CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the investigatory Project entitled

WORKING OF A TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH is an original
work done by Anuj Pandey
During 2004-05 under the supervision and guidance of
Of

Mr. Edwin
Venue: St. Marys Inter College
Date:

Mrs. Sarita Anil

ACKNOWLEGEMENT
I Anuj Pandey of standard XII of Science Stream, St. Marys
Inter College Etawah is genuinely thankful to my teacher Mr.
Edwin for their help and able guidance which I received for the
completion of this project.
WORKING OF TRANSISTOR AS SWITCH

I am also thankful to the principal, my co-student and parents

who have always given me their support which was of immense
help towards the completion of this project.

DECLARATION
I here by declare that the project entitled WORKING OF
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH is an original work done by me
during the session 2004-05 under the guidance and supervision of
Mr. Edwin and Mrs. Sarita Anil

Signature of the supervisor

1.
2.

INDEX
CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

1) INTRODUCTION

2) AIM

3) COMPONENTS

4) CIRCUIT DETAILS
4.a. Semiconductors

4.a.1 Formation of holes in semiconductor

4.a.2 Electrical conductance in semiconductors

4.a.3 Intrinsic Semiconductors

4.a.4 Limitations of developing pure

semiconductor based devices

4.a.5 Doping

4.a.6 Extrinsic semiconductors

4.a.7 N-type Semiconductors

4.a.8 P-type Semiconductors

10

4.a.9 General Information

12

4.a.10 Distinction between Intrinsic semiconductors

14

and Extrinsic semiconductors

4.a.11 Distinction between P-type semiconductors

15

and N-type semiconductors

4.b Transistors
4.b.1 Principal and working of junction Transistor
4.b.2 Modes of study of junction Transistors
4.b.3 Advantages of Transistor
4.b.4 Drawbacks of Transistor
4.c Carbon Resistor (10k - 0.5k)
4.d Variable Resistor (10k, 100k - 0.5w)
5. PRINCIPLE & WORKING OF TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
6. CONCLUSION
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION
Switch has its own importance in the electricity because it is
the factor which decides the passage of current through circuit. If
on than current passes through otherwise not. There are different
types of switches such as mechanical, electrical, electronic etc...
Out of these electronic switches best because of their high speed of
operation and absence of sparking. A transistor can be used as
switch by turning it back and forth between on and off stage.

AIM
To make a circuit showing the use of a transistor as a switch
and to study the working of a transistor as a switch.
(1) By using an n-p-n transistor and varying the current in base
circuit.
(2) By using an n-p-n transistor and varying the potential in base
emitter circuit.

COMPONENTS
1. n-p-n transistor (BC 108 or 2TX 300)
2. carbon resistor (10K - 0.5w)
3. variable resistor (10K, 100k)- 0.5w

4. battery (6V)
5. bulb (6V 0.06A)

SEMICONDUCTORS
The energy band diagram of semiconductors is shown in the
figure given below.
Here also, the valence band is totally filled and conduction
band is empty but the forbidden gap between conduction bands is
quite small. It is about 1 eV. For ex. The forbidden gap for
germanium is of 0.72eV and for silicon it is of 1.1 eV. At zero
Kelvin, electrons are not able to cross even this small forbidden
gap and the hence the conduction band remains totally empty.
Therefore, the semiconductor at zero Kelvin behaves as insulator.
However at room temperature, some electrons in the valence band
acquire thermal energy greater than energy gap of 1 eV and jump
over to the conduction band where they are free to move under the
influence of even a small electric field. As a result of it, the
semiconductor acquires small conductivity at room temperature.
The resistance of semiconductor would not be as high as that of
insulator.

Formation of holes in semiconductor

This can be understood in two ways.
1. From the energy band diagram of the semiconductor.
In the energy band diagram of the semiconductor, there is an
energy gap of about 1 eV between the valence band and the
conduction band. At zero Kelvin, the semiconductor behaves as an
insulator, as no electron form the valence band can cross this
energy gap and go to the conduction band. But at higher
temperature, some of the electrons gain energy due to thermal
agitation and move form the valence band to the agitation and
move form the valence band to the conduction band. As a result of
it, a vacancy is created in the valence band at a place where the
electron was present before moving to the conduction band.
This vacancy is called a hole. Since the absence of a
negatively charged electron is equivalent to the presence of an
equivalent amount of positive charge, therefore, a hole is
considered as a seat of positive charge, therefore, a hole is
considered as a seat of positive charge, having a charge equal to
that of an electron. The hole is considered as an active particle in
the valence band as an electron in the conduction band. The motion
of the electrons in the conduction band and also the motion the
electrons of holes in the valence band are responsible for the
electrical conduction in semiconductors.

