Validation of The Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression (TRAD) in Australian Children and Adults Using The PANAS (Adult) and PH-PANAS-C (Child) Self-Report Measures

Validation of the Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression (TRAD) in Australian
Children and Adults using the PANAS (adult) and PH-PANAS-C (child) Self-report
Measures
Michael Scott
Literature Review and Research Paper submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Psychology with Honours at James Cook
University, Cairns, Australia. October 2012
iv
Table of Contents
Statement of Access ........................................................................................................... i

Ownership Declaration ..................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. iv
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. vii
Part 1: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 1
A Review of the Psychometric Properties of the Tripartite Model of Anxiety and
Depression (TRAD) in Child and Adult Populations ....................................................... 1
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 2
Statement of Research Topic/Question............................................................................. 3
Tripartite Model of Depression and Anxiety Differentiation ........................................... 3
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 3
Background ................................................................................................................... 8
Validation.................................................................................................................... 10
Criticisms and Controversies The TRAD Model .................................................... 11
Summary: Tripartite Model ........................................................................................ 14
The PANAS: Using the TRAD Model in Adults ........................................................... 15
Rationale for Development ......................................................................................... 15
Initial Development and Construction of the PANAS................................................ 15
Psychometrics ............................................................................................................. 16
Validity ....................................................................................................................... 16
Reliability.................................................................................................................... 18
Intended Population Use ............................................................................................. 19
Criticisms and Controversies The PANAS .............................................................. 19
Summary: PANAS ...................................................................................................... 21
The PH-PANAS-C: Using the TRAD Model in Children and Adolescents .................. 21
Psychometrics ............................................................................................................. 25
Validity ....................................................................................................................... 26
Criticisms and Controversies The PH-PANAS-C ................................................... 27
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Summary: PH-PANAS-C ........................................................................................... 29
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 29
Aims and Hypotheses of the Research ........................................................................... 30
References ....................................................................................................................... 31
Part 2: Research Report .................................................................................................. 43
Validating Psychometric Properties of the Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression
(TRAD) in Australian Children and Adults .................................................................... 43
Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 44
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 45
Method ............................................................................................................................ 49
Participants.................................................................................................................. 49
Design and Procedure ................................................................................................. 50
Measures ..................................................................................................................... 51
PANAS .................................................................................................................... 51
PH-PANAS-C .......................................................................................................... 52
Statistical Analysis ...................................................................................................... 53
Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................ 53
Results ............................................................................................................................. 54
Hypothesis One ........................................................................................................... 54
Hypothesis Two .......................................................................................................... 58
Hypothesis Three ........................................................................................................ 59
Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 60
Hypothesis One: Dimensional and Structural Integrity of the TRAD model and the
PH-PANAS-C and PANAS ........................................................................................ 61
PCA: PH-PANAS-C ................................................................................................ 61
PCA: PANAS........................................................................................................... 62
Hypothesis Two: Sex Differences between Adolescents would be defined by
Increased levels of NA in Female Adolescents Compared to Male Adolescents ....... 63
Hypothesis Three: Child and Adult PA and NA scores on the PANAS will differ
from their PA and NA scores on the PH-PANAS-C but would be correlated ........... 64
Limitations .................................................................................................................. 66
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 66
References ....................................................................................................................... 67
Appendices...................................................................................................................... 74
vi
List of Tables
Table
1
Title
Mean Age, Sex and Socioeconomic Status of Participants in Each
Participant Group
57
Varimax Rotated Component Matrix Results for Adult Participant

Scores on the PANAS
56
Oblimin Rotation Structure Matrix Results for Child Participant

Scores on the PH-PANAS-C
54
Oblimin Rotation Pattern Matrix Results for Child Participant

Scores on the PH-PANAS-C
50
Cronbachs Alpha Reliability Results for all Participants on both

the PANAS and PH-PANAS-C
Page
58
Results of Spearmans rho Correlational Analysis and Independent

Samples t-Tests Showing Significant Positive Relationships
between Corresponding Dimensions and Significant Variations
between Dimensional Means on the PANAS Compared to the PHPANAS-C for Both Adult and Child Participants
60
vii
List of Figures
Figure
Title
1
Mean NA scores with standard error bars (females= 1.86, males=
1.66) for adolescent male and female participants
Page
59
Psychometric Properties of TRAD
Part 1: Literature Review
A Review of the Psychometric Properties of the Tripartite Model of Anxiety and

Depression (TRAD) in Child and Adult Populations
Michael Scott
James Cook University, Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Social Sciences,
Cairns, Australia
Abstract
Research suggests that depression and anxiety disorders may coexist or overlap yet can
be differentiated. The tripartite model of anxiety and depression (TRAD model)
differentiates disordered affect through three independent dimensions - positive affect
(PA), negative affect (NA), and physiological hyperarousal (PH). Although the TRAD
model has received extensive empirical support in both research and diagnostic settings,
recent evidence in the literature has documented results that are inconsistent with
TRAD model predictions. Issues raised in the literature relate to the independence of the
TRAD dimensions, cross loading of items, poor model fit across varied samples, and
sex differences in adolescent samples. Two contemporary self-report measures that
feature prominently in the literature include the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule
(PANAS; used for adult populations), and the Physiological Hyperarousal and Positive
and Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PH-PANAS-C; used in child and
adolescent populations). The present paper reviewed the literature on the TRAD
models psychometric properties in adults and children. The conclusion reached is that,
while TRAD-based instruments may require some further refinement; the TRAD
models theoretical framework appears sound, and current TRAD-based self-report
instruments provide an effective method of screening and assessment in both clinical
and community populations.
Statement of Research Topic/Question

The TRAD model proposes to differentiate anxiety and depression through the
three dimensions of positive affect (PA), negative affect (NA), and physiological
hyperarousal (PH). Two TRAD-based measures (the PANAS and PH-PANAS-C) are
frequently used to assess levels of anxiety and depression in adults and children
respectively. Issues of interest relate to TRAD model theory, and the psychometric
properties of the PANAS and PH-PANAS-C. In regards to both instruments, areas of
exploration include the dimensional and structural independence of factors, sex
differences in adolescent populations, and the applicability of age-specific instruments
for use with adult and child populations. The principal research question being
addressed is Are the TRAD model-based PANAS and PH-PANAS-C psychometrically
sound in Australian populations and are the two instruments necessary or do the
measures duplicate the same outcomes in child and adult samples?
Tripartite Model of Depression and Anxiety Differentiation

