(Q1)

The higher the gas velocity, the greater the resistance that will be encountered by the
down-flowing liquid and the higher the pressure drop across the packings. Too high a
gas velocity will lead to a condition known as flooding whereby the liquid filled the entire
column and the operation became difficult to carry out. High pressure will crush and
damage the packings in the column. We will begin our analysis by examining the
relationship between the gas pressure drop and gas velocity. Refer to the Figure below
that shows a typical gas pressure drop in a packed column.

The horizontal axis is the logarithmic value of the gas velocity G, and the vertical axis is
the logarithmic value of pressure drop per height of packing [ pressure drop in a packed
bed is the result of fluid friction that is created by the flow of gas and liquid around the
individual solid packing materials ].
With a dry packing (i.e. no liquid flow, L = 0), pressure drop increases as gas velocity
increases according to the linear relationship as shown by line a-a. This is a straight line
on a log-log plot. With liquid flowing in the column, the packings now become wetted
(irrigated). Part of void volume in the packings now filled with liquid, thereby reducing
the cross-sectional area available for gas flow. At the same gas velocity, the pressure
drop is higher for wetted packings compared to dry packings. For example, compare the
case for L = 0 vs. L = 5. The line for DP/L under wetted condition lies to the left of line aa. For a constant liquid flow (say L = 5), at low to moderate gas velocity G; the pressure
drop characteristics is similar to that of dry packings, i.e. section b-c of the plot is still
straight on log-log plot. Up to this point, there is an orderly trickling of the liquid down

the packings. There is no observable liquid being trapped among the packings (no liquid
hold-up). As the gas velocity is increased further, the pressure drop increased. Some
liquid started to be retained in the packings. When point c is reached, the quantity of
liquid retained in the packed bed increases significantly. There is a change in slope of
the line at point c as pressure drop increases more rapidly with G. Point c is known as
the loading point, as liquid starts to accumulate (load) in the packings. From point c to d
to e, there is a sharp increase in pressure drop at higher G: there is a greater amount of
liquid hold-up, a gradual filling of the packing voids with liquid (starting at the bottom of
the column), and the column is slowly "drowned" in the liquid. At point e, there is
another sharp change in the slope. At this point the entire column is filled liquid and the
gas now has to bubble through the liquid in the packing voids. The gas pressure drop is
now very high. Point e is known as the flooding point. The gas velocity at this point is
known as the flooding velocity (limiting velocity).
Points to note : - (1) at constant liquid rate, gas pressure drop increases with gas
velocity. - (2) at constant gas velocity, the gas pressure drop is higher at larger liquid
rate. - (3) each liquid rate has its own loading and flooding points. - (3) at higher liquid
rate, the loading and flooding points occur at lower gas pressure drop. Operation of a
gas absorption column is not practical above the loading point. For optimum design, the
recommended gas velocity is 1/2 of the flooding velocity. Alternatively, some design can
be based on a specified pressure drop condition, usually well below the pressure drop
at which flooding would occur.

(Q2)
This is a concept in the analysis of packed column centred on the method of transfer
units. In this method, height of packings required can be evaluated either based on
the gas-phase or the liquid-phase. The packed height (z) is calculated using formula:

Determination of the packed height can be based on either the gas-phase or the liquidphase.
For the gas-phase, we have: z = NOG x HOG

and KY is the overall gas-phase mass transfer coefficient. "a" is the packing parameter
that we had seen earlier (recall the topic on column pressure drop, e.g. Table 6.3) that
characterize the wetting characteristics of the packing material (area/volume).
KY has a unit of mole/(area.time.driving force), and "a" has a unit of (area/volume), the
combined parameter KY a will have the unit of mole/(volume.time.driving force), such as
kg-mole/(m3.s.mole fraction). As seen earlier, other than mole fraction, driving force can
be expressed in partial pressure (kPa, psi, mm-Hg), wt%, etc. y1* is the mole fraction of
solute in vapour that is in equilibrium with the liquid of mole fraction x1 and y2* is mole
fraction of solute in vapour that is in equilibrium with the liquid of mole fraction x2 .
The values of y1* and y2* can be obtained from the equilibrium line. (y1 - y1*) is the
concentration difference driving force for mass transfer in the gas phase at point 1
(bottom of column) and (y2 - y2*) is the concentration difference driving force for mass
transfer in the gas phase at point 2 (top of column).

[ Point P (x, y) as shown is any point in the column. The concentration difference driving
force for mass transfer in the gas phase at point P is (y - y*) as shown previously, this
time no subscripts are shown. ]
NOTE: Both equilibrium line and operating line are straight lines under dilute conditions.
Alternatively, equilibrium values y1* and y2* can also be calculated using Henry's Law (
y = m x, where m is the gradient) which is used to represents the equilibrium
relationship at dilute conditions. Thus, we have: y1* = m x1 ; y2* = m x2
Similarly for the liquid-phase we have: z = NOL x HOL

and KX is the overall liquid-phase mass transfer coefficient, and "a" is the packing
parameter seen earlier. Again, normally both KX and "a" combined as a single
parameter. Likewise, x1* is the mole fraction of solute in liquid that is in equilibrium with
the vapour of mole fraction y1 and x2* is mole fraction of solute in liquid that is in
equilibrium with the vapour of mole fraction y2 . Refer to Figure 134 for finding values of
x1* and x2* from the equilibrium line. Alternatively, x1* = y1 /m and x2* = y2 /m.
(x1* - x1) is the concentration difference driving force for mass transfer in the liquid
phase at point 1 (bottom of column) and (x2* - x2) is the concentration difference driving
force for mass transfer in the liquid phase at point 2 (top of column). Using either gasphase or liquid-phase formula should yield the same required packing height :