2. From the valence bond study of the semiconductor

Consider a semiconductor crystal of silicon or
germanium under study. We know that the Si or Ge have four
valence electrons.
Every atom of Ge tends to share one of its four valence
electrons with each of its four nearest neighboring atoms, and also
to take share of one covalent bond shares two electrons one form
each atom. By forming such covalent bonds, each of Ge atoms in
the crystal behaves as if the outermost orbit of each atom is
complete with eight electrons in the Ge structure.
At temperature 0K, for Ge structure, the valence bond is full.
The energy gap is 0.72 eV and the conduction band is totally
empty, Fig. Since no electron is available for conduction therefore,
the Ge crystal at 0 K act as electrical insulator. The conduction is
possible if some of the electron break away from their covalent
bond and become free. The minimum energy required to break
covalent bond is 0.72 eV for Ge and 1.1 eV for Si.
Even at room temperature, the thermal vibration of the atom
provide electron in valence bond to enable some electron cross the
forbidden gap and enter into the conduction band as free electron,
accounting for some electrical conductivity of the semiconductor.
Higher id the temperature, larger will be the number of electrons

crossing over to the conduction band, leaving behind equal number

of holes in the valence band. In intrinsic semiconductor at room
temperature Fermi level is about half the way in the forbidden gap.
When an electron break away from a covalent bond, the
empty place or vacancy left in the bond is called hole shown by
hollow circle in the Fig. When an external electric field is applied,
these free electron and hole s move in opposite direction and
constitute a current flow through Germanium crystal. The number
of free electron (in conduction band) and holes (in valence band) is
exactly equal in an intrinsic semiconductor.
Thus in intrinsic semiconductor,
ne = nh = ni
where ne, nh are number density of electrons in band and
number of density of holes in valence band, n i is the number
density of intrinsic carriers (electron or holes) in a pure
semiconductor.
The number of electrons or holes in a pure semiconductor at a
given room temperature TK is given by,
ne = nh = AT3/2 e Eg/2 KT

Where k is a Boltzmann constant and E g is the energy gap

between conduction band and valence band. It means on increasing
temperature, the number of current carriers increases.
It is very difficult to make an intrinsic semiconductor because of
the difficulty in preparing extremely pure material.

Electrical conductance in semiconductors

In a pure semiconductor, each atom behaves as if there
are eight electrons in its valence shell (due to the formation of
covalent bonds) and therefore the entire material behaves as an
insulator at low temperatures.
A semi-conductor atom needs energy of the order 1.1 eV to
shake off the valence electron. This energy becomes available to
the semiconductor even at room temperature. Due to thermal
agitation of the crystal structure, electrons from few covalent
bonds come out. The bond from which electron is freed, a vacancy
is created there. The vacancy is covalent bond (where there should
have been an electron) is called a hole.
This can be filled by some other electron in a covalent bond.
As an electron from which electron has moved. The holes and
electrons are called intrinsic carriers and these are only the current
carriers in a Semi- conductor.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor free from all types of impurities is called a
intrinsic semiconductor. At 0 K, a semiconductor is an insulator
i.e it possesses zero conductivity. When temperature is increased, a
few covalent bonds break up and release the electrons. These
electrons move to conduction band leaving behind equal number
of holes in valence band. The conductivity of an intrinsic
semiconductor is due to both electrons and holes.

LIMITATION OF DEVELOPING PURE

SEMICONDUCTOR BASED DEVICE

In pure semiconductor, at room temperature, the number of

intrinsic charge carriers (electron and holes) is very small (
1016 m-3). That is why the pure semiconductor is low
conductivity material.

In pure semiconductor. The intrinsic charge carriers are

always produced due the breakage of covalent bond by virtue
of thermal motion. Hence enough flexibility is not available
to control their number in pure semiconductor.

In pure semiconductor, the number of electron (n e) is always

equal to number of holes (nh). It is never possible in pure
semiconductor to have large number of conduction electron

only on large number of conduction holes only. That is why

pure semiconductor is not of much use.