Introduction
Clark, Watson and Tellegen (1988) proposed the Tripartite Model of Anxiety
and Depression (TRAD Model) as a theoretical structure to help explain the overlap
between anxiety and depression. The theory asserts that the differentiation of depression
and anxiety is determined by the expression of symptoms in three primary domains positive affect (PA), negative affect (NA), and autonomic arousal (physiological
hyperarousal or PH).
Two of the most widely used contemporary self-report instruments that
differentiate anxiety and depression in adults and children using the TRAD model
framework are the 20 item Positive and Negative Affect schedule (PANAS: Watson,
Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and the 48 item Physiological Hyperarousal and Positive and
Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PH-PANAS-C: Laurent, Catanzaro, & Joiner,
2004) respectively. The PANAS comprises 10 PA items and 10 NA items. The PHPANAS-C comprises 15 PA, 15 NA, and 18 PH items. Both instruments have been
validated in clinical and community populations, and are widely used in clinical and
research settings as screening and diagnostic tools.
Although the TRAD model and both the PANAS and PH-PANAS-C have
received extensive empirical support over the years, several psychometric anomalies
have been documented in the literature which range from TRAD theoretical
perspectives through to diagnostic application. Issues of concern relate to- inconsistent
model fit across varied samples (Crawford & Henry, 2004; Jacques & Mash, 2004),
inconsistent findings related to factorial independence (the model requires that factors
exhibit relative independence) (De Bolle & De Fruyt, 2010; Jacques & Mash, 2004), the
capability of the model to accurately account for the diversity of anxiety disorders (E.
R. Anderson & Hope, 2008; T. A. Brown, Chorpita, & Barlow, 1998; Chorpita, 2002;
De Bolle, De Fruyt, & Decuyper, 2010), cross-loading of items (Jacques & Mash, 2004;
Laurent & Ettelson, 2001), irregular correlations between dimensions associated with
varied samples (Crawford & Henry, 2004; Tuccitto, Giacobbi, & Leite, 2010), and sex
differences in adolescent school samples (Jacques & Mash, 2004). Additional debate in
the literature has raised issues related to the applicability of the TRAD model and
associated TRAD-based instruments in child samples, and has prompted some
discussion as to whether age-specific TRAD-based measures are necessary for adult and
child populations.
Theoretical Framework of Model

The underlying principle of the TRAD model is that disordered affect can be
differentiated using three core dimensions. These are positive affect (PA), negative
affect (NA), and physiological hyperarousal (PH). These dimensions are proposed to be
unique, yet somewhat related (Watson, Gamez, & Simms, 2005). According to the
TRAD model, all disorders of affect share the common characteristic of elevated NA
(Novovic, Mihic, Tovilovic, & Jovanovic, 2008; Watson, Clark, & Carey, 1988).
Depression then differentiates through the presence of the added dimension of low PA,
and anxiety through the additional presence of increased PH (Watson, Clark, &
Tellegen, 1988).
The first two unique, though closely related dimensions are NA and PA. NA, a
core characteristic of all affective disorders, refers to negative emotional experiences
such as fear, sadness, and anger. Individuals with high NA may display increased
pessimism and experience emotional distress even in the absence of overt stressors,
while individuals with low NA are more likely to be secure and self-satisfied (Watson
& Pennebaker, 1989). PA refers to positive emotional experiences such as joy,
happiness, and excitement (Cohen & Pressman, 2006). Individuals with low PA are
characterised by emotions reflecting a lack of interest, joy, and motivation (Voelz &
Joiner, 2002) and experience symptoms such as anhedonia, lassitude, fatigue, and an
inability to feel joy (Mineka, Watson, & Lee, 1998). Individuals with high PA are
generally- active, energetic, motivated and perceive experience positively (Watson &
Clark, 1992). Paradoxically, because NA and PA are largely unique constructs, an
individual may experience both positive and negative affect in concert (Watson &
Clark, 1984).
It is important to note that researchers have experienced difficulty differentiating

