Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products, or
"any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives
thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN Convention on Biological
Diversity, Art. 2).
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop
production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g.
biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

Proteins

Proteins are large biological molecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains
of amino acid residues.
Of all the molecules encountered in living organisms, proteins have the most diverse functions,
as the following list suggests.
1. Catalysis. Catalytic proteins called the enzymes accelerate thousands of biochemical
reactions in such processes as digestion, energy capture, and biosynthesis.
2. Structure. Structural proteins often have very specialized properties.
3. Movement. Proteins are involved in all cell movements.
4. Defense. A wide variety of proteins are protective.
5. Regulation. Binding a hormone molecule or a growth factor to cognate receptors on its
target cell changes cellular function.
6. Transport. Many proteins function as carriers of molecules or ions across membranes or
between cells.
7. Storage. Certain proteins serve as a reservoir of essential nutrients.
8. Stress response. The capacity of living organisms to survive a variety of abiotic stresses
is mediated by certain proteins.
Amino Acids
Proteins can be distinguished based on their number of amino acids (called amino acid
residues), their overall amino acyl composition, and their amino acid sequence. Molecules with
molecular weights ranging from several thousand to several million Daltons are called
polypeptides. Those with low molecular weights, typically consisting of fewer than 50 amino
acids, are called peptides.

Plants and bacteria can synthesize all 20 of the amino acids. Whereas, humans cannot synthesize
9 of them. These nine amino acids must come from our diets and are called essential amino acids.
The essential amino acids are: Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine,
Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan and Valine.
The 20 Amino Acids

Carbohydrates
A carbohydrate is a large biological molecule, or macromolecule, consisting of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen: oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in
water); in other words, with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m could be different from n).

Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them as
polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.

The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide. The

carbohydrates (saccharides) are divided into four chemical groups:
monosaccharides
disaccharides
oligosaccharides
polysaccharides.

Like

most classes of biological molecules, carbohydrates occur as both monomers and polymers.
Small carbohydrates are called sugars, which commonly include monosaccharides (single
sugars) and some disaccharides (two sugars linked together). Larger carbohydrates are called
polysaccharides (many sugars linked together).

Monosaccharides

These are the only sugars that can be absorbed and utilized by the body. Disaccharides and
polysaccharides must be ultimately broken down into monosaccharides in the digestive process
known as hydrolysis. Only then can they be utilized by the body. Three monosaccharides are
particularly important in the study of nutritional science: glucose, fructose and galactose.

1. Glucose (also known as dextrose or grape sugar)

This monosaccharide is the most important carbohydrate in

human nutrition because it is the one that the body fuses directly
to supply its energy needs. Glucose is formed from the hydrolysis
of di- and polysaccharides, including starch, dextrin, maltose,
sucrose and lactose; from the monosaccharide fructose largely during absorption; and from both
fructose and galactose in the liver during metabolism. Glucose is the carbohydrate found in the
bloodstream, and it provides an immediate source of energy for the bodys cells and tissues.
Glucose is also formed when stored body carbohydrate (glycogen) is broken down for use.
2. Fructose (also known as levulose or fruit sugar)

Fructose, a monosaccharide, is very similar to another

monosaccharide, galactose. These two simple sugars share the
same chemical formula; however, the arrangements of their
chemical groups along the chemical chain differ. Fructose is the
sweetest of all the sugars and is found in fruits, vegetables and the nectar of flowers, as well as
in the unwholesome (to humans) sweeteners, molasses and honey.
3. Galactose

Galactose differs from the other simple sugars, glucose and fructose, in
that it does not occur free in nature. It is produced in the body in the
digestion of lactose, a disaccharide.

Disaccharides
Disaccharide, also called Double Sugar, any substance that is composed of two molecules of
simple sugars (monosaccharides) linked to each other.
Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are joined together and a molecule of
water is removed, a process known as dehydration reaction. For example; milk sugar (lactose) is

made from glucose and galactose whereas the sugar from sugar cane and sugar beets (sucrose)
is made from glucose and fructose.

1. Sucrose
The disaccharide, sucrose, consists of one molecule of each
of two monosaccharidesglucose and fructose. Sucrose is
found in fruits and vege ables and is particularly plentiful in
sugar beets (roots) and sugarcane (a grass). Refined white
and brown sugars are close to 100% sucrose because
almost everything else (including the other kinds of sugars present, the vitamins, the minerals and
the proteins) have been removed in the refining process.
2. Maltose (also known as malt sugar)
This disaccharide, unlike sucrose, is not consumed
in large amounts in the average American diet. It is
found in malted cereals, malted mi lks and sprouted
grains.
Maltose occurs in the body as an intermediate
product

of

starch

digestion.

