Lithium-ion Battery Overview

Technic
al
Notes

This Technical Note compares several existing and

emerging lithium-ion battery technologies and provides
an overview of the safety issues involved in designing
products with lithium-ion batteries.
The Information contained in this article builds on previous
Technical Notes. See also:
http://www.lightingafrica.org/resources/briefing-notes.html

Issue 10 May
2012

Intr
odu
ctio
n
Lithiu
m-ion
(Liion)
batter
ies
are
beco
ming
more
comm
on in
portab
le
electr
onic
device
s due
to
their
high
energ
y
densit
y, lack
of
memo
ry
effect,
and
high

charge and discharge ratesafe

and
longcapabilities. Li-ion batteries arelasting product, Lia relatively new technology,ion-specific safety
must
be
first marketed in the earlyissues
1990s, and research andtaken into account
development work is ongoingin product design.
to improve safety and increase
capacity,
charge/dischargeTable A1 in the
shows
rate,
and
lifetime.
ThisAppendix
how
the
technical note describes the
of
types
of
Li-ion
batteriescharacteristics
Li-ion
batteries
currently on the market and
compare to those
briefly
outlines
charging
of other common
methods
and
safety
battery chemistries.
considerations.
Advantages and
disadvantages
The main advantage of lithiumion batteries is their high
energy density. They have a
long cycle life and do not suffer
from the high self-discharge
rate and memory effect of
nickel-cadmium (NiCd) and
nickel metal hydride (NiMH)
batteries. Unlike sealed lead
acid (SLA) and NiCd, Li-ion
batteries do not contain toxic
heavy metals.
The main disadvantage of Liion batteries is that they
require careful attention to
safety.
Overcharging,
overheating, or short-circuiting
a charged Li-ion battery can
result in fire or explosion. For a

Types of Liion batteries

The term lithiumion battery refers
to a diverse family
of
battery
chemistries. All Liion batteries use a
process known as
intercalation,
in
which lithium ions
are
incorporated
into the structure of
the
electrode
material.
Lithium
ions move from the
positive
to
the
negative electrode
during
charging
and
from
the
negative
to
the
positive electrode
as the battery is
discharged.
Most types of Li-ion
batteries available
today differ in the
composition of their
positive electrode
(cathode).
New
materials for the
negative electrode
are
also
being
developed, but few
of these are now

availa
ble on
the
marke
t. This
sectio
n
conce
ntrate
s
on
the
positiv
e
electr
ode

material and briefly discussesmade using these

negative electrode materialsmaterials. Lithium
and construction techniques. cobalt oxide (LCO)
is
the
most
Positive electrode
common
type;
(cathode) materials
nickel manganese
(NMC)
is
Different positive electrodecobalt
safer
materials vary in cost, safety,somewhat
and
less
expensive.
and energy density. Table 1
iron
lists the types of positiveLithium
electrode materials currentlyphosphate (LFP or

rate
is
more
important
than
energy
density,
such as electric
vehicles and power
tools. Some cells
use a blend of
lithium manganese
oxide (LMO) and
NMC,
which
provides
better
cycle
life
and
storage properties
than either material
alone.

is
available on the market; TableLiFePO4)
emerging
as
a
A2
gives
general
characteristics
of
batterieschoice when safety
or high discharge
Lighting Global
May 2012

Lithium-ion Battery Overview

Issue 10 May 2012
Table 1. Properties of common positive electrode materials. 1

Material
Lithium cobalt
oxide (LCO)
Nickel cobalt
aluminum (NCA)
Nickel manganese
cobalt (NMC)

Chemical
formula

Description

LiCoO2

Original commercial type; expensive raw

materials

LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05
O2
Highest energy density per unit mass
LiNi1-xyMnxCoyO2

Safer and less expensive than LCO

Lithium manganese
oxide (LMO)

LiMn2O4

Safer and less expensive than LCO, but poor

high
temperature stability

Lithium iron
phosphate (LFP)