anxiety and depression with only the two dimensions of PA and NA (Pandey &
Srivastava, 2008). Notwithstanding the concept that the TRAD model proposes three
dimensions to differentiate anxiety and depression, PA and NA have been used to
differentiate the two clinical states (Pandey & Srivastava, 2008). According to Watson,
Clark and Carey (1988), Anxiety is essentially a state of high NA, and has no
significant relation with PA, but depression is a mixed state of high NA and low PA (p.
347). Hence, in affect only terms, it is the presence of low PA that differentiates
depression from anxiety (Chorpita, Daleiden, Moffitt, Yim, & Umemoto, 2000).
The third dimension of the TRAD Model is PH (Watson & Clark, 1991). In the
three-dimensional structure, the presence of elevated PH is a defining characteristic of
anxiety disorder and differentiates it from depression (Joiner, Catanzaro, & Laurent,
1996; Joiner et al., 1999; Watson & Clark, 1991). Physiological hyperarousal is defined
as elevated autonomic arousal and is characterised by a racing heart, shortness of breath,
light-headedness, trembling and dizziness (Cox, 2011). In addition to anxiety and
depression, the TRAD model also defines mixed-type anxiety-depression (AD). Mixed
AD is characterised by the presence of the combined symptoms of both anxiety and
depression (Voelz & Joiner, 2002). That is, mixed-type AD is differentiated from either
anxiety or depression alone by the presence of high NA, low PA, and high PH (Voelz &
Joiner, 2002).
Current research indicates that in youth, those with a primary symptomology of
depression are likely to also display anxiety symptoms, whereas those who are primarily
anxious are less likely to also be depressed (E R Anderson, 2007). From this
observation comes the notion that there may be a temporal relationship between anxiety
and depression with evidence from both adult and child samples suggesting that anxiety
disorders may occur earlier than depression developmentally(E. R. Anderson & Hope,
2008) . The current consensus is that younger children lack the cognitive ability to
adequately define their symptoms in a way that allows for a clear identification of
depression but rather attribute generalised fear and worry to factors characteristic of
negative affect. It is suggested that only later comes the ability to separate one's fear
from sadness. As such, Mineka et al. (1998) argue that it is crucial that any diagnostic
models dimensions adequately separate the mixed symptoms of depression and anxiety
into the appropriate dimensions and thereby reflect a comorbid classification as opposed
to one of either disorder. In this way there has been some concern that measures
developed to differentially diagnose affective disorders using the TRAD model may
lack this discriminant capacity in younger populations (Jacques & Mash, 2004). To
address such concerns, alternate age and gender models and accompanying instruments
that specifically examine the relationship between anxiety and depression within the
context of child and adolescent development could be explored.
PA and NA, have been associated with both state (brief/transitory) and trait
(stable and sustained) measures of emotion (Watson & Pennebaker, 1989) with global
and specific measures of affect in clinical and community samples showing reliably
high levels of positive correlation (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). The trait nature of
both PA and NA is further supported by research showing that each relate to specific
factors on the five-factor model of personality (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) with
PA being associated with extraversion and NA with neuroticism (Meyer & Shack, 1989;
Uziel, 2006; Watson & Clark, 1984; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988).
Extensive psychometric testing supports the theoretical framework of the TRAD
model, showing the three dimensions of the model to be independent (Joiner, et al.,
1996; Laurent, Catanzaro, Rudolph, Joiner, & et al., 1999). While factorial analysis
using large item pools and multiple samples was used to select items and establish the
uniqueness of the three factors, independent analysis of the TRAD Model has suggested
some potential overlap in the PA and NA factors and has raised some questions as to the
sensitivity of the model to detect all anxiety disorder sub-types (T. A. Brown, et al.,
1998).
Background
The traditional view of affective disorders is that they either emerge through a
unique cognitive profile that is specific to each disorder (Beck & Perkins, 2001), or that
depression and anxiety are part of the same continuum (Keenan, Feng, Hipwell, &
Klostermann, 2009). Tellegen (1999) argued that disordered affect was a combination
of both of these characteristics with anxiety and depression being related through a
shared higher-order dimension (NA), and differentiated through the unique dimensions
of PA (depression) and PH (anxiety) (Novovic, et al., 2008). The TRAD model was
developed by Tellegen as a means of explaining this diagnostic framework. In an effort
to operationalize the theoretical framework of the TRAD model and use it for diagnostic
purposes, Tellegen, Clark, and Watson constructed the Positive and Negative Affect
Schedule (PANAS).
Initially constructed in the 1980s (Novovic, et al., 2008), the PANAS was well
accepted for use in research and clinical practice (Yang, Hong, Joung, & Kim, 2006).
Primarily used as a self-report assessment for anxiety and depression, the PANAS was
well validated and shown to be a reliable diagnostic measure across adult populations in
a number of cultures, languages, and response formats (Chorpita, et al., 2000). The
format of the PANAS utilises a list of words associated with positive and negative
emotions (e.g. sad, happy, blue, joyful, cheerful, gloomy) and the respondent is asked to
indicate how often they have felt that way in the previous month on a Likert-Type scale
of one (very slightly or not at all) to five (extremely). As the TRAD model and the
PANAS gained acceptance, it was increasingly used in younger populations. The use of
the measure in younger populations prompted renewed research interest in the tool and
whether the validity and reliability of the TRAD model translated to child and
adolescent populations (Yang, et al., 2006).
A number of measures using the TRAD model were developed specific to
younger populations however; two primary measures emerged as the most valid and
reliable. These were the Affect and Arousal Scale for Children(AFARS: Chorpita, et al.,
2000) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PANAS-C) which
eventually became the Physiological Hyperarousal and Positive and Negative Affect
Schedule for Children (PH-PANAS-C: Laurent, et al., 2004; Laurent, et al., 1999).
These instruments utilised new theoretical, conceptual, and empirical construction
processes that had been lacking in previous scales. The AFARS uses a range of
interpretive phrases such as I cant calm down once I get upset which respondents
then rate on a Likert-Type scale of one to five, with one being a low indicator and five
indicating an often or always response to the phrase content. In contrast, the PHPANAS-C intentionally utilises the same format as the adult PANAS in order to offer a
diagnostic continuity from childhood through adolescence and into adulthood. The
literature acknowledges the good psychometric properties of both scales (Chorpita, et
al., 2000; Laurent, et al., 2004), and both instruments are commonly used to
differentiate anxiety and depression in school, clinical, and cross-cultural samples of
adolescents and children (Chorpita, et al., 2000; Ebesutani et al., 2011; Laurent, et al.,
2004).
10
Validation
The orthogonal exclusivity of the three dimensions of the TRAD model (PA,
NA, PH), has been validated and replicated in many studies supporting the convergent
and divergent validity of the model (Laurent, Joiner, & Catanzaro, 2011; Lim, Yu, Kim,
& Kim, 2010; Pandey & Srivastava, 2008; Thompson, 2007; Watson & Clark, 1999; D
Watson et al., 1995). Initial validation of the PA and NA dimensions was undertaken by
Watson using self-report data obtained from twin and co-twin clinical samples with
depression or anxiety. As predicted by the TRAD model, NA positively correlated with
both depression and anxiety items and PA negatively correlated with depression and not
anxiety (Pandey & Srivastava, 2008). Furthermore, results suggested that PA and NA
were potential risk factors for anxiety and mood disorders and that the dimensions could
also predict major depression and dysthymia (Watson, Clark, & Carey, 1988).
Further validation has been undertaken using large and diverse samples (Watson
& Clark, 1999). The model was supported by results showing that psychiatric patients
reported significantly higher rates of NA than non-clinical samples, that the results of
TRAD model based self-report assessments were able to predict clinical samples, that
the correlations between PA and NA were low (between -.35 and -.05) and internal
consistency of the dimensions was high (Cronbachs Alpha between .83 .90 for PA
and .85 .90 for NA).
To further establish construct validity, Watson and colleagues (2005) utilised the
dimensions of PA and NA from the PANAS to assess the relationships between positive
affect and negative affect with extraversion, and neuroticism respectively. Utilising the
Neo Personality Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1985), Watson established that PA is
strongly correlated with extraversion and NA with neuroticism (Bourgeois, LeUnes, &
Meyers, 2010; Watson, et al., 2005). Further, the TRAD model has been validated in
11
young populations with results showing that the model can predict and differentiate
affective disorders in adolescent populations (E R Anderson, 2007; E. R. Anderson &
Hope, 2008; E R Anderson, Veed, Inderbitzen-Nolan, & Hansen, 2010; Austin &
Chorpita, 2004; Jacques & Mash, 2004; Kiernan, Laurent, Joiner, Catanzaro, &
MacLachlan, 2001; Laurent, et al., 2011).
Criticisms and Controversies The TRAD Model
The literature details some concerns over the TRAD model that relate to the
theoretical stability of the model across populations. Several studies have failed to
replicate the factor loading characteristics initially described by Watson, Clark, and
Tellegen (1988) prompting questions about the models reliability and predictive
capacity across various populations. For example, Jacques and Mash (2004) attempted
to replicate Watsons (1988) original validation study and found that, while the results
were in accordance with the TRAD models predications, items did not uniquely load as
described by Watson et al. (1988). When Jacques and Mash (2004) examined the fit of
structural equation modelling conducted separately on the subsamples of adolescent
boys (n= 87) and girls (n= 131), modifications were required to improve model fit. In
the new model, suggested paths for the adolescent male subgroup were from PA to NA
and from PH to PA, bringing into question the uniqueness of the three factors of the
model. In further contravention with TRAD model predictions, paths indicated for the
female adolescent subgroup were from PA to anxiety and PH to depression (Jacques &
Mash, 2004).
A number of additional problems have been identified with the TRAD model.
Several studies have found discriminant validity concerns in clinical anxiety
populations where the anxiety-differentiating dimension of PH has been shown to lack
the discriminant capacity to accurately account for the diversity of anxiety disorders
12
(Burns & Eidelson, 1998; De Bolle & De Fruyt, 2010; Mineka, et al., 1998; Zinbarg &
Barlow, 1996).
The notion that PH can effectively account for the diversity of all anxiety
disorders was rejected by Mineka, who proposed an alternative integrative hierarchical
model (Mineka, et al., 1998). In this model, PH helps distinguish panic disorder from
anxiety and depression (Mineka, et al., 1998). This new model combined key features
from both Watsons tripartite model and a previous hierarchical model of anxiety
disorders that had been proposed by Zinbarg and Barlow (1996). Both Zinbarg and
Barlow (1996) and Mineka, Watson and Lee (1998) suggested that PH was more
specifically related to panic disorder than anxiety. The hierarchical model therefore
argued that rather than be defined by rigid dimensions, affective disorders might best be
characterised by a hierarchical set of characteristics with common (higher order) and
unique (lower order) elements (De Bolle & De Fruyt, 2010; De Bolle, Decuyper, De
Clercq, & De Fruyt, 2010; Zinbarg & Barlow, 1996). In this way, a diverse range of
anxious or depressive profiles could be incorporated into the model as unique lower
order elements. In this way a broader ranging model that included specific sub-domains
of anxious psychopathologies might better identify anxiety disorders such Social
Phobia.
Further concerns were raised over the capability of PH to effectively measure
anxiety in clinical populations with findings that the PH dimension that specifically
assessed autonomic arousal symptoms was not sensitive enough to detect the whole
spectrum of discriminating symptoms of anxiety. For example, Brown, Chorpita, and
Barlow (1998) assessed 350 clinical participants on several mood schedules and then
created a number of models based on TRAD factors. Results indicated inconsistences as
to how the TRAD model accounted for autonomic arousal (PH), and supported the
13
position that PH may only define panic disorder and agoraphobia in exclusion of other
anxiety disorders. This is consistent with Watsons (1988) initial findings from the
original measure developed to test the TRAD model - the Mood and Anxiety Symptom
Questionnaire (MASQ). The anxious arousal (PH) scale of the MASQ was determined
to be overly specific on somatic items which further characterised it as a scale
specifically related to panic disorder rather than anxiety. Subsequent studies have
suggested that the panic-related specificity of the PH scale means that it does not
adequately distinguish between those with or without an anxiety disorder
(denHollander-Gijsman, deBeurs, vanderWee, vanRood, & Zitman, 2010; Keogh &
Reidy, 2000).
These results suggest that the TRAD model fails to accurately explain the
heterogeneity of anxiety disorders and that the tripartite dimensions may discriminate
disparately across anxiety disorders in contradiction to its own predictions (E R
Anderson, et al., 2010). According to Zinbarg and Barlow (1996)
Our studies suggest that the emergence of one specific factor for anxiety
disorders in models such as the tripartite model may be an artefact of lumping
all the anxiety disorders together into a single group without recognising
important differences between the anxiety disorders (p. 190).
Finally, concerns have been raised about the lack of fit of the model to preadolescent children and adolescent female populations (E. R. Anderson & Hope, 2008;
T. A. Brown, et al., 1998; Jacques & Mash, 2004). While the models basic assumptions
are supported in younger populations, results from a number of studies show
considerable overlap between dimensions with items cross-loading in contradiction to
the proposed uniqueness of the dimensions (Jacques & Mash, 2004). This was further
supported by research showing significant correlations between PA and NA in preadolescents (De Bolle & De Fruyt, 2010; Laurent & Ettelson, 2001). Further, questions
14
about the differentiation capacity of the model in younger populations have been raised
after it was shown that in pre-adolescent populations PA and anxiety were shown to be
correlated as were PH and depression (E. R. Anderson & Hope, 2008; Jacques & Mash,
2004). Sex and age have been found to be significant variables in younger populations.
Jacques and Mash (2004) found that adolescent girls reported more symptoms of
anxiety and depression and scored lower on PA and higher on NA and PH than
adolescent boys. This sex difference has not been found in other age samples. The
literature indicates that the age and sex discrepancies may be a result of neurobiological,
cognitive, and psychosocial developmental influences during childhood and
adolescence (Ordaz & Luna, 2012; Stickle, Marini, & Thomas, 2012).
Summary: Tripartite Model
Constructed by Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, the TRAD model posits that
anxiety and depression share the common component of general distress (NA), and
hypothesises that depression is characterised by high NA and low PA and that high PH
and high NA are specific to anxiety, with high NA, low PA, and high PH characterising
comorbid depression/anxiety. Two factor (PA and NA) TRAD-based models have also
demonstrated the capability to differentiate anxiety and depression. Constructs such as
PA and NA have been associated with Extraversion and Neuroticism respectively. The
TRAD model has received extensive empirical support, and has been applied to adult,
adolescent, and child samples over the past decades. However, some research has
questioned the models proposed orthogonal dimensions and structural integrity of its
factors. There have been some inconsistencies in the findings in younger populations.
15
The PANAS: Using the TRAD Model in Adults