(Starch

is

polysaccharide.) When maltose is hydrolyzed, it

yields two molecules of glucose.
3. Lactose (also known as milk sugar)
This disaccharide is found only in milk. Human milk
contains about 4.8 g per 100 ml and cows milk
contains approxim ately 6.8 g per 100 ml. When
lactose is hydrolyzed it yields one unit of the
monosaccharide glucose and one unit of the
monosaccharide galactose.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate structures, formed of repeating units (either monoor di-saccharides) joined together by glycosidic bonds. These structures are often linear, but may
contain various degrees of branching.

Polysaccharides have a general formula of Cx(H2O)y where x is usually a large number between
200 and 2500. Considering that the repeating units in the polymer backbone are often six-carbon
monosaccharides, the general formula can also be represented as (C6H10O5)n where 40 n
3000.
1. Starch
Starch is abundant in the plant world and is
found in granular form in the cells of plants.
Starch granules can be seen under a microsc
ope and they differ in size, shape and
markings in various plants.

2. Dextrin
There

are

several

varieties

of

this

polysaccharide. Dextrins are most commonly

consumed in cooked starch foods, as they are
obtained from starch by the action of heat.
Dextrins are intermediary products of starch
digestion, also, and are formed by the action of amylases on starches. They render the disaccha
ride maltose on hydrolysis.
3.

Glycogen
Glycogen is the reserve carbohydrate in humans. It
is to animals as starch is to plants. Glycogen is very
similar to amylopectin, having a high molecular
weight and branched-chain structures made up of
thousands of glucose molecules.
The

main

difference

between

glycogen

and

amylopectin is that glycogen has more and shorter branches, resulting in a more compact,
bushlike molecule with greater solubility and lower viscosity (less stickiness or gumminess).

4.

Cellulose
Like starch and glycogen, cellulose is composed of th
ousands of glucose molecules. It comprises over
50% of the carbon in vegetation and is the structural
constituent of the cell walls of plants.
Cellulose is, therefore, the most abundant naturally-

occurring organic substance. It is characterized by its insolubility, its chemical inertness and its
physical rigidity.

Lipids, Fats and Steroids

Lipids
Lipids are group of naturally occurring compounds, which have in common a ready solubility in
such organic solvents. They include a diverse range of compounds, like fatty acids and their
derivatives, carotenoids, terpenes and terpenoids, steroids and bile acids.

Table 1. Classification of Lipids

Lipids

Description

Types/

Examples /

Classification

Derivatives

-compounds 1.
synthesized in 2.
nature
Fatty Acids

3. 1. Saturated Fatty

via condensation
of malonyl

Acids - triglycerides

4. contain

coenzyme

maximum
amount

-usually contain

the
possible
of

hydrogens

even numbers of5.

carbon atoms in

2. Unsaturated fatty

straight chains

Acids - theyre not

(commonly C14

bonded to as many

to C24)

6. hydrogens as they
could if they werent

Lauric Acid
Myristic Acid
Palmitic Acid
Stearic Acid
Linoleic Acid
Oleic Acid
Capric Acid

-Fatty acids are

double

bonded

usually derived

each other

to

from triglycerides
or phospholipids

-When they are

not attached to
other molecules,
they are known
as "free" fatty
acids.
- group of
molecules whose
structure is based
on a various

Terpenes and
Terpenoids

but definite

Vitamin A

number of

Aroma

isoprene units

used

in Perfumery
Primary

-The difference

constituents of

between terpenes

essential

and terpenoids is

from

that terpenes are

and flowers

hydrocarbons,
whereas
terpenoids
contain
additional functio
nal groups

oils

plants

Natural flavor
additives
food

for

-type of organic
compound that

Sex

contains a

hormones,

characteristic
Steroids

Testosterone

arrangement of

and Estradiol

four cycloalkane r

Adrencortical

ings joined to one

hormones

another

D vitamins
Bile acids
Cardiac
Poisons

-lipid

with

unique

structure

consisting of four
Cholesterol

linked
hydrocarbon rings
forming the bulky
steroid structure

-known

as

------------------------

------------------

"sterol" because it
is made out of
an

alcohol

and

steroid.
-steroid hormones
are
Sex Hormones
(Steroid Hormones)

all

derived

from cholesterol

- they all contain

the

same

cyclopentanophe
nanthrene

ring

Important
mammalian
hormones are
shown below

------------------

and

atomic

numbering
system

as

cholesterol

Steroid

hormones with 21
carbon atoms are
known
systematically as
pregnanes,
whereas

those

containing 19 and
18 carbon atoms
are

known

as

androstanes and
estranes,
respectively.