DOPING
Doping is the process of deliberation addition of a desirable
impurity atom to a pure semiconductor to modify its properties in a
controlled manner. The impurity added may be = 1 part per
million(ppm).
In doping process, it is required that

The

dopant

atom

should

take

the

position

of

semiconductor atom in the lattice.

The presence of the dopant atom should not distort the

crystal lattice.

The size of the dopant atom should be almost same as that

of crystal atom.

The concentration of dopant atom should not be large( not

more than 1% of the crystal atom).

It is to be noted that the doping of semiconductor increases its

electrical conductivity to a great extant.
METHOD OF DOPING
Doping is achieved in many ways; for this, we have

Add the impurity atoms in the melt of the semiconductor.

Heat the crystalline semiconductor in an atmosphere

containing dopant atoms or molecules so that the latter
diffuse into the semiconductor, or

Implant dopant atom by bombarding the semiconductor

with the ions.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A dopant semiconductor or a semiconductor with suitable
impurity atoms added to is called extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are of following two types:
N- type semiconductor
P- type semiconductor

N- Type Semiconductor
When a pure semiconductor of silicon (Si) in which Si atom
has four valence electron, is doped with a controlled amount of
Pentavalent atom, say arsenic (As) or phosphorus(P) or antimony
or bismuth, which have five valence electron, the impurity atom

will replace the silicon atom as shown in fig. The four of the five
valence bond by sharing the electron with adjoining four silicon
atom, while the fifth electron is very loosely bound with the parent
parent impurity atom and is comparatively free to move. Thus each
impurity added donates one free electron to the crystal structure.
These impurity atoms which donate free electron for conduction
are called donor atoms. Since the conduction of electricity is due to
the motion of electron i.e. negative charge of n type carriers,
therefore, the resulting semiconductor is called donor type or ntype semiconductor. On giving up their fifth electron, the donor
atoms become positively charged. However the matter remains
electrically neutral as whole. The extra electron of donor atom
orbits around donor nucleus, in hydrogen like matter. It has been
found that 0.05 eV energy in Si and 0.01 eV energy in Ge are
required to remove this electron from impurity atom and make it a
free electron.
At room temperature, some of the covalent bond may get
ruptured, producing there by free electron and equal number holes
in the n- type semiconductor. But over all the total number of holes
in n-type semiconductor is relatively low, hence in n- type
semiconductor, electron are majority carriers and holes are
minority carriers.

Energy band diagram is shown in fig. For a silicon

semiconductor with impurity atom of arsenic or phosphorus, the
energies of the free electron in the lowest energy levels (called
donor energy levels) between the valance and conduction band and
the lowest donor electron energy level lies at 0.05 eV below the
bottom of the conduction band.
When we add pentavalent impurity in a pure semiconductor
of Ge or Si, the final level in forbidden gap shift very close to
conduction band. If doping is very large, the final level may move
in to the conduction band.
It is to be noted that this energies is comparable in to the
thermal energy of electron at room temperature (= 0.03 eV). Thus
very small energy supplied can excite the electron from donor
levels to conduction band. Due to it semiconductor shows the
conductivity remarkably improved.

P- Type Semiconductor
When a pure semiconductor of Germanium (Ge) in which
each atom ha s four valence electron is doped with a controlled
amount of trivalent atoms say gallium, or Indium (In) or Boron (B)
or Aluminum (Al) which will replace the Ge atoms as shown in the
figure. The three valence electrons of the impurity atom will form

covalent bonds by sharing the electrons of the adjoining three

atoms of Ge, while there will be one incomplete covalent bond
with a neighboring Ge atom, due to the deficiency of an electron
from one of the Ge-Ge bonds, thus completing the In Ge bond.
This make Indium ionized (negatively charged) and creates a
hole. An electron moving from a Ge-Ge bond to fill a hole, leaves
a hole behind. That is how, holes move in the semi-conductor
structure. That is how, holes move in the semi-conductor structure.
The trivalent atoms are called acceptor atoms and the conduction
of electricity occurs due to motion of holes i.e positive charges or
p-type carriers. That is why the resulting semiconductor is called
acceptor type or p-type semiconductor.
Also, at ordinary temperature, some of the covalent bonds
may get ruptured, releasing equal number of holes and electrons.
Therefore, the total number of electrons is relatively small as
compared to the number of holes in the p-type semiconductor,
electrons are minority carriers and holes are majority carriers.
For a Ge or Si semiconductor, the doping of impurity atoms
of Indium or boron produce some allowed energy levels which are
situated in the forbidden gap slightly above the valence band.
At room temperature, due to thermal energy, the electrons
from the valence band are easily transferred to the acceptor level
until these levels are filled. This produces a large number of holes

in the valence band thereby the valence band becomes a hole

conducting band. When an external electric field is applied to a ptype semiconductor, these holes will act as carriers of current. Due
to it, the p-type semiconductor shows its electrical conductivity
much improved than what it was for pure semiconductor.

