Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 522 535

Emotions, trust and relationship development in business relationships:

A conceptual model for buyerseller dyads
Poul Houman Andersen*, Rajesh Kumar 1
The Aarhus School of Business, Department of Management and International Business, Haslegardsvej 12, 8210 Aarhus V, Denmark
Received 3 May 2003; received in revised form 4 August 2004; accepted 7 October 2004
Available online 1 July 2005

Abstract
Existing research on buyer seller relationships has focused on the role played by trust in shaping the dynamics of interpersonal
interaction between the buyer and the seller. While this is undoubtedly an important variable in governing the interactional dynamics it is by
no means the only variable. The paper begins by reviewing the existing literature on buyer seller relationships. The role played by emotions
is articulated. Finally, it is recognized that the emotions that emerge in a buyer seller relationship do so at multiple levels. A model and
propositions highlighting the impact of emotions on interpersonal relationships are developed. Illustrative cases are used to ground the
propositions empirically.
D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Marketing relationships; Emotions; Inter- and intra-group behaviors; Business negotiations

1. Introduction
It is widely recognized that personal relations play an
important role in business-to-business (B2B) marketing.
A lack of a positive personal chemistry is an often-cited
reason for why business relationships either fail to
develop and/or fail to be sustained over time. The idea
that emotions play an important role in business relationships is also a theme that is also widely reflected in the
marketing research literature. In B2B literature, interpersonal dynamics determine the fate of many buyer
seller activities (e.g., Brierty, Eckles, & Reeder, 1998;
Coviello, Brodie, & Munro, 2000; Geyskens & Steenkamp, 2000; Keillor, Parker, & Petijohn, 2000). A
number of studies have highlighted the role played by
emotions in marketing channel relationships (e.g., Geyskens, Steenkamp, & Kumar, 1998).

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +45 89 48 66 30; fax: +45 89 48 61 25.

E-mail addresses: poa@asb.dk (P.H. Andersen),
rku@asb.dk (R. Kumar).
1
Tel.: +45 89 48 66 30; fax: +45 89 48 61 25.
0019-8501/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2004.10.010

Compared to one-off transactions, business relationships

are contingent on recurrent personal interaction among
individuals from both the buying and the selling organizations. The interaction is critically influenced by (a) the
actors behavioral modes of interaction, i.e. whether they
behave in a cooperative or a non-cooperative manner; (b)
actors perceptions of their counterparts trustworthiness; and
(c) the behavioral dynamic that emerges from the actors
perceptions of each other and the behaviors exhibited by
them towards their counterpart.
Most of the research on buyer seller relationships has
focused on the role played by trust in shaping the
dynamics of interpersonal interaction between the buyer
and the seller. While this is undoubtedly an important
variable in governing the interactional dynamics it is by no
means the only variable (e.g., Barry & Oliver, 1996;
Kumar, 1999). It is now increasingly being recognized that
emotions play a crucial role in mediating the dynamics of
interpersonal interaction (e.g., Kumar, 1997; Lawler,
2001). It is also worth noting that existing conceptualizations of trust in the literature view trust primarily from a
cognitive/rationalistic viewpoint and in doing so ignore the
more expressive aspects of human interaction (Anderson &

P.H. Andersen, R. Kumar / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 522 535

Narus, 1990; Spekman, Isabella, MacAvoy, & Forbes,

1996). A focus on cognition alone is insufficient as trust is
inherently emotional (Jones & George, 1998). Narratives
from business life demonstrate that mutual adaptation and
the development of trust often occur without a calculative
frame in mind (Wicks, Berman, & Jones, 1999). A lack of
personal chemistry or negative emotions may also
prolong trust building or terminate relationships. This is
frequently cited as an important aspect in marketing
alliance failure (Bruner & Spekman, 1998; Tully, 1996).
A particularly dramatic example of the role played by
negative emotions can be found in the break up of the
alliance between Meiji Milk and Borden (Cauley de la
Sierra, 1995). Although the relationship between the
companies had existed for over 20 years it became
increasingly acrimonious with the American firm Borden
accusing the Japanese partner of deliberately wrecking the
relationship.
Positive and negative emotions shape actors behavior
while simultaneously conditioning their perceptions of
trustworthiness of each other. In other words, emotions
play a crucial role in the initiation, the development and the
sustenance of relationships over time. The existing literature
has for the most part dealt with the role played by emotion
only superficially, and only limited attempts have been
made to conceptualize how emotions influence the development of buyer seller relationships. It is the objective of this
paper to remedy this gap in the literature. The paper begins
by reviewing the existing literature on buyer seller relationships. Then, the role played by emotions is articulated. The
central argument is that emotions influence the development
of trust with trust influencing subsequent interaction. It is
also noted that emotions may have a direct impact on the
behavioral interaction, irrespective of their impact through
the mediating mechanism of trust. Finally, it is recognized
that the emotions that emerge in a buyer seller relationship
do so at multiple levels, namely, the individual, the
intergroup and the interorganizational levels. A conceptual
model and a set of propositions highlighting the impact of
emotions on interpersonal relationships are developed.
Illustrative cases are used to ground the propositions
empirically.

2. Business relationships: a review of the literature

A major theme in the emerging literature on business
relationships is that relationships provide companies with
the opportunity of joint value creation either through
rationalization and/or learning. In order to reap these
benefits companies must collaborate and this invites the
possibility of opportunism on part of ones partner. The fact
that ones partner in the process of collaborative activity
may exploit one makes the decision-makers somewhat
cautious. This tendency is exacerbated in relationships
where the business partners must learn about each others