Table 2. Important Mammalian Hormones

Question
1. Protein can be distinguished based on its ________________.
a. Amino Acid

c. peptides bonds

b.

d. number of carbons

Amino Acid Residues

Answer: B. Amino Acid Residues - can be distinguished based on their number of amino acids,
their overall amino acyl composition, and their amino acid sequence.
2. Polysaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharaides by means of
______________.
a. Digestion and Hydrolysis

c. Enzymatic Hydrolysis

b. Heating

d. Hydrolysis

Answer: D. Hydrolysis used to degrade the glucose from the cellulosic structure of a
biomass.
3. Produced in the body by means of digestion of lactose.
a. Fructose

c. Glucose

b. Galactose

d. Lactose

Answer: B. Galactose - When lactose is hydrolyzed it yields one unit of the monosaccharide
glucose and one unit of the monosaccharide galactose.
4. Also known as Malt Sugar
a. Maltose

c. Fructose

b. Lactose

d. Dextrin

Answer: A. Maltose - Maltose occurs in the body as an intermediate product of starch

digestion.
5. ___________: Animals; Starch: Plants
a. Dextrin

c. Cellulose

b. Glycogen

d. Glucose

Answer: B. Glycogen - Glycogen is the reserve carbohydrate in humans. It is to animals as

starch is to plants. Glycogen is very similar to amylopectin, having a high molecular weight
and branched-chain structures made up of thousands of glucose molecules.
6. The following are important derivatives of steroid except:
a. Vitamin A

c. Bile Acids

b. Vitamin D

d. None

Answer: A. Vitamin A Vitamin D, Bile Acids are some important derivatives from steroid,
Vitamin A is not included.
7. Lipid with a unique structure consisting four linked hydrocarbon rings forming the bulky
steroid structure
a. Cardiac Poisons

c. Cholesterol

b. Bile Acid

d. Estradiol

Answer: C. Cholesterol Based on the chemical formula

8. Most commonly consumed in cooked starch foods.

a. Dextrins

c. Glucose

b. Glycogen

d. Estrogen

Answer: A. Dextrins Dextrins are most commonly consumed in cooked starch foods, as they
are obtained from starch by the action of heat.
9. Polysaccharides have a general formula of ________________.
a. Cy(H2O)x

c. Cx(H2O)y

b. Cy2(H2O)x2

d. Cy2(H2O)x2

Answer: C. Cx(H2O)y Polysaccharides have a general formula of Cx(H2O)y where x is usually a

large number between 200 and 2500
10. Milk: lactose; Malted Cereals: ____________.
a. Maltose

c. Sucrose

b. Glucose

d. Fructose

Answer: A. Maltose This disaccharide, unlike sucrose, is not consumed in large amounts in
the average American diet. It is found in malted cereals, malted mi lks and sprouted grains.

11. The sweetest of all the sugars and is found in fruits, vegetables and the nectar of flowers, as
well as in the unwholesome (to humans) sweeteners, molasses and honey.
a. Maltose

c. Sucrose

b. Glucose

d. Fructose

Answer: D. Fructose Fructose, a monosaccharide, is very similar to another monosaccharide,

galactose. These two simple sugars share the same chemical formula; however, the
arrangements of their chemical groups along the chemical chain differ.

References:

Amino Acids, Peptides and Proteins. Date Retrieved: July 23, 2014
Biotechnology. Date Retrieved: July 23, 2014 from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Biotechnology
Carbohydrates. Date Retrieved: July 23, 2014 from http://www.harpercollege.edu/tmps/chm/100/dgodambe/thedisk/carbo/yback2.htm
Introduction:

Steroid

Hormones.

Date

Retrieved:

July

23,

2014

http://themedical

biochemistrypage.org/steroid-hormones.php
Lipid.

Date

Retrieved:

July

23,

2014

from

http://biology.about.com/od/molecular

biology/ss/lipids.htm
Terpene. Date Retrieved: July 23, 2014 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpene
Polysaccharides.

Date

Retrieved:

July

23,

/Polysaccharide
Saccharides. Date Retrieved: July 23, 2014 from

2014

from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki