phase circuits

As it can be observed, the sum of the absorbed complex power in all the
elements is cero both in its real and imaginary part, as stated by Boucherot
theorem.

Problem 3.4
The real and reactive power absorbed by the impedances in the circuit
are:
P1 = 3 kW; Q1 = 10 kVAr; P2 = 4 kW; Q2 = -3 kVAr; and the effective value of
the voltage U is 1000 V and the frequency 50 Hz.

Figure 24. Problem 3 .4

Compute the current I and the capacity of the capacitor that has to be
connected in parallel in order to have a total Power factor of 0.8 Inductive
Solution: I = 9.9 A, C = 5.57 F
1.5.5

Power factor: Relevance and local modification

The active power represents the power that is used in the impedance load
to perform the required work, such as heat, illumination, mechanical work
through electrical motors, etc. This computed as the product of the supply
voltage (basically constant and depends on the supply contract), the absorbed
current and a factor cos() that is referred as the Power Factor (PF) whose
value depends on the relation between the active and reactive power
required by the load

a tan Q P

Therefore, provided that the supply voltage is constant, the current required
to obtain P watts will depend on this PF, being the minimum value for this
current when the PF has its maximum possible value (that is 1 ,when the load
does not requires reactive power what is tantamount to say that is purely
resistive).
To have higher currents than the strictly required has negative effect as they
generate additional losses in the supply lines, usage of transformers and lines,
etc. Because of this, the supply company for electricity forces to the
consumers to operate with high PFs.
The operation of most of the loads (as, for example, most of the electrical
motors) requires the supply of reactive power as the need magnetic fields. In
some cases, this requirement is very high, resulting in very poor power
factors.
As capacitors generate reactive power, with no need of active power
supplement, this reactive power required by the load can be locally supplied
by deploying a capacitor in parallel with the load. This is worked in the
following example.
Example 3-2
An industrial consumer has a peak consumption formed by the following
loads:

20 KVA of motor loads, with an inductive PF of 0.6.

10 kW in heating loads with of PF of 1.

5 kW of illumination lamps, whose PF was corrected by installing a

capacitor in each lamp, resulting in a total PF of 0.9 capacitive.

Figure 25. Example: scheme of connection of an industry to the grid

Three phase circuits

This industry is, as shown in the figure, supplied at a voltage of 11 kV and

a frequency of 50 Hz, and a new capacitor bank is to be installed in the
factory in order to raise the total PF to 0.95 inductive. What is the
capacitance of the required capacitors? How these capacitors can be
connected with the industrial facility?
SOLUTION:

The

total

active

power

P 20 x 0.6 10 5 27 kW

absorbed

by

the

industry

is

And the required reactive power is

Q 20 x sen( a cos( 0.6 )) 5 tan( a cos( 0.9 )) 13.58 kVAr

The

initial

Power

Factor

is:

13.58
0
26.7 cos( 0 ) 0.8934
27

0 a tan

Some capacitor load has to be connected in the load site in order to modify
(enhance) the PF. These capacitors have to be connected in parallel with the
industry in order to warranty that the supply voltage to the loads remains 11
kV (the rated voltage).
To have a PF of 0.95 inductive, maintaining the same required active power of
27 kW, implies that:

F a cos (.095 ) 18.19 0 QF 27 tan( 18.19 ) 8.872 kVAr

what requires the connection of a capacitor bank locally generating 13.588.872=4.708 kVAr (or absorbing -4.708 kVAr).
This is graphically shown in the next figure:

Figure 26. Example: power diagram of an industry with a capacitor bank

Provided that the supply voltage will be exactly 11 kV, the reactance of the
capacitor is:

XC

11000 2
1
1
25.7 k C

0.1238 F
4708
XC
2 f XC

2. Three phase circuits

2.1. Introduction
The networks and electric circuits studied up to now in SSS were
characterized because there was no relation between the different voltage
and current sources present on the circuit, even if the frequency of them was
the same. This type of networks where sources are independent from each
other are called single-phase networks as generation and consumption of
energy takes place in only one circuit of phase. Voltage sources considered for
these networks are represented in Figure 27.

Figure 27. Single-phase voltage sources

Physically, a real voltage source is implemented by means of a single-phase

generator as represented in Figure 28.
This generator is composed of two basic parts:

The inductor, which usually is the revolving part or rotor, where

the electromagnet to produce the magnetic field is located.