523

activities and share proprietary knowledge. The mixed

motive character of many of these relationships shapes the
way that the partners behave, the judgments that they form
about each other, and the overall commitment they
demonstrate in the relationship.
Scholars working in the field of business relationships
have highlighted the importance of interpersonal trust in the
initiation, the development and the sustenance of these
relationships (e.g., Andersen, 2001; Cova & Salle, 2000;
Witkowski & Thibodeau, 1999). Trust implies a high level
of confidence among ones partner (Das & Teng, 1998) and
for that reason is likely to lessen the need for excessive
contracting and monitoring (Morgan & Hunt, 1994). Trust is
also likely to be associated with a high level of psychological commitment to the relationship among the partners
(Kumar & Nti, 1998). One implication of this is that the
level of effort put in by the partners in maintaining and
deepening the relationship will be of high quality. Finally,
trust is also likely to promote flexibility and adaptability and
in doing so it may strengthen the relationship between the
cooperating firms (Arino, dela Torre, & Ring, 2001). Most
studies on trust in interfirm relationships define trust as the
extent to which a firm believe that its exchange partner is
honest and/or benevolent (cf. Geyskens et al., 1998).
Conceptually honesty and benevolence are distinct: While
benevolence concerns the belief that ones partner is
genuinely interested in ones welfare and seek joint gains
from that basis, honesty concerns the belief that ones
partner is reliable, i.e. fulfils promised role obligations
(Anderson & Narus, 1990). Even though honesty and
benevolence are conceptually distinct, they are typically
analytically inseparable, and emotions are expected to load
equally on shaping business partners perceptions of honesty
and benevolence.
Although the importance of interpersonal dynamics is
widely recognized in the literature the role played by
emotions in shaping these dynamics has yet to be explicitly
articulated. For example, Gummesson (1996) describes
personal relations as a mega-structure that exists above
and beyond the market but does not elucidate the linkage
between the market and non-market forces in shaping the
relationship. Likewise, Cova and Salle (2000) talk about the
emotional superstructure of a relationship but do not
explicitly delineate the nature of this superstructure. However, one does find a few streams of research that implicitly,
if not explicitly, highlight the role that may be played by
emotions. In an empirical study, Witkowski and Thibodeau
(1999) stress the importance of positive emotions in
establishing and maintaining international buyer supplier
relationships.
Similarly, some other theorists have highlighted the
importance of relationship atmosphere (Hallen & Sandstrom, 1991; Sandstrom, 1992). Relationship atmosphere is
defined by Williamson (1975) as the emotional setting in
which business interaction takes place. Atmosphere consists of the rules (relational norms, emotions and percep-

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tions held) that govern exchange activities. Despite the

relevance and seminal contributions of the relationship
atmosphere concept, the concept as articulated in the
existing literature is not without its shortcomings. As
currently conceptualized the concept of relationship atmosphere addresses six specific atmospheric dimensions: (1)
power/dependence balance; (2) cooperativeness/competitiveness; (3) trust/opportunism; (4) understanding; (5)
closeness/distance; and (6) commitment. First, it is not at
all clear to us that the six dimensions are independent
constructs. There is a need for a better specification of the
constructs themselves as well as of the relationship among
them. Secondly, some of the items included in this
dimension define the context of the interaction rather than
being an inherent aspect of the interaction process per se.
Finally, the different elements constituting the relationship
atmosphere dimension can be viewed as outcomes of
specific interactions rather than capturing how emotions
actually shape relationship development.

3. The concept of emotion

An emotion is a high intensity affective state that is a
product of the actors ability or inability to attain their goals
(e.g., Lazarus, 1991; Oatley, 1992). Actors experience
positive emotions when they are able to attain their desired
goals and they experience negative emotions when they are
unable to achieve their desired goals. The determination
whether a goal has been attained or not is a product of an
appraisal process. Appraisal theorists posit that emotions
reflect the emergence of a discrepancy between an actual
and a desired outcome (e.g., Frijda, 1986; Roseman, 1991).
The appraisal process may or may not be a conscious
process (e.g., Bagozzi, Gopinath, & Nyer, 1999) but it is
fundamental to meaning creation (e.g., Planalp, 1999). As
Planalp (1999: 23) notes Appraisal is not only a matter of
deciding whether an event is good or bad, your fault or
mine, frightening or manageable; it is also the process of
understanding the meaning of events in the broadest and

deepest sense. Emotions vary in their frequency, duration

and intensity (Kumar, 1997). It is also worth noting that
evaluation (good, neutral or bad), potency (strong vs. weak)
and activity (active vs. passive) are also a fundamental
dimension of emotions (Heise, 1987).
The impact of emotions is multifaceted. Emotions shape
behavior (Ben ZeEv, 2001); influence decision-making
(e.g., Carnevale & Isen, 1986; Isen, Shalker, Clark, & Karp,
1978); and condition the negotiating strategies used by
actors (e.g., Greenhalgh & Chapman, 1998). The existence
of a reciprocal linkage between emotions and cognition
with cognitive states giving rise to emotions and
emotions shaping cognitive states is maintained. In this
paper it is argued that emotions influence perceptions of
the other partys behavior. There is a considerable amount
of evidence suggesting that emotions influence the
perceptions of the trustworthiness of the counterpart
(Kumar, 1997). It is also maintained that emotions
determine whether the behavior of the actors is framed
positively or negatively. The term frame refers to how
actors construe of or define the situation (Lewicki, Barry,
Saunders, & Minton, 2003). Scholars have identified a
number of alternative frames that may be used by
individuals in a given situation (Gray, 1997; Gray &
Donnellon, 1989). Of particular relevance in this context
is the loss gain frame. In the paper it is suggested that
positively framed behavior would highlight the potentiality of gain in an interaction whereas a negatively framed
behavior would highlight the potentiality of loss in a
given interaction. If the prospect of gain is more salient
in an interaction people are likely to enact behaviors that
may lead to the successful completion of a transaction
whereas if the prospect of loss is more salient people
may well behave in ways that may undermine the
possibility of a successful completion. It is also claimed
that positive outcomes will tend to reinforce trust while
negative outcomes may undermine them. Relatedly, trust
or lack of trust may also have an impact on subsequent
cognitions. The thrust of the argument is encapsulated in
Fig. 1.

PSYCHOLOGICAL STATES
Cognition

Affect

positively
vs negatively
framed
behavior
perception of
other party's
behavior

Behavioral
Outcomes

Reinforce or lessen
trust

Fig. 1. The causal linkage between affect, behavioral outcomes and trust in business relationships.