Rationale for Development
In studies investigating the structure of affect, NA and PA emerged as the two
dominant dimensions (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). However, a number of the
instruments designed to measure mood and anxiety were found to be unreliable and to
exhibit poor convergent and discriminant validity (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988).
At least some of the questionable reliability and validity arose because several scales
were created on a purely ad hoc basis without statistical procedures such as factor
analysis (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Hence, a need was identified for a valid
and reliable PA and NA scale that was brief and easy to administer in research and
diagnostic settings (Watson & Clark, 1999; Watson, Clark, & Carey, 1988).
Initial Development and Construction of the PANAS
A large pool of positive and negative affect items were produced and placed into
a five-point Likert-type response format for preliminary testing (1 = very slightly, to 5 =
very much). An initial community group from Southern Methodist University and a
small clinical group rated the frequency with which they had experienced each
emotionally descriptive item over seven different time periods (the present moment,
today, the past few days, the past week, the past few weeks, the past year, and on
average). Factor analysis reduced this large pool of items to 20 items (10 each for PA
and NA (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). The subsequent state and trait inter-scale
correlations were high ranging between .86 to .90 for PA and .84 and .87 for NA, with
acceptable internal reliabilities reported for all the varied time-response formats
(Watson & Clark, 1999; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). The PANAS gained
widespread empirical support and was quickly incorporated into clinical and research
settings across a number of cultural and linguistic groups (Voelz & Joiner, 2002).
16
Psychometrics
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to establish that PA and NA were
unique dimensions, that they accounted for the majority of common variance, and that
items loaded adequately onto their respective factors (Watson & Clark, 1991; Watson,
Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). As statistical programs became more complex and accessible,
newer techniques such as confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were applied to the
PANAS in an effort to assess the TRAD models fit across varying samples (Crawford
& Henry, 2004). CFA results have been mixed, with some analysis suggesting evidence
of problematic items and moderate negative correlations between PA and NA
dimensions (Crawford & Henry, 2004; Tuccitto, et al., 2010). For example, in a large
non-clinical sample of athletes, orthogonal testing of the PANAS using CFA produced
several possible models, the best fit belonging to a two-factor model of affect (Tuccitto,
et al., 2010). Tuccitto and colleagues (2010), concluded that; while results of CFA
supported the fundamental factor structure to the PANAS, a number of PA items (e.g.
strong, alert, active) were not unique to PA, instead demonstrating a statistically
significant cross-loading onto NA. However, meta-analysis of CFA results of PANAS
testing reported in the literature have found no more than 9.0% of variance was shared
by the PA and NA factors (Crawford & Henry, 2004). Therefore, while some studies
have reported cross-loadings of PA and NA items, the independence of the PA and NA
factors has been replicated on numerous occasions and so appears to be a robust
assertion (Terracciano, McCrae, & Costa, 2003).
Validity
Overall, the validity of the PANAS has been extensively examined in research
settings and gained strong empirical support (Barta, 1999; Pandey & Srivastava, 2008;
Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). The good construct validity associated with the
17
TRAD model is predicated on the well conceptualised characteristics of anxiety and