The armature, which is usually the fix part or stator housing the
wires where a voltage is induced by the magnetic field created by the

Three phase circuits

inductor. These wires are usually connected in series to other ones

making up coils, as it is later explained.

Figure 28. Single-phase generator

In Figure 28, the magnetic field is only produced by a couple of poles (North
and South), but in the real life there are usually more than one couple of
poles, depending on the turning speed of the rotor and the frequency of the
wave. Similarly, a sinusoidal variation of the magnetic field created by the
inductor could be achieved with the proper design of the generator, obtaining
as a result a sinusoidal induced voltage in the induced wire.
According to the constructive characteristics of the machine, the induced
voltage in the coil of Figure 28, where the wires are diametrically located, is
equal to the sum of the induced voltages in each one of the sides (each side is
composed of N wires in that the same voltage is induced). Consequently, the
voltage between the terminals 1and 1 is:

e1( t ) e11' 2 N l ( v x B ) 2 N l r B( t )

2 N l r B0 cos( t )

(6-28)

If the constant terms are grouped, the following expression can be obtained:

e1( t ) E0 cos( t )

(6-29)

Where is the angular speed at which the rotor is turning, l is the length of
the coil sides, N is the number of wires composing each side of the coil
connected in series, r is the radio of the interior circumference of the stator
and B0 is the maximum induction.
2.1.1

Generation of three phase systems

For practical reasons, in order to better use the space, it is common to put
more than one coil in series. It has the disadvantage of having induced
voltages that are not completely in phase and, for that reason, the sum of
induced voltages has not a maximum performance. However, this effect will
be neglected in the rest of the chapter so as to make the process easier to
understand.
In order to avoid problems produced by the phase lag in the induced voltages,
a second coild 2-2 whose axe is turned 120 clockwise may be aggregated as
indicated in Figure 29.
If the rotor turns clockwise at constant angular speed , the induced voltage
in the new coil is:

e 2 ( t ) e1( t

120
)

(6-30)

that is equal to:

e2 ( t ) E0 cos( t 120 ) E0 cos t

(6-31)

As the machine only have a couple of poles (p=1), each turn of the rotor
induces a complete sinusoidal wave in the coils. Consequently, the geometric
angles are equivalent to the electric ones in the induced voltages. If the

Three phase circuits

number of couples of poles is p, the equivalence will be e = pg as each turn

of the rotor will induce p complete waves.
Similarly, a third coil 3-3 could be put in the stator, separated clockwise 2/3
from coil 2-2 (or separated anti-clockwise 2/3 from coil 1-1). In this way,
the induced voltage in this third coil will be:

4
2

e3 ( t ) E0 cos( t 240 ) E0 cos t

E0 cos t

3
3

(6-32)
and, consequently, the generator will have three independent voltages which
could be separately used, as shown in Figure 30. This type of generator is
called Three-phase generator as it produces three independent voltages.

Figure 29. Three-phase generator

Three phase circuits

Figure 30. Independent connection of a three-phase generator

2.1.2

Definitions

Consider a three-phase system. The phase is each part where each voltage of
the system is produced, transmitted or used. According to connections shown
in Figure 30, which is not the usual configuration for this type of systems,
each phase can be connected to an independent circuit or load.
In a three-phase system with voltages e 1(t), e2(t) and e3(t) (or E1, E2 and E3 if
such voltages are represented by their phasor magnitudes), the order in what
the values of the different voltages are produced is called phase sequence or,
simply, sequence. This is not an absolute property of one voltage in
particular, but relative to the three voltages as a whole.
Consider the voltages e1(t), e2(t) and e3(t) produced by the three-phase
generator of Figure 29 where one of this voltages is arbitrary chosen as
reference (for example e1(t)). According to the scheme shown in Figure 31, if
the maximum positive value of the reference e 1(t) is reached in t=0, the next
phase reaching the maximum value of voltage is e 2(t), being e3(t) the last one.
Then it is said that the sequence is 1-2-3.

When the three voltages in three-phase system have the same maximum
value, as it is the case of the system shown in Figure 31, and the phase
difference between two consecutive phases is 2/3, it is called a balanced
three-phase voltage system.

Figure 31. Balanced three-phase voltage system, sequence 1-2-3

2.2. Multiphase systems

Similarly to the construction of a three-phase generator, if n coils are
distributed clockwise around the induced, separated by a geometric distance
of 360/n (2/n radians), the induced voltages for each one are:

e1( t ) E0 cos( t )
2

e2 ( t ) E0 cos t

e1( t ) E0 cos t

2 n 1

e1( t ) E0 cos t

(6-33)

The obtained result is a multiphase system with n voltages (n-phase system),

which can be separately used as in three-phase systems.

Three phase circuits

2.3. Use of three-phase systems

As it has been said above, the voltages produced by a three-phase generator
can be separately used. However, this is not the way in that three-phase
systems are commonly used, but star and delta connections (Y-) are
employed, as described in the next section.
2.3.1

Y- connection

Star and delta are the most usual ways to connect the sources or loads in
three-phase systems. Figure 32 shows the two types of connection for ideal
voltage sources and impedances.

Figure 32. Y- connection

In these connections, each impedance or voltage source belongs to one phase

and, therefore, the current through these elements is called phase current.
The connection point where phases converge for star connection is called
neutral. The external connection for delta configuration is necessarily
performed by means of three wires (line wires) while the connection for star
configuration can be performed with the line wires and, optionally, with a
wire connected to neutral (neutral wire). Currents flowing by the line wires
are called line currents, while current flowing by the neutral wire is called
neutral current. The voltage between two line wires is called line voltage,
while the voltage between a line wire and the neutral wire, if it exists, is
called simple voltage.
An electric system is called balanced three-phase system when the voltages
of the three sources is three-phase balanced and, moreover, the impedances
of the lines are identical for the three phases (load impedances, internal

impedances of generators, line impedances for the connection of the

different components, etc). The vector diagrams for different configurations
of a balanced three-phase system are shown in Figure 32. According to the
voltage diagram for star connection (a), the value of voltage between
terminals a and b (Uab) is 3 times higher than the phase voltage (simple
voltage) and the angle is advanced 30 to the simple voltage of phase 1. In
this case, the current flowing by each ideal source is equal to the line
current.
Similarly, according to the voltage diagram for delta connection (b), the line
voltage is equal to the phase voltage, although it is not the same for currents.
When a balanced three-phase voltage system is applied to a balanced threephase load (c), currents flow in a balanced three-phase way and,
consequently, the sum of the three currents is equal to zero, as well as the
current in the neutral (if it exists) is zero.
For delta connection of a balanced three-phase load (d), currents I a, Ib and Ic
also make up a balanced three-phase system when the three-phase voltage
system is also balanced. In this case, the module of the line current I a is 3
times higher than the phase current and the angle is lagged 30 to the current
in phase 1. In this case, the voltage between terminals of each load is equal
to the line voltage.

Figure 33. Representation o f Y- connections with ideal voltage sources

In order to use a four-wire connection, it is evident that both the load and the
three-phase sources must be connected in star configuration. The better use
of star or delta connection will be discussed later. These connections are
usually represented more intuitively, as is it shown in Figure 33. When this
representation is used, it is important not to confuse the voltage in each
element and the vector magnitudes of the symbol. Figure 34 shows the Y-
connection with real voltage sources.

Three phase circuits

Figure 34. Representation o f Y- connections with real voltage sources

2.3.2

Neutral connection: different configurations

As stated before, the neutral wire is not necessary for balanced three-phase
systems. This fact, together with economic reasons, makes that such wire is
only installed when strictly necessary (for example, in order to have simple
voltages in residential appliances).
However, due to other reasons (technical, safety, etcetera) neutrals in star
connections are usually ground connected. Ground or Earth is understood as a
reference point from which other voltages are measured (voltage of the
ground point is referenced as zero). Moreover, Ground is the potential of all
the elements different from wires, sources, impedances and any other
component of a phase, as well as the plot of land where the electric system is
located.

Figure 35. Different configurations of ground connection

When the system is balanced, stray capacitances to earth, generators, etc.,

make up an artificial neutral at the same voltage than the real neutral of the

system. Moreover, neutral points are usually ground connected in real

systems, directly or by means of a reactance whose value is determined
according to the characteristics of the system and the desired effects. Figure
35 shows the direct (a) and with reactance (b) connection to ground of a
generator neutral.
As commented before, the connection to ground is a complex issue, so that
different systems coexist even for the same utility.
In order to study this question in detail, consider the system represented in
Figure 36, composed of a real generator connected by means of a line to a
load. Initially, the stray capacitances are neglected.