P.H. Andersen, R. Kumar / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 522 535

3.1. Emotions and judgments of trustworthiness

The initiation and the development of trust among
persons involved in exchange activities has been described
as one of the most crucial aspects of relationship marketing.
There is a considerable amount of research documenting the
importance of interpersonal trust (or lack thereof) on buyer
seller relationships. For example, research on marketing
channels has demonstrated the importance of social satisfaction on trust and commitment (Geyskens et al., 1998).
In buyer seller relationships, the trustworthiness of
exchange partners has been defined in terms of motive
and behavior predictability (Morgan & Hunt, 1994). The
process of trust formation is most often seen as a process of
experiential learning in which expectations are developed,
tested and reformulated through critical encounters (Dwyer,
Scurry, & Oh, 1987; Ford, 1980; Wilson & Jantrania, 1995;
Witkowski & Thibodeau, 1999). Trust is widely viewed as a
strategic asset in business relationships. It permits buyers
and sellers to exchange valuable information without the
concern that their partner may exploit them (Ring, 1996). In
other words, trust is intimately related to the desire to take
the leap of faith into a binding business arrangement,
involving high-risk coordination (Dwyer et al., 1987). Trust
formation in business relationships is primarily discussed
from a rationalistic/cognitive viewpoint that has its origins
in the work of social exchange theorists like Blau (1964)
and Emerson (1962). This perspective views trust building
from a rational perspective given the pre-existence of
enablers and insurers of trust (Bradach & Eccles, 1989).
An important enabler is the recognition by the exchange
partners that they can gain more from long-term collaboration than from short-term transactions or defection (Ford,
Hakansson, & Johanson, 1986). A related factor is the cost
associated with alternative governance forms. The ability to
safeguard market transactions via contract is impeded by the
fact that in many instances the buyer seller relationship is
often co-evolving. Ex ante rulings on perceived contract
violations are problematical inasmuch as they necessitate
mutual learning. It is for this reason that firms often stick
with exchange partners with whom they have interacted
previously.
Furthermore, as game theorists have pointed out,
decision-makers limited information-processing capacity
makes global ex ante calculations of others potentially
harmful intentions less efficient than relying on ex post
experience building (Axelrod, 1984). It is also the case that
in business markets there are several retaliatory mechanisms
available for ensuring that defection of trust can be
punished. Social mechanisms such as restricted access,
reputation and collective sanctions provide the conditions
for reliance on trust (Jones, Hesterly, & Borgatti, 1997).
The cognitive perspective notwithstanding, there is a
growing belief that factors other than cognition are
important in initiating and sustaining relationships. Interpersonal interaction is not carried out in an emotional

525

vacuum (Hallen, Johanson, & Seyed-Mohamed, 1991).

Wicks et al. (1999) note, for example, that positive emotions
are a sine qua non in trust building, as they allow the actors
to take the initial leap of faith, expecting that trust will be
honored. The notion that emotions shape perceptions of the
others trustworthiness is consistent with a wide body of
research suggesting that people frequently use their feelings
as an information source for evaluating others trustworthiness (e.g., Forgas, 1992). It has been argued by many that
affect promotes deeper and more stable levels of trust than
those purely associated with rational arguments (McAllister,
1995; Williams, 2001). McAllister (1995) points out that
trust based on emotional states such as care and concern is
deeper than trust based primarily on predictability. A study
of international strategic alliances by Cullen, Johnson, and
Sakano (2000) drew a distinction between credibility trust,
which constitutes the rational component of trust building
and benevolent trust, which constitutes the emotional
dimension.
3.2. Emotions and behavior
A major aspect of emotions is that they have an
immediate and a direct impact on actors behaviors (e.g.,
Ben Zeev, 2000; Frijda, 1986). Different emotions are
associated with different behaviors. For example, the
emotion of fear induces the individuals to withdraw from
the interaction while the emotion of anger induces the
individual to act in a hostile manner against the agent who
has instigated the persons anger. Theorists have also drawn
a distinction between agitation-related vs. dejection-related
emotions (Higgins, 1987). Agitation related emotions in the
nature of tension, anxiety and/or fear impel the individuals
to withdraw from the interaction while dejection related
emotions in the nature of frustration; disappointment and/or
dissatisfaction compel the actors to become much more
aggressive in their behavior. On the other hand, strong and
positive emotions impose a high load on decisions and may
enforce overruling analytical heuristics and jumping to
conclusions, impeding rational decision-making (Gallois,
1994). The recognition that emotions have a direct impact
on behavior has a number of different implications for
understanding the dynamics of the buyer seller relationships. First of all, if negative emotions emerge very early in
a buyer seller relationship and they are not dealt with by
one or all of the parties appropriately the probability of a
successful consummation of a deal is significantly reduced.
If, by contrast, emotions emerge at a later phase parties will
need to exert effort to manage the ensuing conflicts in an
appropriate way. The effective management of emotions at
this phase may strengthen the relationship whereas an
ineffective management of emotions will surely worsen the
relationship and may well lead to premature termination.
Often enough in interpersonal interactions a negative
vicious circle develops. In these cases the negative emotions
experienced by the different parties feed on each other

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potentially leading to conflict escalation (George, Jones, &

Gonzales, 1998; Kumar, 1999). Vicious circles are hard to
contain and may become even more problematical in
relationships that cross national boundaries (Kumar,
2004). Secondly, if a buyer seller relationship experiences
negative emotions frequently crisis management will be the
order of the day. This increases the transaction costs for
managing the relationship and one or all of the other parties
may feel compelled to search for new business partners.
Thirdly, the greater the intensity of the negative emotions
that emerge in interactions between the buyer and the seller
the more problematical it would be to repair the relationship.
Indeed, at a certain critical threshold there may well be no
option but to terminate the relationship.
3.3. The impact of emotions at the individual, the intergroup
and the top management levels
Although emotion is a micro level variable it can
potentially affect behavior not just at the individual level
but also at the group and the top management levels. House,
Rousseau, and Thomas-Hunt (1995) suggest that micro
level variables affect macro level variables when there is a
high level of situational ambiguity and/or when the different
units in an organization are tightly coupled with each other.
Tight coupling means that the actions of the different
organizational entities are highly interrelated with each other
whereas situational ambiguity necessitates the importance of
collective sense making in arriving at a shared definition of
the situation. Actors will be strongly motivated to engage in
collective sense making when the situational ambiguity is
high. It is for this reason that it is useful to assess the impact of
emotions on buyer seller relationships at (a) the individual
level; (b) the intergroup level; and (c) the interorganizational
level. The emotions that emerge at the individual level have a
strong impact on how easily the actors are either able to
initiate a relationship, sustain it, or deepen it should that be a
strategic priority. In other words, emotions have a powerful
impact on the level of cooperative behavior exhibited by
individuals (Jones & George, 1998). Cooperative behavior
may mean, for example, that the actors are willing to
exchange relevant information in a timely way, are inclined
to assist the other party should their be a need of doing so,
are concerned not just about their welfare but also about
the welfare of the other party. Cooperative behavior is
essential in fashioning and sustaining an integrative agreement, i.e. an agreement that is mutually beneficial for all
concerned.
Intergroup interactions are fraught with tension as the
emergence of new relationships leads to re-drawing of group
boundaries, which may affect the individuals identity, and
their social position in the preexisting groups of which they
are currently a member (Gould, Ebers, & Clinchy, 1999). To
begin with people are uncomfortable with a change in their
status, and especially so, if the change may have negative
connotations. Secondly, people possess positive feelings