GENERAL INFORMATION

In pure germanium semiconductor, the Fermi level is about

half way in the forbidden gap.

In n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies in the forbidden

gap, very close to conduction band.

In p-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies in the forbidden

gap, very close to valence band.

With rise in temperature, the Fermi level moves toward the

centre of the forbidden gap, for both types of semiconductors.

n-type semiconductor is better than the p-type semiconductor

as electrons have more mobility than holes. For a given
voltage

applied,

conduction

band

current

in

n-type

semiconductor is more than that of p-type semiconductor.

If the light of energy greater than the forbidden energy gap is

incident on an intrinsic semiconductor, the electrons form the

valence band cross over to conduction band. Due to which

electrons and holes pair are created. Due to increase in the
number of current carriers, the conductivity of semiconductor
increases. This property of semiconductor is called
photoconductivity.

In

a doped semiconductor, the number density of electrons

and holes is not equal. But it can be established that

ne nh = ni2
Where ne, nh are the number density of electrons
and holes respectively and ni is number density of intrinsic
carriers (i.e electrons or holes) in a pure semiconductor.

In n-type semiconductor, the number density of electrons is

nearly equal to the number density of donor atoms Nd and is
very large as compared to number density of holes. Hence ne
Nd > > nh

In

p-type semiconductor, the number density of holes is

nearly equal to the number density of acceptor atoms N a and

is very large as compared to number density of electrons.
Hence
nh Na > > ne

INTRINSIC

EXTRINSIC

SEMICONDUCTOR
1. It is a pure semi conducting

SEMICONDUCTOR
1. It is prepared by doping a small

material and no impurity atoms

quantity of pure semi conducting

are added to it.

material.

2. Example is crystalline forms

2. Examples are silicon and

of pure silicon and germanium.

germanium crystals with impurity

atoms of arsenic, antimony,
phosphorous etc... or indium, boron,
aluminum etc...

3.The number of free electrons

3. The number of free electrons and

in the conduction band and the

holes is never equal. There is excess

number of holes in valence band of electrons in n-type

is exactly equal and very small

semiconductors and excess of holes

indeed.

in p-type semiconductors.

4. Its electrical conductivity is

4. Its electrical conductivity is high.

low.

5. Its electrical conductivity

5. Its electrical conductivity is a

depends upon the temperature as

function of temperature alone.

well as on the quantity of impurity

atoms doped in the structure.

n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

1. It is an extrinsic
semiconductor which is
obtained by doping the
impurity atoms of Vth group
periodic table to the pure
germanium or silicon
semiconductor.
2. The impurity atoms added,
provide extra electrons in the
structure, and are called donor
atoms.
3. The electrons are majority
carriers and holes are minority
carriers.
4. The electrons density (ne) is
much greater than the hole
density (nh) i.e. nh. >> nh.
5. The donor energy level is
close to conduction band and
far away from the valence
band.
6. The Fermi energy level lies
in between the donor energy
level and conduction band.

1. It is an extrinsic
semiconductor which is
obtained by doping the
impurity atoms of group III of
periodic table to the pure
germanium or silicon
semiconductor.
2. The impurity atoms added,
create vacancies of electron (i.e
holes) in the structure and are
called acceptor atoms.
3. The holes are majority
carriers and electrons are
minority carriers.
4. The hole density (nh) is
much greater than the electron
density (ne) i.e nh. >> ne .
5. The acceptor energy level is
close to valence band and is far
away from conduction band.
6. The Fermi energy level lies
in between the acceptor energy
level and valence band.

Transistor
A three section semiconductor devices formed by growing
a thin layer of p-type semiconductor between two comparatively
thick layers of n-type semiconductor and vice-versa.

The thin layer at the centre is lightly doped and is called

base(B). The other two layers serve as emitter (E) and
collector(C). When the emitter is forward biased, the majority
carriers move across the base so as to reach the collector biased
in reverse manner. A small recombination of holes and electrons
takes place in the base region.

JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
A junction transistor is obtained by growing a thin
layer of one type semiconductor in between two thick layers of
other similar type semiconductor. Thus a junction transistor is a
semiconductor or device having two junctions and three
terminals.
The two types of junction transistor are p-n-p transistor
and n-p-n junction transistor.
A p-n-p junction transistor is obtained by growing a
thin layer of n-type semiconductor in between two relatively
thick layers of p type semiconductor.
An n-p-n junction transistor is obtained by growing a thin
layer of p-type semiconductor in between two relatively thick
layers of n type semiconductor.
The thin layer of junction diode transistor is said to form
the base (B). One of the thick layers serves as the emitter (E),
and the other thick layer serves the collector (C).

The function of emitter is to emit the majority carriers.

Function of collector is to collect the majority carriers. Base
provides the proper interaction between the emitter and the
collector.
Symbolically, the two types of transistor are represented in
the given figure. The direction of arrowhead indicates the
direction of flow of positive charge.
In case of p-n-p transistor, in the figure, the arrow head
inwards, because majority carriers are holes. In case of n-p-n
transistor, in the figure, the arrow head is outwards, because
majority carriers are electrons.
A junction transistor is a transformer of resistance, which
can be achieved by inter changing the biasing across the
junction triode, hence its name is junction transistor.
The transistor is a current driven device, in which the
emitter controls the collector current.

Working of junction Transistor

a) p-n-p Transistor. The experimental arrangement is
shown in figure. The emitter base junction is forward
biased. It means the positive pole of emitter base battery
VBB is connected to emitter, and its negative pole to the
base. Collector base junction is reverse biased i.e. the
negative pole of the collector base battery VCC is
connected to collector and its positive pole to the base.

The resistance of emitter base junction is very low.

So the voltage of VBB (i.e VEB) is quite small ( 1.5 volt).
The resistance of collector base junction is very high. So
the voltage of VCC (i.e VCB) is quite large ( 45 volt).
Holes which are majority carriers in emitter (ptype semiconductor) are repelled towards base by positive
potential on emitter due to battery VBB` resulting emitter
current Ie. The base being thin and lightly doped (n-type
semiconductor) has low number density of electrons. When
holes enter the base region, then only few holes (says 5%
Ie = 0.05 Ie). The remaining 95% holes pass over to the
collector on account of high negative potential of collector
due to battery VCC, resulting collector current Ie (=95%Ie =
0.95 Ie).
As one hole reaches the collector, it is neutralized by the
flow of one electron from the negative terminal of the
battery VCC to collector through connecting wire. At the
same time a covalent bond is broken in the emitter, the
electron goes to the positive terminal of the battery V BB
through the connecting wire and hole produced begins to
move towards the base. Then one electron flows from
negative terminal of battery VBB to positive terminal of
battery VCC. When the hole coming from emitter combines
with the electron in the base, the deficiency of electron in

base is compensated by the flow of electron from negative

terminal of the battery VBB to base through connecting
wire. Thus the current in p-n-p transistor is carried by holes
and at the same time their concentration is maintained. But
in the external circuit the current is due to flow of
electrons. The direction of conventional current (of holes
currents) in the various arms of the circuit has been shown
by arrow heads in the figure. Thus in this case,
Ie = Ib + Ic
In the base Ie and Ie flow in opposite directions.
(b) n-p-n Transistor. In this case also, the emitter base
junction is forward biased i.e. the positive pole of emitter
base battery VBB is connected to the base and its negative
pole to emitter.
The resistance of the emitter base junction is very low.
So the voltage of VBB (i.e VEB) is quite small (1.5V).
The collector base junction is reversed biased i.e the
positive pole of the collector base battery VCC is connected
to the collector and negative pole to base. The resistance of
this junction is very high. So the voltage of VCC (i.e VCB) is
quite large (45).

Electrons which are majority carriers in emitter (n-type

semiconductor) are repelled towards base by negative
potential of VBB on emitter resulting emitter current Ie. The
base being thin and lightly doped (p-type semiconductor)
has low number density of holes. When electrons enter the
base region, then only a few holes (say 5%) get neutrilsed
by the electron hole combination, resulting base current Ib
( = 5% Ie = 0.05 Ie). The remaining 95% electrons pass
over to the collector, on account of high potential of
collector due to battery VCC, resulting collector current Ic
( = 95% Ie=0.95 Ie).
As one electron reaches the collector, it flows to the
positive terminal of battery VCC through connecting wire. At the
same time one electron flows from negative terminal of V CC to
positive terminal of VBB to emitter. When the electron coming
from the emitter combines with the hole on base, the deficiency
of hole in base is compensated by the breakage of covalent bond
there. The electrons so released flows to positive terminal of
battery VBB, through connecting wire. Thus n-p-n transistor, the
current is carried inside the transistor as well as in the external
circuit by the electrons. The direction of conventional current in
the various arms of the circuit has been shown by arrow heads in
the figure. Thus in this case,

Ie = Ib + Ic
In the base Ie and Ic flow in the opposite directions.