depression, the relationship between them, and the capacity of the tripartite dimensions
to predict them (Watson & Clark, 1999). The PANAS capacity to be utilised in this
manner to support the TRAD models theoretical underpinnings has provided evidence
of its construct validity.
Further, the construct validity of the PANAS has been supported by studies
showing that, in accordance with TRAD model predictions, extraversion was strongly
related to PA and not related to NA, while neuroticism was related to NA and not
related to PA (Watson & Clark, 1992). Specifically, factorial analysis of the PANAS
items using data obtained from both clinical and community samples, has shown that
items correctly load on their respective factors (NA or PA) and supports good construct
validity (Pandey & Srivastava, 2008; Terracciano, et al., 2003; Watson, Clark, & Carey,
1988).
While the majority of validation research has been conducted in the United
States of America (Thompson, 2007), cross cultural studies have helped establish the
instruments validity across such diverse cultures as Asia and the Middle East (Lim, et
al., 2010; Novovic, et al., 2008). These cross-cultural studies have shown that the
PANAS retains its validity when translated into different languages (Pandey &
Srivastava, 2008; Yang, et al., 2006).
The content validity of PANAS items has gained support through comparative
correlational findings drawn from a number of similar affect scales (D. Watson et al.,
1995). Correlational analyses identified that the items of the PANAS scales correlated
well with a number of recognised mood scale items, and correctly demonstrated weak
relationships with the items that were not related (Watson & Clark, 1999). Similarly the
18
convergent and divergent qualities of the PANAS have been supported. A number of
studies have shown that the dimension-specific items cluster appropriately to their target
factor and account for the relative symptoms (i.e. NA or PA), and accurately display the
characteristics that define that dimension (Crawford & Henry, 2004). The divergent
properties of the items have been illustrated and show the uniqueness of the PA and NA
dimensions (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988).
Reliability
Good to excellent reliability of the 20-item PANAS measure has been
established in both clinical and community populations, with Cronbachs Alpha (CA)
coefficients ranging from .86 to .90 for PA and .84 to .87 for NA (Watson, Clark, &
Tellegen, 1988). The reliability of the scales (PA and NA) remained strong in all timeresponse report formats (present moment, today, past week, past month, etc.) (Watson,
Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Initial test-retest reliability was not as strong with correlations
ranging from .47 to .68 for PA and .39 to .71 for NA generally below the .70 value
considered a good CA level of reliability (Watson, Clark, & Carey, 1988).
More contemporary studies have shown good to excellent internal and test-retest
reliability, including cross cultural studies (Lim, et al., 2010; Watson, Clark, &
Tellegen, 1984). For example, the PANAS was tested with a clinical Korean sample and
yielded internal consistency coefficients of .87 for PA and .91 for NA. Test-retest
reliabilities over a one week period were .79 for PA and .89 for NA (Lim, et al., 2010).
Moreover, in an Italian community sample of students the three-month test-retest
reliability coefficients were good to excellent with CA values between .84 and .90 for
both PA and NA (Terracciano, et al., 2003).
19
The reliability of the PANAS was also supported in older populations with one
study of patients receiving inpatient medical rehabilitation (Mean age= 75 years)
showing weak dimensional correlations, and strong item-dimension correlations
(Cronbachs Alpha= .85 for PA and .90 for NA) that remained moderately strong at retest after 10 days (Ostir, Smith, Smith, & Ottenbacher, 2005).
Intended Population Use
The adult PANAS has been validated for use as a screening and diagnostic
instrument in adult inpatient and outpatient clinical populations as well as in a diverse
range of community populations across varied cultural and linguistic settings (E R
Anderson, 2007; Archer, Adrianson, Plancak, & Karlsson, 2007; De Bolle & De Fruyt,
2010; Harmon-Jones, Harmon-Jones, Abramson, & Peterson, 2009; Laurent, et al.,
2011; Watson & Clark, 1984; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). This use of a large and
diverse variety of participants in the development and validation of the measure and in
subsequent research has enabled investigators to establish parameters in regards to the
normative and clinical levels of anxiety and depression and compare general/clinical
participant groups (Crawford & Henry, 2004; Laurent, et al., 2011).
The ease of use of the PANAS and the simplicity of interpretation of results has
meant that the PANAS can be used in a wide variety of screening, clinical and research
settings (Black, Blum, Pfohl, & St. John, 2004; Lonigan, Phillips, & Hooe, 2003;
Novovic, et al., 2008; Pandey & Srivastava, 2008; Voelz & Joiner, 2002).
Criticisms and Controversies The PANAS
Although the developers of the PANAS presented strong psychometric
validation, some issues have been identified in regards the models fit in various
populations. Crawford and Henry (2004) found a problematic model fit associated with
20
a small number of items that either cross-loaded (e.g. strong), or loaded poorly (e.g.
distressed). CFA modelling conducted on the PANAS by Crawford and Henry (2004)
using a large general sample also found a poorer than expected fitting model. According
to Crawford and Henry (2004) results of CFA showed that the two dimensions of PA
and NA were unique, however, they also showed a moderate negative correlation. These
two results are characteristic of the independent literature reporting on the
psychometrics of the PANAS. The prevailing perspective in the literature is best
described by Thomson (2007) who states the PANAS has generally been shown to be
reliable and consistently reflective of the lowly, albeit significantly, correlating
dimensions of PA and NA (p. 230).
The original development and validation of the PANAS occurred in North
America using samples that were predominantly comprised of Caucasian
undergraduates and university employees. Attempts to explore the cross-cultural
validity of the measure was undertaken in a largely Hispanic and Asian American
sample of undergraduates. In this sample, CFA showed that the data obtained using the
original 20-item PANAS did not adequately fit the TRAD model (Villodas, Villodas, &
Roesch, 2011). In order for the model to fit the data, four items required removal. These
were proud, alert, jittery, and distressed. Subsequent CFA on the revised 16-item
PANAS in this sample showed a strong fit with the model. Researchers assert that the
initial poor fit of the 20-item PANAS was due to the cultural variations in the concept
of happiness between Western and Eastern cultures. The Western concept of happiness
(PA) being associated with self-esteem was posited to be different to the Eastern
conceptualization that is related more strongly to notions of social harmony (Villodas, et
al., 2011).
21
Finally, there has been suggestion in the literature that the PANAS scales only
measure high-activation affective states (Barrett & Russell, 1999). This argument had
been previously addressed by the developers with Watson and Tellegen (1985) stating
that this was the price the PANAS authors had to pay in order to gain dimensional
independence. Put simply, high activation descriptors demonstrate excellent convergent/
divergent validity through their ability to uniquely load on either PA or NA. More
subtle descriptors might measure affect more broadly, however, be more likely to crossload and thus reduce validity (Watson & Tellegen, 1985).
Summary: PANAS
The PANAS is a brief, 20-item, self-report, positive and negative affect scale
developed by Watson, et al. (1988). The measure was initially validated with
undergraduate students and university employed adults primarily from a Caucasian
North American background. Based on the TRAD Model, the PANAS uses
respondents levels of positive and negative affect to determine the presence of
depression and anxiety. The PANAS has gained strong support for both research and
clinical use. Its wide use in adults and older youth from both community and clinical
populations has provided further evidence of its reliability, validity, and utility.
However, some criticisms have been directed at the PANAS in relation to its fit to the
TRAD model, the dimensional independence of the PA and NA factors, item
redundancy, and model fit within cross-cultural samples.
The PH-PANAS-C: Using the TRAD Model in Children and Adolescents

The Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PANAS-C) was
initially developed as a 27 item self-report instrument designed to replicate the original
adult PANAS in child and adolescent populations (Laurent, et al., 1999). The initial
22
version was originally validated by the developers in 1999 using a community sample
of 700 school children in grades four to eight from Illinois, in the United States of
America. The initial validation included an extended item list which was reduced after
factorial analysis to a 27 item format with 12 PA items and 15 NA items (Laurent, et al.,
1999). Subsequent development resulted in an amended 30 item version of the measure
that included 15 items for each dimension (Laurent & Ettelson, 2001). In order to
establish a measure that was truly representative of the TRAD model, Laurent and
colleagues (2004) developed a third dimension for the model to assess physiological
hyperarousal (PH). After development and psychometric testing, the Physiological
Hyperarousal for Children (PH-C) eventually became an 18-item measure of autonomic
arousal symptoms based largely on the DSM-IV-TR criteria for panic disorder (DSMIV-TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Laurent, et al, 2004).
The two dimensional PANAS-C was then combined with the PH-C to create the
PH-PANAS-C - a three dimensional measure of anxiety and depression reflective of the
theories of the TRAD model.
Respondents are identified as belonging to one of four categories based on the
profile of the scores reported on the three dimensions of the PH-PANAS-C (Laurent, et
al., 2011). A profile with high NA, low PA and normal or low levels of PH
characterises depression. Adolescents and children who experience depression may
exhibit- sadness, irritability, low self-esteem, increased anxiety, and feelings of
helplessness and hopelessness which may permeate through various parts of their lives
(McLean, 2009). Anxiety is characterised by high NA and high levels of PH. Children
with anxiety disorders often exhibit introverted behaviours, reduced peer interaction,
attention deficits, and be subject to increased severe and frequent negative somatic
responses (Rubin, Coplan, & Bowker, 2009). A respondent with a mixed anxiety-
23
depression would be likely to report high NA, low PA, and high PH. Respondents who
do not fit any of the three diagnostic profiles are then considered to be clear or below
diagnostic threshold. In this way the measure is directly reflective of the TRAD model
in that all disordered affect is characterised by high levels of NA, and differentiated by
the additional presence of either low PA (in the case of depression) or high PH (for
anxiety). The development of an effective and efficient screening tool for disordered
affect in young people was considered vital as the evidence began to mount that
childhood depression and anxiety may progress throughout development and persist or
reoccur during adulthood (Laurent, et al., 2004; Shankman et al., 2009).
Further evidence has shown that childhood affective disorder was a strong
predictor of a number of physical illnesses in later life with the link between early-onset
affective disorder and poor physical health shown to be robust (Clark, Caldwell, Power,
& Stansfeld, 2010; Flaherty et al., 2006; Thabrew, de Sylva, & Romans, 2012). A
general association with poor health as well as illness-specific links have been reported
including chronic headache (Anda, Tietjen, Schulman, Felitti, & Croft, 2010); heart and
pulmonary diseases (Anda et al., 2008; Dong et al., 2004); some cancers (D. W. Brown,
Young, Anda, Felitti, & Giles, 2006); diabetes (Sepa, Wahlberg, Vaarala, Frodi, &
Ludvigsson, 2005); and faster aging (Surtees et al., 2011). Finally, the development of
such a screening tool was considered vital as the evidence revealed that individuals who
experience multiple episodes of disordered affect during development are at
significantly increased risk for early mortality (D. W. Brown, et al., 2006; Dube, Felitti,
Dong, Giles, & Anda, 2003) with individuals with six or more adverse affective
experiences during development likely to die up to 20 years earlier than those without.
Thus, Laurent and colleagues (1999; 2004) argued that it was crucial to diagnose and
treat children and adolescents with affective disorders to help reduce potential
24
impairments of physical, social, academic, and emotional functioning (Uba, Yaacob,