towards the social groups with which they identify

themselves, whereas they may hold neutral or even negative
feelings toward members of other groups. The negative
feelings towards members of the other group are likely to be
enhanced when the groups see themselves in competition
with each other. The emergence of negative emotions
lessens the possibility of cooperative behavior for the reason
that it decreases the motivation of the group members to
trust others coming from a different group (Williams, 2001).
One would surmise that the greater the cultural distance
between the partner firms, the greater the impact of negative
emotions on cooperative behavior.
The emotional dynamics in buyer seller relationships
get activated not simply at the individual or the intergroup
level but may also get activated at the top management
level. This is particularly likely to be the case when the
buyer seller relationship is a strategic one. It is surmised
that the emergence of emotions at this level has a
phenomenological significance that is qualitatively different
from what occurs at the individual or the intergroup levels
(Kumar, 2002). The emotional dynamics that get instigated
at this level, no matter how rare, are of crucial significance
because the decision-makers at this level can crucially
decide as to whether to continue or discontinue the
relationship. In other words, what happens at this level
has a decisive strategic significance. A good example of this
is the highly emotionally charged conflict that developed
between General Motors and Volkswagen when one of
General Motors employees defected to Volkswagen (Puri,
1997). As Puri (1997: 24) points out It had been an ugly,
very public war, dragging across the courtrooms of two
continents, costing each company millions of dollars, and
even threatening to destabilize German American relations. While the parties had made attempts in the
intervening period to settle the dispute, their attempts to
do so had not been successful. The dispute settlement was
facilitated by third party mediation and its success was
enhanced by the realization among the parties that the costs
of not resolving the dispute were becoming larger by the
day. The nature of the final agreement called for both parties
to exchange what Puri calls intentionally ambiguous
letters, a reduction in the level of trade among the two
parties, a payment of US$100 million dollars by VW to
GM, and the ouster of Lopez from Volkswagen. This was an
intractable conflict, which was not easily settled because it
involved management at the highest levels of the organization and reflected a strong feeling of bitterness and
resentment that had developed among the parties.

4. Emotions and the development of business

relationships: a model and propositions
The business relationship cycle is usually conceptualized
as a discrete process, comprising the stages of initiation,
development, management and termination (Dwyer et al.,

P.H. Andersen, R. Kumar / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 522 535

1987; Ford, 1980; Frazier, 1983). The nature of interpersonal interaction is different at each of these stages
(Hallen & Johanson, 1990). It is also worth noting that at
each of these stages a number of individuals are involved
each of whom plays a different role (Kumar & Andersen,
2000). Thus, as argued in the earlier part of the paper the
impact of emotions on the evolution of the relations may be
studied either at the individual, the intergroup and/or the top
management level. At an individual level it is important to
differentiate between those involved directly in the interorganizational process (so-called boundary spanners) and
those only indirectly related to it. Likewise at a group level a
distinction between groups of individuals directly affected
by the initiation, management, termination and possible reestablishment of buyer seller relationships and those outside this process can be made. Adding to the complexity of
the analysis is the dynamic nature of the groupings of
individuals and the demarcation of boundaries in relation to
these groups. As buyer seller relationships evolve, individuals develop personal bonds with personnel located in
the exchange partner. Moreover, the successful development
of business relationships is associated with increasing
commitment and mutual adaptation, involving an increasing
number of individuals and departments on both sides of the
buyer seller dyad. Therefore, personnel groupings indirectly involved in the initiation phase of the business
relationship may become directly involved as the relationship commences. Finally, new personnel groupings (i.e.
interorganizational task forces) may be formed during the
relationship development and others (i.e. negotiation teams
established to initiate the relationship processes) may
dissolve.
For the purposes of this paper differentiated positions of
individuals and groups present in the buyer seller relationship formation process have been identified. These roles are
portrayed in Fig. 2.
4.1. Emotions at the individual level
As argued earlier buyer seller relationships have the
potential for generating negative as well as positive emotional reactions among individuals. The intensity of the
emotional reaction among the involved actors depends on a
number of different factors. The greater the unexpectedness

Fig. 2. Organizational groupings and boundary spanners in buyer seller

relationships.

527

and the counternormative behavior of the buyer and/or the

seller the greater the intensity of the emotional reaction in
the other party. It is also important to be cognizant of the
fact that there are individual differences in terms of how
people experience and respond to emotions. A number of
individual difference variables have been identified in the
literature. Positive vs. negative affectivity (Watson & Clark,
1984), emotional intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990), the
need for affect (Maio & Esses, 2001) are some of them. For
example, individuals who score high on positive affectivity
may either not experience negative emotions when unable to
complete their goal or may experience them at a much lower
intensity level. Similarly individuals who are emotionally
intelligent will be able to discern the emotions of the other
party and for that reason act in ways that will facilitate
interaction. Likewise individuals who are high in the need
for emotions are more likely to let their emotions shape their
behavior. Other factors influencing the intensity of the
emotional response are the nature of the prior relationship
between the individuals in the buyer seller organizations,
the complexity of the proposed relationship, and/or the
experience of the individuals in initiating and maintaining
these relationships.
4.2. Emotions at the intergroup level
It has been pointed out earlier that buyer seller relationships also activate distinctive group identities with the
associated implication that the group members have a
positive view of their group members and a negative view
of their outgroup members. Relatedly, it is also important to
note that some individuals and social groups may be closer
to the organizational boundary than others. A key implication of this is that the formation of buyer seller relationships affects social groups differently with the consequence
that the different groups even within an organization may
experience different emotional states. The crucial implication of this is that if an organization is not unified itself how
can it send a consistent message to its partner?
A distinction between two such intraorganizational
groups is drawn, namely (a) organizational members, i.e.
individuals who do not interact with the buyer or supplier
in question, and (b) boundary spanners, i.e. individuals
from the buying and the selling organization who are
directly interacting with each other. Organizational members who play boundary spanner roles are not only
members of a parent organization and subject to expectations and influence attempts of internal members of other
groups but are also members of a boundary interaction
system, which stretches across organizational boundaries.
Marketeers, purchasers and other so-called boundary
spanners act as links between buying and selling
companies. Generally their function is to coordinate work
and ensure a smooth communication between the respective companies. The notion that boundary spanning is an
important function of top management is well demonstra-