LiFePO4

Very safe, high power, but lower energy

density. Best
high-temperature stability

LiMnPO4 may offer

the advantages of
Negative electrode (anode)
LiFePO4
while
materials
supporting voltages
Graphite is by far the most common and thus energy
material for the negative electrode, but densities
some other technologies are under comparable to or
development. Lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12higher than those
other
Li-ion
offers very high cycle life, faster of
2
charging, and better safety than graphite, chemistries. Some
but at a cost of much lower energy of
these
new
density. These batteries are starting to materials
will
become available commercially, mainlyrequire
new
for electric vehicles and grid energy electrolytes
and
cell
storage.1
Table
A2
gives
general other
components
able
to
characteristics of batteries made using
the
common positive and negative electrode withstand
higher
voltages.
materials.
Other
new
materials
may
Emerging lithium-ion technologies
improve
charge
Several new cathode materials are under capacity per unit
development.
mass by up to 355V materials like LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 support40% relative to
higher voltages and thus higher energy NCA.1
densities than current materials, which
usually have a maximum charging
voltage of 4.2 V (see Table A2).
Alternative phosphate materials such as

Anodes based on
silicon
or
tin
provide
higher
energy
density
than graphite but
can be difficult to
manufacture; some
silicon- and tinbased cells are now
on the market.1 A
few companies are
attempting to bring
nanostructured
silicon
anode
materials to the
market in the next
two
years;
nanotechnology
could also result in
improvements
to
cathode materials.3
Other
nanotechnology
research aims to
improve safety and
shelf life.
Cell construction

Like other batteries, Li-ion cells are

available in rigid cylindrical and prismatic Charging
(rectangular) constructions.

and
Discharging
Also available are polymer or pouch Li-ion
cells, packaged in a flexible plastic pouch.
These cells are sometimes calledBatteries

Overcharging a Liion
battery
can
lead to a fire or
explosion,
and
overdischarging
can
permanently
damage
the
battery. Many Li-ion
batteries
have
built-in protection
circuitry.

lithium-polymer (Li-Poly or LiPo), but

Proper
charge
the chemistry is the same as that of rigid
control
and
Li-ion batteries.1 Polymer cells can beprotection circuitry
made small and thin, making them is critical for Li-ion
common in portable music players and
batteries.
mobile phones.
Lighting Global
May 2012

Lithium-ion Battery
Overview

voltage during typical Li-ion charge

cycle.7 Exact values depend on
charging conditions and battery type.

Issue 10 May 2012

Li-ion batteries are not harmed by a

partial charge; in fact, charging to a
lower voltage will extend the cycle life of
the battery, but with a significant
capacity penalty. Charging a 4.2-volt
battery to 4.1 V results in a 10% or
larger reduction in capacity.4,7 Accurate
voltage regulation is critical for safely
charging Li-ion batteries; the tolerance
for overcharging can be 50 mV or
less.4,7 Charging cells in series requires
circuitry to balance the voltage between
cells so that no individual cell exceeds
its maximum voltage.

Li-ion batteries are usually charged in

two steps (Figure 1). The first step is a
constant-current charge at 0.5-1C until
the battery reaches its maximum
voltage, usually 4.1-4.2 V/cell. After the
ending voltage is reached, the battery is
charged at constant voltage until the
current drops below a threshold,
between 0.02C and 0.1C,4,5 or for a
fixed amount of time, around 2 hours.4 If
the battery is severely depleted, a slow
charge (0.1C) is necessary to bring the
voltage up to 2.5-3 V/cell4,5 before the
0.5-1C charge can begin; however,
attempting to charge a severely
depleted battery may be unsafe, and
the battery may have permanent
capacity loss.6
Constant
voltage

Constant
4.2 current
4.1
4.0

3.9

0.5

3.8
3.7

Voltage

Current

3.6
3.5

0
0

Time (h)

Figure 1: Approximate current and

Current (C rate)

Voltage

(V)

4.3

C-rate terminology
Battery charging and discharging
rates are often referred to in terms of
C, the rate required to charge or
discharge the battery in one hour. For
example, for a 2.0 amp-hour battery,
C is 2.0 amps, and 0.5C, also written
C/2, is 1.0 amps. If the battery could
be charged to 100% capacity at C/2,
the charge would take approximately
two hours. In practice, since the
charge rate decreases during the
constant-voltage phase, a full charge
will take longer.
Most Li-ion batteries cannot be charged
at ambient temperatures below 0C or
above 45-50C. Charging at high
temperature will decrease cycle life and
may
present
a
safety
hazard;
phosphate-based batteries may have
somewhat
better
high-temperature
performance
than
other
Li-ion
chemistries.
Charging
at
low