Figure 36. Different configurations of ground connection

If all the elements were three-phase balanced, the current flow between
points N and N would be zero. If the system was not ground connected and a
short-circuit to ground of one phase was accidentally produced, no additional
currents would appear in the circuit but, on the contrary, the safe wires
would reach voltages three times higher with respect to ground, which may
mean a risk for the elements of the system.
On the other hand, if the neutrals of the generator were directly connected to
ground, the safe phase voltages are not modified if the same short-circuit is
produced. However, this fault implies high values for the currents which,
consequently, put in risk the system. This type of faults will be analyzed later.

2.4. Balanced three-phase systems

Three phase circuits

Figure 37. Balanced three-phase system

Most of industrial appliances are balanced three-phase loads, and it is the

same for generators. Moreover, large transmission and distribution grids of
electricity are designed by considering that they will work in a balanced way.
In conclusion, balanced three-phase systems represent a desirable situation
for the normal operation of the industrial electric systems.
An electric three-phase system Figure 37 is balanced when it satisfies the
following conditions:

2.4.1

Generated voltages are balanced.

Impedances in the three phases are identical for whatever

element in the system

Single-phase equivalent circuit

The symmetry between the three-phases makes easy the analysis of balanced
three-phase systems. Consider the Y-Y balanced circuit of Figure 38.

Figure 38. Balanced Y-Y three-phase system

According to the Millman Theorem, UN-N can be calculated as follows:

Z Zg ZL ZC

UN N '

E a E b Ec

Z Z Z 0
1 1 1 1

Z Z Z Zn

as Ea Eb Ec 0

(6-34)

(6-35)

This result is independent on the value of Z n, which could be infinite in

systems without neutral. When Zn=0 the result is UN-N=0 and the application of
the Millman Theorem is not necessary.
An essential conclusion is that for any balanced system with star
configuration, neutrals have the same potential. This condition makes possible
to obtain the following equations for each phase:

Three phase circuits

IA

Ea
Z

(6-36)

IB

Eb
Ia ( 1 120 ) Ia a 2
Z

(6-37)

IC

Ec
I a ( 1 120 ) I a a
Z

(6-38)

IN Ia I b I c 0

(6-39)

where it used a versor a=1 -120 with the following characteristics:

a2=1 240 =1 -120

a3=1

a 1

a-2=a

1 a2

a2
a a3

The obtained equations for each phase represent the following single-phase
equivalent circuit:

Figure 39. Single-phase equivalent circuit

Example 6-3

Obtain the current in each phase of the load and the generator in the
following circuit:

Figure 40. - balanced circuit

SOLUTION: First of all, de transformation -Y is performed:

Figure 41. -Y transformation for a balanced circuit

Consequently, Ia = 100/830 = 12.5-30.

As a result of the inverse transformation, the obtained results are shown in
Figure 42:

Three phase circuits

Figure 42. -Y inverse transformation for a balanced circuit

2.5. Power and its measurement

2.5.1

Active and reactive power in three-phase systems

In general, in a three-phase system as the one shown in Figure 43, the

absorbed power (active or reactive) is equal to the sum of the absorbed
power in each phase:

P Ua Ia cos( a ) U b Ib cos( b ) Uc Ic cos( c )

(6-40)

Q Ua Ia sin( a ) Ub Ib sin( b ) Uc Ic sin( c )

(6-41)

S Ua Ia Ub Ib Uc Ic

(6-42)

If U and I are line magnitudes, it is easy to demonstrate that the following

equations are satisfied if the load either has star or delta configuration:
P

3 U I cos( )

(6-43)

Q
S

3 U ph I ph sin( )

(6-44)

3 U I S

(6-45)

is the angle of the load. The angle from U ph to Iph is - and the angle from U
to I is -30- for direct sequence and 30- in inverse sequence.

Figure 43. Three-phase circuit in Y connection

From the previous equations it can be deduced:

cos( )

P
S

sin( )

Q
S

(6-47)

tan( )

Q
P

(6-48)

(6-46)

2.5.1.1 Balanced systems

For a balanced system whose impedance is Z, all the phases absorb
identical power, so that:

P 3 U ph I ph cos( )

(6-49)

Q 3 U ph I ph sin( )

(6-50)

Three phase circuits

S 3 U ph I ph

(6-51)

An important characteristic of balanced three-phase systems, in comparison

to single-phase systems, is that the instantaneous power is constant and equal
to the active power:

2
2

p( t ) 2 U ph I ph cos( t ) cos( t ) cos t

cos t
3
3

2
2

cos t

cos t
3
3

3 U I cos( )

(6-52)

This characteristic is especially important in the design and utilization of

many types of rotary engines such as generators and motors, which work
slighter when power is constant. This is especially true in large machines,
where the reduction of vibrations means a longer cycle of life for these
devices and, consequently, a significant reduction in costs.
2.5.2

Power measurement

The wattmeter measures the mean value of vi according to Figure 44.a.