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P.H. Andersen, R. Kumar / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 522 535

ted in an empirical study by Hallen (1986) who showed

that between 10 and 20 persons typically assumed the role
as boundary spanners on each side of the marketing dyad.
They played multiple roles such as (i) representatives of
their parent organization to the buyer or seller, (ii)
representatives of the buyer/seller to members of their
parent organization and (iii) as negotiators.
The emotional states associated with this role represent
very different interests and for this reason will generate
different emotional reactions within individuals within the
same organization. For example, when the Dutch company Phillips Medical B.V. decided to dismantle parts of
their production activities, reduce staff and develop close
relationships with Danprint, a trusted Danish supplier, this
was perceived very differently among those directly
involved and those indirectly affected. Even though there
was clearly a positive emotional climate among the
engineers from the Danish supplier and the Dutch buyer,
the proposed outsourcing caused fear and anger towards
the Danish supplier among the employees in Phillips
Medical who were affected by the lay-off. Consequently,
they strongly resisted sharing any knowledge with
representatives from this supplier, which harmed the
buyer seller relationship development process considerably (Andersen, 1995). In order to settle this problem and
problems with other suppliers taking over previously in
sourced activities a major reorganization was needed. In
one particular case, employees were offered the possibility
of establishing a company for themselves, and linking to
Phillips Medical as suppliers. This, along with other
actions such as suppliers taking over some of the Phillips
workers, eventually solved the problems faced, and
affected the emotional state of the group, so that more
mixed perceptions and emotional states were present
among the workers at Phillips rather than purely negative.
Likewise, it is reasonable to imagine that a similar process
can occur from the perspective of the seller. For instance,
changing the focus from one key customer to another may
affect resource priorities and the interests of social groups
in a given company, with a similar effect on the
relationship. Although the impact of negative interest
interdependence among different roles has been highlighted it is useful to note that positive interest interdependence may also exist as well. This leads us to
Proposition 1a.
Proposition 1a. The emotional states will be similar if there
is a positive interdependence of interests among them and
will be dissimilar if the interdependence of interests is
negative.
This is not to say that all buyer seller relationships
generate differentiated emotional states within an organization. Very often the consequences of forming relationships
with specific buyers and sellers are less clear ex ante. This
implies that the strength of emotional states may vary,
depending on the specific partnership in question. It is also

the case that in some cases, buyer seller relationships

involve very few individuals or groups within an organization. One implication of this is that while some
individuals may experience emotions of strong intensity
the emotions may not be globally diffused within the
organization. This leads to the following proposition:
Proposition 1b. The intensity of the emotional states among
organizational members and boundary spanners will be
similar if there is positive interdependence among them but
will be dissimilar if there is negative interdependence
among them.
Relationship development is an evolutionary process in
which existing social groups may disband and new groups
may be formed. One consequence of this is that the
emotional dynamics co-evolves with the business relationship cycle. Table 1 highlights the co-evolution of the
emotional cycle with the relationship cycle. The relationship cycle is a developmental cycle entailing the initiation,
development, termination and re-establishment of relationships and it co-evolves with the emotional states among
peer groups and boundary spanners. Consistent with
research on emotion, i.e. Heise (1987) and Heise and
Thomas (1989), the emotional states in terms of the
evaluation potency activity framework are used here,
which, based on cross-cultural research in more than 20
countries, revealed three universal dimensions of emotional
responses. Evaluation concerns the positive, neutral or
negative direction of emotions; potency concerns whether
an emotional state is powerful and dominant or whether it
is powerless. Finally, activation concerns whether an
emotional state appears lively or quiet. For instance, a
positive feeling may be more or less potent (compare
being happy with being overjoyed) and be articulated more
or less subtle.
The centric view, i.e. seeing the development of affective
states across the business relationship cycle from the buyer
or the seller point of view, is not employed. The reason for
this is a belief in the interaction process to be an
interdependent one in which there is mutual interpenetration
of partner by another, albeit in varying degrees.
In the following section the phases of relationship
development are described along with the associated
emotional dynamics and how they typically are expected
to affect trust building in the relationship. Clearly, the
study is partial and a simplified view of a complex
reality, since emotional dynamics outside those created by
the business relationship may affect the development of
trust as well. However, a consistent relationship between
the relationship stages, emotional dynamics stemming
from individuals and groups and trust building is
expected, as outlined in Table 1. The ability to predict
these affective states is based on the notion that emotions
are highly normatively defined. I.e. certain emotional
patterns are culturally reproduced and are supposed to fit
particular circumstance as a consequence of socialization

P.H. Andersen, R. Kumar / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 522 535

529

Table 1
A conceptual overview of emotional states among different groupings in relationship development

Boundary
spanner
individuals
Boundary
spanning
group(s)
Peer groups

Implications
for trust
building

Initiation

Development

Voluntary termination

Forced termination

Re-establishment
(following voluntary
termination)

Medium strength,
active,
positive anxiousness
Not established at
this stage

High strength, active,

positive joy

Low strength, active,

negative sadness

High strength, active,

positive anticipation

Medium or low
strength, active,
positive anticipation
High strength,
active, positive joy

Low strength,
passive,
negative fear

Low strength, active,

neutral/positive
anticipation

Medium strength,
active,
neutral confusion
Low strength, active
acceptance

Medium strength,
active, negative
anger
High strength,
active confusion
High strength,
passive, positive
relief

Anxiousness increases
incentives for trust
building by boundary
spanning individuals
but is constrained by
negative emotions such
as fear among peers
resisting change

Trust building
enforced by the
dynamic interplay
of positive emotions
shared and reinforced
among boundary
spanners and boundary
spanner groups

Low strength,
neutral, passive
compliance or
avoidance
Emotional states
following from
re-establishment of
relationship lead to
a gradual rebuilding
of trust

processes. This means that emotional responses can be

patterned to some extent (Heise & Calhan, 1995). Furthermore, the observations are empirically grounded using
illustrative case examples to highlight the usefulness of the
framework.

