IMAGING EQUIPMENTS

X-RAY TUBE
An X-ray tube functions as a specific energy converter, receiving the electrical energy and converting it into two
other forms of energy: x-radiation and heat. Heat is considered the undesirable product of this conversion process;
therefore X-radiation is created by taking the energy from the electrons and converting it into photons. This very
specific energy conversion takes place in the X-ray tube.
Construction of the X-ray tube
The X-ray tube contains two principal elements:
cathode: provides a source of electrons
anode: acts as the target for electrons and releases x-rays
To summarize, X-rays are produced in a standard way: by accelerating electrons with a high voltage and allowing
them to collide with the focal spot. X-rays are produced when the electrons are suddenly decelerated upon collision
with the metal target. These X-rays are called the braking radiation (Brehmsstrahlung). If the electrons have high
energy, they can expel an electron out of the atomic shell of the bombarded atom. Electrons from higher state fill the
place of the expelled electron, emitting the X-ray photons with precise energies, determined by electron energy
levels. The X-rays produced in that way are called the Characteristic X-rays.

DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY
Digital radiography is a form of X-ray imaging, where digital X-ray sensors are used instead of traditional
photographic film. Advantages include time efficiency through bypassing chemical processing and the ability
to digitally transfer and enhance images. Also less radiation can be used to produce an image of similar
contrast to conventional radiography.
Instead of X-ray film, digital radiography uses a digital image capture device. This gives advantages of
immediate image preview and availability; elimination of costly film processing steps; a wider dynamic range,
which makes it more forgiving for over- and under-exposure; as well as the ability to apply special image
processing techniques that enhance overall display of the image.

COMPUTED

RADIOGRAPHY

Computed radiography (CR) uses a cassette similar to a film cassette. Instead of film, the cassette holds an imaging
plate (IP), which is similar to an intensifying screen. Instead of emitting light when x-rays interact with it, the IP
stores the x-ray energy in proportion to the intensity it receives. The stored energy is released as visible light when
a laser in the CR Reader scans the IP. The Reader creates a digital image file after processing the raw image. This
image file may be displayed on a video monitor (softcopy) or printed on a laser printer (hardcopy).
The CR process also decreases the efficient use of x-ray energy. In most clinical settings, radiographic technique
factors are increased when using CR to reduce noise in the image. Changing from a 400-speed film/screen system
to CR, which predominantly seems to be equivalent to a 200 speed film/screen system, usually will result in an
increased radiation dose.
There are disadvantages of CR imaging. There is no significant time saving over the use of film. The images still
require processing to retrieve the image, and CR plates must be erased in the Reader prior to reuse. Artifacts
unique to CR can be introduced in the digital image acquisition

FILM-SCREEN IMAGING
In screen/film radiography, the receptor consists of the film mounted in contact with either one or two intensifying
screens. Intensifying screens are thin sheets, or layers, of fluorescent materials. The screen-film combination is
housed in either a cassette or a film changer. The x-ray energy is absorbed by the intensifying screen material, and
a portion of it is converted into light. The light, in turn, exposes the film. Intensifying screens are used because film
is much more sensitive to light than to x-radiation; approximately 100 times as much x-radiation would be required
to expose a film without using intensifying screens. Unfortunately, intensifying screens introduce blurring into the
imaging process and places a limit on the visibility of detail that must be considered when selecting screens for
specific clinical applications.

FLUOROSCOPY

Fluoroscopy is a type of medical imaging that shows a continuous X-ray image on a monitor, much like an X-ray
movie. During a fluoroscopy procedure, an X-ray beam is passed through the body. The image is transmitted to a
monitor so the movement of a body part or of an instrument or contrast agent (X-ray dye) through the body can be
seen in detail.
Benefits

Barium X-rays and enemas (to view the gastrointestinal tract)

Catheter insertion and manipulation (to direct the movement of a catheter through blood vessels,
bile ducts or the urinary system)

Placement of devices within the body, such as stents (to open narrowed or blocked blood
vessels)

Angiograms (to visualize blood vessels and organs)

Orthopedic surgery (to guide joint replacements and treatment of fractures)

Radiation-related risks associated with fluoroscopy include:

radiation-induced injuries to the skin and underlying tissues (burns), which occur shortly after the
exposure, and

radiation-induced cancers, which may occur some time later in life.

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY

Computed tomography (CT) is an imaging procedure that uses special x-ray equipment to create a
series of detailed pictures, or scans, of areas inside the body. It is also called computerized tomography
and computerized axial tomography (CAT) scanning.

In cancer, CT may be used to help detect abnormal growths; to help diagnose tumors; to provide
information about the extent, or stage, of disease; to help in guiding biopsy procedures or in planning
treatment; to determine whether a cancer is responding to treatment; and to monitor for recurrence.