temperatures may lead to the growth of

lithium metal dendrites, which can result
in an internal short circuit, destroying
the battery and potentially causing a
fire. Ensuring that the temperature
remains within the acceptable range is
especially important for products that
may be charged outdoors in direct
sunlight.8
Unlike NiCd and NiMH cells, lithium ion
batteries do not have a memory effect
and do not benefit from full discharge
cycles. Fully discharging a Li-ion battery
will reduce its life, and discharging the
battery below 2.5-3 V/cell can cause
permanent
damage9
or
short10
circuiting.
Typically,
the
built-in
electronics automatically disconnect the
battery when this threshold is reached,
rendering the battery pack unusable.7
Voltage and temperature limits vary
from battery to battery. The voltage and
temperature ranges in this technical
note are general guidelines; the battery
manufacturers datasheets should be
consulted for the limits that apply to
specific battery models.
Lighting Global
May 2012

Lithium-ion Battery
Overview
Issue 10 May 2012
es
use
Safety flammabl
e organic
While allsolvents.
batteries Li-ion
battery
can
present fires can
be
safety
hazards extinguis
if
usedhed with
improper water or
ly, Li-ionstandard
batteries dry
chemical
are
especiall fire
extinguis
y
11

sensitive hers.
to proper
handling Many Liion
and
treatmen batteries
t. Li-ioncontain
batteries built-in
can ventprotectio
electrolyt n
e, catchcircuitry
fire,
orto
explode prevent
dangerou
if
overchar s
condition
ged,
overheat s, as well
ed,
oras
mechanic
shortcircuited. al
protectio
Unlike
n devices
the
to
waterprevent
based
or
electrolyt fire
explosion
es
in
if
the
SLA,
electroni
NiCd,
c
and
protectio
NiMH
fails.
batteries n
,
Li-ionBatteries
electrolyt without

these
internal
protectio
n devices
should
not
be
used.
This
section
briefly
describes
the
safety
issues
associate
d
with
lithiumion
batteries
and
provides
an
overview
of
internatio
nal
safety
and
quality
standard
s
that
apply to
these
batteries.
Overcha
rging
Overchar
ging
is
hazardou
s
because
the
charged
positive
electrode
material
can

begin toIf
the
react
circuit
with thefails and
electrolyt the
e,
battery
resulting continues
in
to
electrolyt charge, a
e
safety
venting,
vent
smoke,
opens to
fire,
or
explosionrelease
the
.12 Some
pressure
positive
in
the
electrode
materials battery.
are moreThe vent
stable is
and thusdesigned
safer to break
the
than
others; circuit
it
LFP
iswhen
the
opens,
safest, preventin
followed g further
by NMC,overchar
LMO, andging
or
LCO (theoverheati
most
ng. Once
common
the vent
material)
opens,
. NCA is
the
about as
safe
asbattery is
destroye
LCO.1
d.
The
battery
protectio
n
circuitry
protects
against
overchar
ging by
opening
a switch
if
the
voltage
exceeds
the limit.

Li-ion
safety
overvi
ew
1

Use
b
at
te
ri
es
th
at
m
e
et
th
e
U
L
1
6
4
2
or
IE
C
6
2
1
3
3
sa
fe
ty
st
a
n
d
ar
d
a
n
d
co
nt
ai
n
b
uil
tin
pr
ot
ec
ti
o
n
ci
rc
ui
tr
y.

ri
e
s
or
p
ar
al
le
l.

2
Do

no
t
all
ow
ba
tte
rie
s
to
be
ov
er
ch
ar
ge
d
or
de
ep
ly
dis
ch
ar
ge
d.

Use
m
a
n
uf
a
ct
u
r
e
d
b
a
tt
e
r
y
p
a
c
k
s;
d
o
n
o
t
c
o
m
bi
n
e
p
a
c
k
s
o
r
c
el
ls
in
s
e

4
Pro

t
e
c
t
b
a
t
t
e
r
i
e
s
f
r
o
m
b
e
i
n
g
c
r
u
s
h
e
d
,
p
u
n
c
t
u
r
e
d
,
o
r
s
h
o
r
t
c
i
r
c
u
i
t
e

d
.

Get
b
a
tt
e
r
ys
p
e
ci
fi
c
in
fo
r
m
a
ti
o
n,
in
cl
u
di
n
g
v
ol
t
a
g
e,
c
u
rr
e
n
t,
a
n
d
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
li
m
it
s,
fr
o
m
t
h
e
b

a
tt
e
r
y
m
a
n
u
f
a
c
t
u
r
e
r.

swelling.
Since
many
lighting
products
have
electroni
cs
that
consume
a
small
amount
of power
even
when the
lamp
is
Overdis
chargin switched
off, it is
g
importan
Deep
t to use
discharg battery
e of Li-packs
ion cellswith
can leadbuilt-in
to
electroni
dissolutiocs
that
n of thedisconne
copper ct
cells
current before
collector they are
on
thedischarge
cell
d to a
anode; potentiall
this
y
copper hazardou
can
bes level.
deposite
d in theOverhea
cathode ting
and
Overheat
separato
ing
r,
causes
possibly the
leading negative
to
aelectrode
short
material
circuit.6 to react
Overdisc with the
harging electrolyt
can alsoe,
lead
tocausing
venting
capacity
12
loss andor fire.

If
the
battery
manage
ment
system
contains
a
temperat
ure
sensor in
contact
with the
battery,
it
can
stop
charging
before
thermal
runaway
starts.
Short
circuit
Shortcircuiting
a
Li-ion
battery
can
cause
the
battery
to
overheat,
resulting
in a fire.
The risk
of a short
circuit
can
be
reduced
by good
design,
including
separatin
g
or
recessing
battery
terminals
to
prevent
them
from
coming

in
contact
with
metal
objects

and
ensuring
that
insulation
on

battery
leads is
in good
condition
. Li-ion
LightingMay
Global 2012

Lithium-ion Battery
Overview
Issue 10 May 2012
recall of
laptop
batteries
computer
have
built-in batteries
positive in 2006.
temperat A
short
ure
circuit
coefficie
can also
nt (PTC)
devices result
from the
to
prevent cell being
overcurr crushed
ent andor
porous
puncture
plastic
d.
shutdow
n
Safety
separato standar
rs whichds
partially
melt
toUnderwri
stop theters
flow
of
Laborator
current.
ies (UL)
and the
These
Internatio
safety
devices nal
are
notElectrote
always chnical
effective Commissi
against on (IEC)
internal have
published
short
circuits, standard
s
for
which
safety
can
be
caused testing of
by metalLi-ion
particles batteries.
Both the
left
UL 1642
inside
the cellsand IEC
by faulty62133
manufactstandard
s define
uring.
This typea series
of defectof tests,
caused aincluding
overchar
major

ge,
crush,
impact,
and
heating
tests; to
pass,
batteries
must not
catch fire
or
explode,
and
in
some
cases
must not
leak
or
overheat.
Neither
standard
includes
an
internal
shortcircuit
test; this
test has
been
proposed
for
a
future
version
of
IEC
62133.1
In
addition
to these
standard
s,
the
Institute
of
Electrical
and
Electroni
cs
Engineer
s (IEEE)

has
on (IATA)
publishe and the
d
Internatio
standard nal Civil
s
forAviation
batteries Organizat
in
ion
portable (ICAO)
compute restrict
rs (IEEEthe
1625)
shipment
and
by air of
cellular lithiumtelephon ion
es (IEEEbatteries.
1725);
In
these
general,
standard small
s specifybatteries
additiona containe
l designd within
and
equipme
manufactnt
are
uring
subject
requirem to fewer
ents,
restrictio
many ofns than
which
large
are
batteries
intended or
to
batteries
prevent packaged
internal separatel
shorty
from
circuiting equipme
.
nt,
as
long
as
Air
the
transpo
batteries
rt
a
restricti pass
series of
ons
safety
Internati tests
onal
defined
regulatio in the UN
ns
Manual
establish of Tests
ed by theand
Internati Criteria
onal Air(Part III,
Transport Subsectio
Associati

n 38.3).