Juhari, & Talib, 2012).
Laurent and colleagues (1999) further argued that previous symptom-oriented
self-report measures, used to assess mood in children lacked sensitivity. According to
Laurent et al. (1999) and a number of subsequent assessments, many of these
instruments did not adequately distinguish between types of internalising disorders, and
displayed poor discriminant validity. That is to say that previous measures were able to
detect disordered affect however, they could not differentiate between sub-types such as
anxiety and depression (Chorpita, et al., 2000).
Recent research that assessed a large sample of North American high school and
college students found that young people are reporting a higher prevalence of anxiety
and depression than in previous decades (Twenge et al., 2010). This trend further
indicated that the development of a measure such as the PH-PANAS-C was necessary to
address what was clearly becoming, as Laurent and colleagues (1999) had claimed, a
critical public health issue ( p. 326).
The PH-PANAS-C was developed as a screening tool for school and community
populations (Laurent, et al., 2004), and for use as a diagnostic tool in clinical
populations (Laurent, et al., 2011). Large clinical and non-clinical samples of children
have been utilised to develop the measure using both EFA and principal component
analysis (PCA) processes. Subsequent hypothesis driven research has shown the TRAD
model accurately predicts levels of NA, PA, and PH reported on the PH-PANAS-C by
specific clinical samples (Laurent & Ettelson, 2001).The literature shows that the PHPANAS-C is more sensitive, accurate, and reliable in both community and clinical
populations than other TRAD-based child measures (Kiernan, et al., 2001). Finally, the
25
cross-cultural applicability of the measure has been shown in a large-scale, multicountry European study (Kiernan, et al., 2001). In essence, the PH-PANAS-C is a child
version of the earlier adult PANAS instrument. It utilises a restructured version of adult
PA and NA scales with the addition of a new PH dimension which are theoretically and
psychometrically underpinned by the TRAD model (Laurent, et al., 2011).
Psychometrics
In order to utilise a large number of valid and reliable items in its construction,
the PA and NA items of the PH-PANAS-C were drawn from previous TRAD
instruments (Laurent, et al., 1999). The selected items were then evaluated in a small
child sample on the basis of the childrens ability to read and understand them (Laurent,
et al., 1999). Eventually the scales were examined to assess their psychometric
properties and, after a number of modifications, the final PA and NA dimension items
(making up the initial PANAS-C measure) comprised 30 items (Laurent, et al., 1999).
The instrument was administered to a small clinical sample and 707 schoolchildren who
attended grades four to eight with the results indicating that both PA and NA items
loaded well on their respective factors with alpha coefficients ranging between .94 and
.92 for NA and .90 and .89 for PA (Laurent, et al., 1999). The measure was found to
exhibit good convergent and divergent validity with the interrelations between PA an
NA found to be similar to those of the adult PANAS (Laurent, et al., 1999). In a later
study conducted by Chorpita and Daleiden (2000) on 226 child and youth outpatients,
the PANAS-C compared favourably with a number of similar child measures of anxiety
and depression. In comparison, the PANAS-C was found to account for more of the
variance and was a significant predictor of anxiety and depression (Chorpita, et al.,
2000).
26
The 18 items of the PH dimension were derived from the criteria for panic
disorder detailed in the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). In combination with the DSM-IVTR criteria, a number of somatic items associated with generalised anxiety disorder
were also added (Laurent, et al., 2004). In combination with the PA and NA factors,
Laurent and colleagues (2004) validated the PH factor in a medium sized sample of
school children. Analysis showed that the correlations between PA and NA, and PA and
PH were almost zero, however the correlation between NA and PH was large due to
significant cross loadings of above .40 between items (Laurent, et al., 2004).
Nevertheless, the scale correlated well with similar measures (.56 to .64) used to assess
the TRAD factors (Laurent, et al., 2004; Tsang, Wong, & Lo, 2012).
Validity
Laurent and colleagues (1999, 2004, 2011) have reported that PA, NA and PH
dimensions show good convergent and discriminant validity and are significant
predictors of anxiety and depression in young people in a framework consistent with the
TRAD model (Laurent, et al., 2011). The structural validity of the three dimensions was
further supported by Chorpita et al. (2000). In a large culturally diverse sample of
school children, Chorpita et al. (2000) found that the dimension of PA was not
correlated to either NA or PH, while NA was correlated to PH. Younger populations
may have conceptualised specific negative items such as I just cant seem to get going
as being associated with anxiety which may explain the correlation between NA and
PH.
Item loadings supported independent dimensions with significant loadings onto
their respective factors of .38 to .61 (PA), .41 to .74 (NA), and .38 to .61 (PH)
(Chorpita, et al., 2000). Both Chorpita and colleagues (2000) and Laurent and
27
colleagues (2004) found that NA and PH were positively correlated. It was posited by
both groups that this was due to a number of PH items being negatively valenced (e.g.
my heart beats too fast), and concluded that it may be difficult to construct a high
autonomic arousal scale that is completely independent of the dimension of NA.
Yang et al. (2006) found similar psychometric properties of the PA, NA, and PH
factors in a cross-cultural study of Korean school children aged eight to eighteen years.
In a subsequent CFA analysis, Yang and colleagues (2006) posited that the high
correlation (.64) between NA and PH may be due to an Asian tendency to express
negative emotions as somatic complaints. Chorpita et al. (2000) indicated that the
somatization of depression may be a possible factor in all child samples from Eastern
and Western cultures (Laurent, et al., 2004).
Reliability
The PH-PANAS-C dimensions have shown good to excellent reliability in both
clinical and community samples with CA coefficients ranging from .86 to .93 (Laurent,
et al., 2004; 2011). Similarly, test-retest reliability has been shown as good to excellent
with correlations ranging from .70 to .75 for PH, .92 to .94 for NA, and .89 to .90 for
PA (Kiernan, Gormley, & MacLachlan, 2004; Laurent, et al., 2004; Laurent, et al.,
1999; Laurent & Ettelson, 2001; Nakamura, 2004). The reliability of the PA and NA
items were likely to be found to be valid and reliable as they were predominantly drawn
from the adult PANAS measure and had already undergone extensive psychometric
analysis in both clinical and community samples (Watson & Clark, 1999).
Criticisms and Controversies The PH-PANAS-C
The PH-PANAS-C has been shown to have some weaknesses in younger
populations. In a large sample of school children in grades four to eleven, structural
28
equation modelling (SEM) contradicted the TRAD models theory of dimensional