5. Initiation
At the initiation phase, Dwyer et al. (1987) note that the
actors are engaged in finding the right partner for
collaboration. To this end, the potential partners consider
the obligations, benefits and burdens and the possibility of
exchange. According to Dwyer et al. (1987) the exploratory
relationship is very fragile in the sense that minimal
investment and interdependence guarantee that termination
would not be a problem if circumstances warranted it. In a
similar vein, Heide (1994) notes that relationship initiation
entails an evaluation of potential exchange partners, initial
negotiations about the potential relationship, and some
adaptation if the collaboration goes forward. Ford (1980)
notes that at this stage the partners do not know each other
very well and for this reason there is considerable
uncertainty. While the partners may be aware of the risks
involved, they may have little or no evidence of how to
judge their partners commitment to the relationship.
Although there may be uncertainty in the organization as
to whether or not it is best to proceed with the relationship
this uncertainty may not be universally shared. The
boundary spanners are likely to be positively biased towards
the formation of this relationship for a number of different
reasons. First, the initiation of new relationships provides
new possibilities for boundary spanners in terms of
recognition and achievement. Given that it is their job to

Emotional states
created
from voluntary
termination
have limited effect
on established trust

Negative and
strong emotional
states created
from forced
termination erode
existing trust and
may even create
distrust

initiate these relationships the fact that a relationship has

been established would bring them credit. It is also the case
that while the benefits for the boundary spanners are
immediate the potential costs are not immediately apparent.
It is quite possible that the boundary spanner may have
moved on to another position by the time that it becomes
clear that the relationship is not working.
The rest of the organizational members may not be as
enthusiastic about the relationship. They may either
experience negative emotions or a neutral affective state at
the establishment of new relationships with buyers and/or
sellers. Often, the establishment of a new relationship is
perceived as a possible breach of existing practices, which
may hinder or delay the group members in fulfilling their
existing obligations. This may generate negative emotions
in the form of insecurity and anxiety. A number of empirical
studies have documented the tension that often exists
between the engineering and the marketing group in an
organization. Engineers find that marketers often oversell
the production ability of the organization, whereas marketers find the attitude of engineers hindering their abilities in
accommodating the customers requirements and thereby
winning the tender (Lancaster, 1993).
A good example of how group membership influences
emotional states and trust building is provided in a case
study of Novo, a Danish producer of health care products,
and Nissho, a Japanese supplier of health care products
(Andersen & Christensen, 1999). When engineers from
Novo started negotiations with sales people from Nissho
on the NovoPen their first meetings were enthusiastic, and
promises of strong commitment were evident from both
sides. Shortly thereafter, Nissho representatives declared
that they would provide expertise on the production of
ultra-thin needles, and Novo on the other hand maintained

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P.H. Andersen, R. Kumar / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 522 535

that large orders were possible. Even though the NovoPen

represented a radical shift in the technology of diabetes
care, the consumer responses to this new product were
unknown and Novo representatives only provided limited
information on the component to be produced (in order to
protect their innovation). They convinced Nissho sales
representatives about the viability of this product and for
this reason the Novo engineers were invited to meet with
the production engineers from Nissho. However, the
positive atmosphere changed dramatically when the Novo
representatives and the Nissho plant engineers met.
Nissho plant engineers saw the production of this new
type of needles (and the expected volumes) as a potential
threat of loosing face by not being able to live up to
the production and volume performance targets set by
Novo top managers. Therefore, they were eager to
convince the Novo representatives that they were not
able to supply this new product and probably should look
elsewhere for alternative suppliers. However, Novo
managers by showing Nissho managers a specimen from
their existing production were able to convince plant
management that the component they wanted bore a close
resemblance with Nisshos existing component.
The tensions among the boundary spanners and other
organizational members in Nissho and Novo reflect a
mechanism frequently observed in the literature on
industrial sales management. Boundary spanners often
find themselves in a situation of a double-sell, meaning
that they not only must convince prospective buyers and/or
sellers but also must negotiate the deal internally (Organ,
1971). In almost all cases these relations exist in both the
buying and the selling organizations as organizational
members of both buying and selling organizations (apart
from boundary spanners) feel tension, anxiety, irritation
and even hostility. In cross-cultural buyer seller relationships this problem is amplified due to misinterpretations
which may generate or accentuate negative emotions
among organizational members (Cooray & Ratnatunga,
2001; Nair & Stafford, 1998). A further point worth noting
is that while positive emotions undoubtedly lead to
relationship initiation negative emotions may not necessarily lead to relationship termination (Andersen & Christensen, 1999; Cooray & Ratnatunga, 2001; Management
Review, 1997). Negative emotions do not persist forever,
however, strong their intensity level is. This is not to say
that negative emotions do not affect the course of
relationships; the argument is simply that their impact
may be more limited. Based on these observations it is
proposed that:
Proposition 2a. There is a difference in the motivation of
the organizational members and the boundary spanners to
initiate a new buyer seller relationship. This difference is a
product of different emotional states experienced by
members in these groups and it affects their willingness to
engage in trust building behaviors.

Proposition 2b. High intensity negative emotional states

may slow down but not necessarily impair the process of
relationship development in buyer seller dyads.