When the circuit is working in sinusoidal steady state it is equivalent to
VIcos() where is the angle between V and I (see Figure 44.b)

Figure 44. Connection of a wattmeter

In general, the power must be measured phase by phase. If phases are not
accessible because there are no neutral (or it is not certain that the current

flowing by the neutral is zero), the three-watt meters and the double
wattmeter methods can be applied in order to obtain the active power.

2.5.2.1 Three watt-meters connection

The following configuration with three watt meters can be used:

Figure 45. Power measurement with three watt meters

The power absorbed by the load is equal to the sum of the measurements
indicated by the three watt-meters. If the point N is taken as the voltages
reference (uN) and ua, ub and uc represent the line voltage of each phase, the
sum of the measurements of each watt-meter will be:
W1 W 2 W 3

1
T

1
T

u an i a dt
0

uan'

u n' n i a dt

And, consequently:

1
T

1
T

u
0

cn'

u bn i b dt
0

1
T

bn'

1
T

cn

ic

dt

u n' n i b dt

u n' n i c dt

(6-53)

Three phase circuits

W1 W2 W3

1
T

uan' i a ubn' i b ucn' i c dt

0

1
u n' n i a i b i c dt (6-5
T

4)
As there is no neutral wire, ia+ib+ic=0, so that:
W1 W2 W3

1
T

an'

i a u bn' i b ucn' i c dt P

(6-55)

2.5.2.2 Two watt-meters connection

Consider the configuration shown in Figure 46.

Figure 46. Power measurement in unbalanced circuits with two watt meters

Considering the three watt-meters connection and taking into account that
there is no restriction about the reference potential u n of point n, it could
be assumed that unn is equal to ucn. Consequently, according to equation
(6.38):
1
P
T

u
0

an'

1
u nn' i a dt
T

u
0

bn'

1
u nn' i b dt
T

cn'

u nn' i c dt (6-5

6)
So that:
1
P
T

u
0

an'

1
u cn' i a dt
T

u
0

bn'

u cn' i b dt W A WB

(6-57)

2.5.2.2.1 Balanced systems

One of the most common methods for power measuring in balanced systems is
the double wattmeter (ARON-connection), as shown in Figure 47:

Figure 47. Power measurement with a double wattmeter (ARON-connection)

According to the figure, the active and reactive power can be calculated as
follows:

W A Vca Ia cos( ) Vca I a cos( 30 )

(6-58)

WB Vbc I b cos( ) Vbc I b cos( 30 ) Vbc I b cos( 30 )

(6-59)

W A WB 3 V I cos( ) P
W A WB 3 V I sin( )

Q
3

(6-60)
(6-61)

The double wattmeter method provides with much information about the
load. For example, the load is inductive if W A>WB. Conversely, the load is
capacitive if WA<WB, and if WA=WB, the load is resistive. Other significant
relations are:

If WA = 0, then = -60 (capacitive)

If WB = 0, then = 60 (inductive)

Three phase circuits

If WA < 0, then < -60 (capacitive)

If WB < 0, then > 60 (inductive)

The angle can be calculated as follows:

a tan

W A WB

W A WB

(6-62)

2.5.2.3 One watt-meter in balanced systems

When phases of the system are accessible in a balanced system, measuring
the consumption of only one of them is enough as P=3P ph. Consider the
following system where there is a balanced Y load. The total power absorbed
by the load will be P=3W:

Figure 48. Power measurement of a balanced Y load

The connection of the wattmeter for a load is shown in Figure 49.

Figure 49. Power measurement of a balanced load

If phases are not accessible, an artificial neutral can be created, as it is

shown in Figure 50.

Figure 50. Power measurement of a balanced load with not accessible phases

Zv makes up a Y balanced load together with the potential coil of the wattmeter.
The reactive power can be also obtained with an only watt-meter, as it is
shown in Figure 51:

Three phase circuits

Figure 51. Reactive power measurement with a single watt-meter

The reactive power can be calculated as follows:

V I sin
2

W V I cos V I cos

(6-63)