Although CT is an important tool in medicine, it has the potentiallike other sources of ionizing radiation
to cause cancer. People should discuss the risks and benefits of CT with their doctors.

MAGNETIC
IMAGING (MRI)

RESONANCE

An MRI (or magnetic resonance imaging) scan is a radiology technique that uses magnetism, radio
waves, and a computer to produce images of body structures. The MRI scanner is a tube surrounded by
a giant circular magnet. The patient is placed on a moveable bed that is inserted into the magnet. The
magnet creates a strong magnetic field that aligns the protons of hydrogen atoms, which are then
exposed to a beam of radio waves. This spins the various protons of the body, and they produce a faint
signal that is detected by the receiver portion of the MRI scanner. The receiver information is processed
by a computer, and an image is produced.
An MRI scan can be used as an extremely accurate method of disease detection throughout the body and is
most often used after the other testing fails to provide sufficient information to confirm a patient's diagnosis. In
the head, trauma to the brain can be seen as bleeding or swelling. Other abnormalities often found include
brain aneurysms, stroke, tumors of the brain, as well as tumors or inflammation of the spine.
It provides valuable information on glands and organs within the abdomen, and accurate information about the
structure of the joints, soft tissues, and bones of the body. Often, surgery can be deferred or more accurately
directed after knowing the results of an MRI scan.

POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET)

(PET) is a specialized radiology procedure used to examine various body tissues to identify certain conditions. PET may
also be used to follow the progress of the treatment of certain conditions. While PET is most commonly used in the fields
of neurology, oncology, and cardiology, applications in other fields are currently being studied.
PET is a type of nuclear medicine procedure. This means that a tiny amount of a radioactive substance, called a
radionuclide (radiopharmaceutical or radioactive tracer), is used during the procedure to assist in the examination of the
tissue under study. Specifically, PET studies evaluate the metabolism of a particular organ or tissue, so that
information about the physiology (functionality) and anatomy (structure) of the organ or tissue is evaluated, as well as its
biochemical properties. Thus, PET may detect biochemical changes in an organ or tissue that can identify the onset of a
disease process before anatomical changes related to the disease can be seen with other imaging processes, such as
computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

More specific reasons for PET scans include, but are not limited to, the following:
To diagnose dementias such as Alzheimer's disease, as well as other neurological conditions such as
Parkinson's disease (a progressive disease of the nervous system in which a fine tremor, muscle weakness,
and a peculiar type of gait are seen), Huntington's disease (a hereditary disease of the nervous system
which causes increasing dementia, bizarre involuntary movements, and abnormal posture), epilepsy (a brain
disorder involving recurrent seizures), and cerebrovascular accident (stroke)
To locate the specific surgical site prior to surgical procedures of the brain

 To evaluate the brain after trauma to detect hematoma (blood clot), bleeding, and/or perfusion (blood
and oxygen flow) of the brain tissue
To detect the spread of cancer to other parts of the body from the original cancer site
To evaluate the effectiveness of cancer treatment
To evaluate the perfusion to the myocardium (heart muscle) as an aid in determining the usefulness of a
therapeutic procedure to improve blood flow to the myocardium
To further identify lung lesions or masses detected on chest X-ray and/or chest CT
To assist in the management and treatment of lung cancer by staging lesions and following the progress
of lesions after treatment
To detect recurrence of tumors earlier than with other diagnostic modalities

NUCLEAR MEDICINE
Nuclear medicine is a medical specialty that uses small amounts of radioactive materials, known as
radiopharmaceuticals, for diagnostic, therapeutic, and research purposes. Highly simplified, a typical procedure
would involve discussing the procedure with the patient, injecting the radiopharmaceutical which localizes in the
area of interest, then is imaged using a special camera. It is something like taking an X-ray from the inside-out.
Nuclear medical procedures are safe, both for the patient and the technologist. Patients experience little or no
discomfort and do not require anesthesia. Exposure to ionizing radiationis monitored closely, and kept well below
safety limits.

SONOGRAPHY
Sonography is a diagnostic medical procedure that uses high frequency sound waves to produce dynamic visual

images of organs, tissues, or blood flow inside the body. This type of procedure is called a sonogram.
Sonography is increasingly being used in the detection and treatment of heart disease, heart attack, and vascular
disease that can lead to stroke. It is also used to guide needles.

PICTURE ARCHIVING AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM (PACS)

PACS is an evolving healthcare technology for the short and long term storage, retrieval, management, distribution
and presentation of medical images.
Such a system allows a healthcare organization (such as a hospital) to capture, store, view and share all types of
images internally and externally.

A PACS has four major components:

Imaging systems, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed axial tomography (CAT
scan) equipment.

A secure network for distribution and exchange of patient information.

Workstations or mobile devices for viewing, processing and interpreting images.

Archives for storage and retrieval of images and related documentation and reports.