6. Development
In their seminal piece, Dwyer et al. (1987) note that the
development phase is characterized by an increasing
interdependence among the alliance partners. The development of trust during the initiation of the relationship leads to
increased risk taking among the partners. One consequence
of this is the reduction of uncertainty and lessening of the
psychological distance between the partners.
A good example of this is the relationship between Nissho
and Novo Nordisk. The collaboration between Nissho and
Novo Nordisk deepened during the development and
successful launch of NovoPen\. As pointed out by Sako
and Helper, Japanese subcontractors expect frequent interaction, mutual recognition and support in their relationships
with customers. They prefer not to resolve issues through
contracts and arms length agreements (Sako & Helper,
1998). Novo Nordisk representatives learned from their
initial experience with the Japanese company that matters
must be solved in face-to-face talks. Novo Nordisk sees this
as a part of the Japanese business culture and has learned to
cope with this dimension of doing business in Japan:
You cannot conduct business with the Japanese only using
a telephone, a fax and the Internet. You need to be there and
to know them on a personal basis, and you must try to
develop close personal relation to them. Also they need to
know you on a personal level. (Jrn Rex, Product
Development Manager, Novo Nordisk)
Over the years, both Nissho and Novo Nordisk developed
their ability to collaborate in spite of cultural as well as
physical barriers among them. Four staff members from
Novo Nordisk worked together with 6 10 Nissho staff
members on a regular basis, improving the needle. Novo
Nordisk developed a culture sensitivity seminar for employees who were to encounter their Japanese partners for the
first time. Moreover, a person, who had already developed
personal relations with his/her Japanese colleagues, always
accompanied employees who needed to be introduced to the
Japanese for the first time. On the other hand, the Nissho
organization has also developed its interpersonal skills for
managing trust formation across organizational and cultural
boundaries. First, Nissho employees who were involved
directly with Novo Nordisk improved their English-speaking capabilities considerably. The employees from the
Japanese partner who took part in the exchange activities
with Novo gradually became aware of the Danish business
culture. Therefore, discussions between Danish and Japanese engineers became more open-ended and informal than
previously, indicating the emergence of affect based trust.

P.H. Andersen, R. Kumar / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 522 535

The emergence of affect-based trust is also well reflected

in how the parties began to interact with each other. For
example, Novo Nordisk involved Nissho at an early stage of
any product modification that may have an impact on the
production of the needles. Moreover, meetings were
frequently held between various functional specialists from
Novo and Nissho. On the other hand, Nissho management
was willing to give Novo Nordisk access to all its
development activities related to the fabrication of needles.
Nissho has opened all their doors for usall of them,
because they have realized after 15 years of collaboration
that we are serious business partners, who keep our
promises and do not conduct industrial espionage.
(Production Engineer, Novo Nordisk)
In the early years of collaboration the development of
close personal relationships as somewhat problematical with
the consequence that interorganizational was impeded. As
an example, individual staff members might make deals and
agreements, which would not be in agreement with the
overall mission of the respective firms, or alternatively, the
decisions may not be communicated to all of the persons
involved. To prevent these problems from occurring Novo
Nordisk developed a procedure whereby all formalized
agreements were to be vetted. At Novo Nordisk there were
two persons who were responsible for this procedure: One
took care of the technical aspects, including alterations of
designs, development projects, etc. while the other was in
charge of the commercial aspects of a relationship.
Simultaneously, a yearly meeting was held at both the top
and middle management levels in order ensure the smooth
functioning of the relationship.
The case outlined above demonstrates the fact that
affective states influence trust building. Trust based on
affect is assumed to create deeper levels of trust, which can
create conditions for closer collaboration that may even
resist trust violations (Williams, 2001). If, on the other
hand, the partners differ in their value systems negative
affect may emerge and their ability to deepen trust will be
compromised. Negative emotions such as anxiety, contempt and disgust decrease the motivation to trust and
prompt more distanced relationships among groups. Such
relationships may be characterized by semi-distrust,
suggesting that social exchange may continue despite the
breach of trust. However, such relationships are monitored
carefully (Witkowski & Thibodeau, 1999). In this situation
trust based on faith may be replaced or reverted to a
calculative trust form, which implies close monitoring. As
pointed out, trust and surveillance are not necessarily each
others opposites, as decision-makers need information in
order to learn (or re-establish) about others trustworthiness
(Tomkins, 2001). Therefore the following proposition is
developed:
Proposition 3a. Positive affective states among boundary
spanners in buyer seller dyads will lead to the development

531

of trust expeditiously and in doing so will lessen the need for

additional information.
Another consequence of affect is the re-drawing of
boundaries around social groups. Positive affective states
may lead to the formation of new social groupings across
organizational boundaries, which may create tensions
among intra-organizational groupings.
Proposition 3b. Provided negative interdependence, the
establishment of trust among boundary spanners in the
buyer seller dyad will undermine trust among organizational members in the buyer and the seller organization.

7. Termination
According to Dwyer et al. (1987) this phase is
characterized by the possibility of withdrawal or disengagement from the relationship. Although the partners can
withdraw from a relationship at any stage, when the
dissolution occurs after the relationship is perceived by
the partners to be exceedingly good, the emotional
consequences of termination are likely to be particularly
severe. When expectations are high any violation of
expectations may have severe consequences, especially so
if the violations are attributed to the other partners
intentionality. Negative emotional states of high intensity
can cause a complete rupture of the relationship. For
example, in the alliance between KLM and Northwest
Airlines, strong negative affective states among top level
management were said to be the cause for the termination of
the alliance. The alliance between KLM and Northwest was
plagued by mutual suspicion and distrust at the outset.
Mutual antipathy and negative sentiments appeared to be
dominant in the relationship. The Dutch felt that Northwest
management were more deal-makers than airline operators and it led KLM management to undertake court action
to wrest control over the venture (Lewis, 1999). The
Americans undertook a counterattack by seeking to prevent
KLM from acquiring control. All of this was occurring at a
time when the alliance was being profitable. Although the
partners have now managed to put their differences aside
and the alliance seems to be functioning well, the venture
appeared to have been nearly undermined by the presence of
negative emotions on either side.
The strong negative affective states are likely to have
generated distrust among the partners leading them to
consider exiting the alliance. A situation of high distrust is
one, which is associated with fear, cynicism, and a high
degree of vigilance (Lewicki, McCallister, & Bies, 1998).
As groups socialize members into holding shared views and
share emotions, groups may magnify and propagate
negative affective states to other organizational members
(Janssen, Vliert, & Veenstra, 1999). The amplification is
likely to be particularly pronounced when these groups are

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P.H. Andersen, R. Kumar / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 522 535

influential within the organization. Likewise, the emotional

states of groups, which have little or no influence on the
organization, may only have limited or no effect on
relationship termination. It can therefore be proposed, that:
Proposition 4a. The impact of group level negative
affective states is dependent on the influence exerted by
the group. The greater their influence, the greater the
likelihood that negative affective states will lead to
relationship termination.
In some cases, strong negative interpersonal emotions
held by influential actors toward one or more members of
the exchange partners organization could lead to rapid
dissolution of the relationship. For instance, the lack
personal chemistry among top managers may lead to
negative affective states such as suspicion and distrust. In
turn, a vicious spiral may confirm top managers in their gut
feeling and set a negative personal tone for the further
development of the relationship.
Proposition 4b. Negative affective states held by influential
individuals within the buying and/or the selling organization may make relationship termination more likely.