In
thecurrent
United required
States, to
there areoperate
additiona the
l
monitorin
restrictio g
ns
for
electroni
transport
cs
built
on
into
the
passeng
battery
er
1 pack.14
aircraft.
3
TheThe
battery
cited
can
be
IATA
documen permane
ntly
t
provides damaged
a
moreif allowed
detailed to
descripti discharge
on of thebelow
regulatio the
ns.
recomme
nded
Shelf
minimum
life
voltage.
Like
all
batteries Storage
,
Li-ionwhile
batteries fully
will self-charged
discharg will also
e duringreduce
storage battery
and mustlife, since
the
be
periodica electrode
s
lly
charged; degrade
the ratefaster
of
self-when
discharg fully
e
ischarged.
generally To
about 2-prevent
10% perthis
month. degradati
on while
Most
still
selfdischarg allowing
e is duefor some
to
theself-

discharge
in
storage,
many
manufact
urers
recomme
nd
storing
Li-ion
batteries
at
4050%
of
charge
capacity.7
,14

Storage
at
high
temperat
ures also
reduces
battery
life.
Under
ideal
condition
s, if not
allowed
to
selfdischarge
,
a
lithiumion
battery
can last
for
five
years or
more.7
Disposal
The
metals in
lithiumion
batteries,
including
cobalt,
nickel,
mangane
se, iron,
and
aluminu
m,
are
not
as

toxic asrecycled
the leadto
or
recover
cadmium metals,
in SLA orrecycling
NiCd
is
batteries expensiv
;
manye,
and
governm the
ents
recycling
allow
infrastruc
their
ture
is
disposal not
as
in
widespre
landfills. ad
as
While Li-that for
ion
lead-acid
batteries batteries.
can
beCharged

lithiumion
batteries
pose
a
fire
or
explosion
hazard if
crushed,
puncture
d,
or
incinerat
ed;
batteries
should be
fully
discharge
d before
disposal.
LightingMay
Global 2012

Lithium-ion Battery Overview

Issue 10 May 2012

Appendix: Comparison of performance characteristics

Table A1. Comparison of Li-ion (graphite anode) to other rechargeable battery
chemistries.

Characteristic
Nominal voltage per
cell
Specific energy
(Wh/kg)
Energy density
(Wh/L)
Cycle life (to 80%
original
capacity at 100%
DOD)
Calendar life (years)
Ambient
temperature
during charge (C)
Ambient
temperature
during discharge (C)
Self-discharge
capacity
loss per month
Memory effect
Toxic metals
Battery
management
system required

LiCoO2
(LCO)

LiFePO4 (LFP)

SLA

NiCd

NiMH

3.7

2.5-3.61

2.015

1.215

1.215

175-2001,15

60-1101

30-4015,16

35-8015,16

55-11015,17

400-6401

125-2501

50-9015,16

100-15015,16

16016-42018

1000+1

200-300
(up to 400
at

300-100015

500-100015

>51

>51

80% DOD)19
2-815

0-451

0-451

-20-601

-30-601

500+1

5-715

5-1015

-40-5015

0-4015

0-4015

-40-6015

-20-7015

-20-6515

15

15

15

2-10%
N 1
o
None
Yes

2-10%

4-8%

15-20%

15

No
None

No
Lead

Yes

No

15

Yes
Cadmium
No

15-30%
(conv.)15
2%
(advanced)20
Yes, less than
NiCd15
None
No

Table A2. Typical properties of various Li-ion

chemistries.1

Positive
electrode
Negative
electrode
Optimized for
Operating voltage
range
Nominal voltage
Specific energy
(Wh/kg)
Energy density
(Wh/L)

LCO and
NCA
Graphi
te
Energy
2.5-4.2
(rarely
4.35)
3.6-3.7
175-240 cyl
130-200
polymer
400-640 cyl
250-450
polymer

NMC
Graphite
Energy or
Power
2.5-4.2
(rarely 4.35)
3.6-3.721

LMO
Lithium
Graphite
titanate

LiFePO4
Graphite

Power

Cycle life

Power

2.5-4.2

1.5-2.8

2.0-3.6

3.7-3.821

2.3
70

3.3
60-110

120

125-250

100-240

100-150

250-640

250-350

Discharge rate
(continuous)
Cycle life (100%
DOD
to 80% capacity)
Ambient
temperature
during charge (C)
Ambient
temperature
during discharge
(C)

2-3C

2-3C
(power cells
>30C)

>30C

10C

10-125C

500+

500+

500+

4000+

1000+

0-45

0-45

0-45

-20-45

0-45

-20-60

-20-60

-30-60

-30-60

-30-60

Lighting Global May 2012

Lithium-ion Battery
Overview
Issue 10 May 2012

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May
Global 2012

Lithium-ion Battery Overview

Issue 10 May 2012

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 Lighting Global May 2012