Modes of Study of Junction Transistors

A transistor can be studied with any one of its three
terminals grounded which would serve as a link for both, the
input and output voltages. Thus, there are three external circuit
connections for transistors as shown in the figures.

Advantages of Transistor
Transistor because of their many merits over vaccum
tubes, have practically completely replaced them in all the fields
of electronics. Some of the advantages of the transistor over the
vaccum tubes are as given below1- As transistors have no filaments, hence no power is needed
to heat them cause the emission of electrons.
2- Since no heating is required, transistors are set into operation
as soon as the circuit is switched on.
3- During operation, transistor does not produce any humming
noise.
4- Transistors require low voltage for their operation as
compared to vaccum tubes.
5- Owing to their small sizes, the circuits involving transistors
are very compact.
6- Transistors are shock proof.

7- Transistors are cheaper as compared to vaccum tubes.

8- Transistors have almost unlimited life.
9- As no vaccum has to create in transistors they have no
vaccum deterioration trouble.
Where as transistors enjoys a number of advantages over
vaccum tubes. They have following drawbacks which put
limit on their use in electronic circuitsDrawbacks
1- Noise level is higher as compared to that in the vaccum
tubes.
2- Ordinary semiconductor devices can not handle as much
power as ordinary vaccum tube can do.
3- In high frequency range, they have poor response.
4- The transistors are temperature sensitive. The maximum
temperature the transistor can withstand is very low (~50oc).
even a small over-heating spoils the transistor. This is
because, at higher temperature, the covalent bond breaks up
and the semiconductor piece forming the transistor becomes
conducting.

4.3Carbon Resistors
Generally, carbon resistors are used in electronic circuits. These
are made from mixtures of carbon black, a conducting material,

clay & resin as blinder which is non conductor. The mixture is

pressed hard and moduled into rods of appropriate diameter by
heating. The resistivity of the mixture is governed by the
relative proportion of carbon black which is the only
conducting material. The carbon resistors are usually available
with power rating (.5, 1 & 2w). The value of resistance on these
resistors is indicated by coloured bands, in transistor as a
switchs circuit, one carbon resistor (10K - 0.5W) is used.

Principle and Working of Transistor as

a Switch
In switching circuit a transistor is operated at cut of condition
and saturation for the on condition. The active, linear region on
the load line is passed through abruptly in switching from cut
off to saturation.

Working
The arrangement show in fig (a) is common collector
configuration. In this the base circuit current is adjusted by
100K variable resistor to make sure that the transistor works
as a switch.
The arrangement shown in fig (b) in common emitter
configuration. In this the base emitter potential is adjusted by

10KV variable resistor to make sure that the transistor works as

a switch.
In the adjustment made, the biases are so adjusted that
current does not flow, the arrangement works as an open switch.
When the adjustment is disturbed, the biases change and
current flows. The arrangement works as closed switch.
The cutoff region finds both junctions in reverse bias, and only
the reverse saturation current is present. In the saturation
condition both junction are in forward bias and the values of VCC
saturation and RCE saturation should be small in switching form
saturation to cut off, large single operation of the transistor
occur.
Prior to t = 0 in fig, the p-n-p transistor has been cut off. At
t = 0 a negative base voltage supplies the base current. There is
delay td during which charge is being supplied to build up a
hole concentration in the base and to charge the capacitance
associated with the emitter base and the base connector
junction.

VARIABLE RESISTANCE
Variable Resistance is a kind of resistance used for
the purpose of getting variable current. It is of great use in
Modern electronics. It consists of metal and a thin strip of metal
surrounded by wires. Its main purpose is adjust the flow of
current. It has three legs one in the centre and two in the
outermost part. It is normally small in size.
In the project TRANSISTOR AS SWITCH
variable resistance is of great use as in the given project
also it is used to adjust the flow of current. The connection
of variable resistance in the given project is shown in the
circuit diagram.