8. Re-establishment
Although firms may discontinue their relationships, it is
conceivable that they may try to re-establish the relationship
at a later state. Negative emotions may tend to dissipate over
time, making it easier for the individuals to renegotiate the
relationship. The individuals who may have been previously
involved in bitter conflicts may no longer now be working
for one or all of the organizations or may have moved on to
a new position. Even when relationships are terminated,
they are often done with a heavy heart reflecting the
emotional ambivalence that is so predominant in mixed
motive interactions. A residue of positive affect may be
conserved and this may well be the main driver for the reestablishment of relationships (Havila & Wilkinson, 2002).
This is also reflected in the Novo Nissho case. Although in
this specific instance the relationship did not break down
entirely it experienced severe strain and damage control
measures had to be initiated by Novo Nordisk.
At an intermediate stage of the subcontractor relationship
with Nissho, Novo Nordisk invested in a production line-for
needles to the pen. The line was staffed with Nisshos
employees. By making these investments Nissho and Novo
Nordisk had both demonstrated a shared commitment to the
relationship, which was very much in line with the Japanese
tradition of subcontractor relationships.
Because of the merger of Novo and Nordisk Gentofte,
the new Novo Nordisk took over a needle fabrication plant
in Hjrring, Denmark. Partly based on semi-manufactured
needle tubes from Nissho, this plant manufactured needles
for the pen launched by Nordisk Gentofte in 1986. After the

merger Novo Nordisk equipped the plant to produce needles

for NovoPen\ and the NovoLet\ alongside the needles
bought.
The unexpected knowledge that Novo Nordisk had set up
their own production of needles in Denmark caused a
deterioration of the relationship among the partners. They
feared that Novo Nordisk would phase out their production
line at Nissho and eventually transfer the knowledge of
grinding thin needles to their in-house plant. The result was
that Nissho became less committed towards participating in
development activities. In the words of a Novo Nordisk
manager:
They saw the Danish facilities as a direct competitor and
did not want to give anything before Novo Nordisk gave
something to them. (Subsidiary Manager, Novo Nordisk,
Japan)
First, Nissho suggested that their new plant in Taiwan
could function as a secondary source of supply. However,
Novo Nordisk needed to ensure that delivery would
continue even if Nissho went bankrupt. Novo Nordisk
spent a lot of time and effort in convincing Nissho
management that the Danish subsidiary mainly worked as
a secondary supplier to ensure delivery and was by no
means a threat to Nissho. The fact that the Danish plant
only had a fraction of the production capacity needed and
that it had insufficient development capabilities helped to
convince Nissho managers although the process did take
time. All development activities were still to be conducted
with Nissho. Finally, Novo Nordisk is now using longterm delivery contracts in which the purchased amount is
settled up to 5 years ahead. In spite of the emergence of
this conflict, Novo Nordisk and Nissho have remained
business partners. Nissho currently supplies the Novo
Nordisk plant with needle parts and assists them in their
operations.
The ability of Novo Nordisk to establish the relationship
is a clear reflection of the fact that notwithstanding the
emergence of the conflict between the partners there was a
certain level of positive affective bonding among the
partners, which allowed them to continue with the relationship. Affective trust has often been described as deeper and
longer lasting than trust primarily based on cognition
(McAllister, 1995). It is less fragile. The re-establishment
of buyer seller relationships are less governed by formal
interaction norms than the initiation of them for the simple
reason that the parties are bound together by a prior history.
This leads us to the following propositions:
Proposition 5. The re-establishment of business relationships is critically dependent on the emergence of positive
affective states among influential organizational members in
the buyer seller dyad.
In some industries, recurrent project-oriented business
relationships are the norm (Cova & Salle, 2000). Informal

P.H. Andersen, R. Kumar / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 522 535

interpersonal bonds play a major role in the re-activation

of relationships (Havila & Wilkinson, 2002) and are
therefore the prime drivers for the reestablishment of the
relationships.

533

at multiple organizational levels. This undoubtedly poses

methodological problems but is nevertheless something
that ought to be attempted if a full understanding on how
these relationships evolve over time is to be reached.
Hopefully, researchers will build on this in the years to
come.

9. Conclusions and implications

The purpose of this paper is to develop an integrative
framework for explaining how buyer seller relationships
develop over time. While many theorists have made an
attempt to explain the evolutionary development of these
relationships few, if any, theorists have paid explicit
attention to the role played by emotions in this process.
There are important reasons to address this issue in the
realms of relationship marketing as well. First of all,
emotion as an influential force in shaping relations in
marketing is widely acknowledged among practitioners.
Concepts such as personal chemistry and its role in
shaping business relationships abound in the management
press. The strong interest among marketing practitioners
in these concepts indicates that more systematic knowledge on emotions and their role in shaping buyer seller
relationships is called for. Moreover, the role of emotions
in shaping business relationships is being dealt with in
research disciplines with which the relationship marketing
research community often has much in common. The idea
that emotions play a crucial role in shaping interorganizational interaction is now becoming increasingly influential
(e.g., Gould et al., 1999) and if this is indeed the case
then theorists must seek to articulate the mechanisms and
the consequences of emotional processes for the development of buyer seller relationships. This perspective is
clearly underdeveloped and may help moving the
theoretical perspectives in marketing closer to the world
of the marketer. An attempt has been made in this paper
to sketch out the mechanisms through which emotion
exerts its impact and the possible consequences of
emotional activation on subsequent relationship development, taking departure in the way in which affective
states influence managerial trust building. The framework
outlined in this paper is meant as a starting point for
additional research in this field. Knowledge on this aspect
can be extended in a number of ways. First, while the
importance of understanding emotional dynamics at the
individual and the intergroup levels has been outlined, the
interactive effects between these two levels have not been
specified. That is to say, how do emotional dynamics at
one level affect the emotional dynamics at another level?
Second of all, it may be useful to highlight the contextual
factors that may amplify or dampen the impact of
emotional responses. Although many such possible factors
have been suggested, their possible full impact on trust
building in buyer seller relationships has not been stated.
Finally, understanding the emotional dynamics in buyer
seller relationships calls for longitudinal studies conducted

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