independence suggesting paths from PA to anxiety and from PH to depression (Jacques
& Mash, 2004). Further, Jacques and Mash (2004) found gender differences in
adolescents with females reporting lower PA and higher NA and PH than boys in a
Canadian high school sample. Finally, Jacques and Mash (2004) found that, in children,
PH was a significant predictor of both anxiety and depression. A recent Dutch study
supported this finding and the authors have suggested that, in young people, PH may be
characteristic of both depression and anxiety (De Bolle & De Fruyt, 2010).
A recurring criticism of the PH-PANAS-C throughout the literature is that the
PH dimension accounts primarily for panic disorder symptoms and therefore the PHPANAS-C is unable to account for all anxiety disorders (E. R. Anderson & Hope, 2008;
Chorpita, 2002; De Bolle, De Fruyt, et al., 2010). The inability to account for the
heterogeneity of anxiety disorders has been evidenced in both adult and child measures
using the TRAD model (E. R. Anderson & Hope, 2008; T. A. Brown, et al., 1998). The
literature suggests that these anomalies may indicate a need for further refinement of the
PH scales, a recognition that children may express depression more greatly through
somatic arousal than adults, and an acknowledgement that PH may be more interwoven
into the fabric of NA and consequent attempts to characterise PH as unique in child and
youth samples may be difficult (De Bolle, De Fruyt, et al., 2010).
Finally, although the PANAS was designed for adults, it has also performed well
in child and adolescent samples. This has prompted some discussion as to whether agespecific TRAD-based measures are necessary for adult and child populations (Fox,
Halpern, Ryan, & Lowe, 2010).
29
Summary: PH-PANAS-C
The PH-PANAS-C is a brief, 48-item, self-report, positive, negative
affect and physiological hyperarousal scale developed by Laurent (2004; 1999). Based
on the TRAD Model, the PH-PANAS-C uses respondents levels of PA, NA, and PH to
determine the presence of depression and anxiety. The PH-PANAS-C has gained good
support in research and as a diagnostic screening tool. Its use with children and youth
from both community and clinical populations has provided evidence of its reliability,
validity, and utility. However, some criticisms have been directed at the PH- PANAS-C
in regards to its PH scales strong association with panic disorder and the capability of
PH to accurately account for the heterogeneity of anxiety disorders. Some cross-loading
of items and sex differences in adolescent samples have also been reported in the
literature.
Conclusion
The TRAD model has received extensive empirical support in relation to
how it theoretically explains the overlap in depression and anxiety, and structurally
enables differentiation in anxious and depressive psychopathologies. Two of the most
widely used and effective tools used to assess depression and anxiety in adults and
children across varied settings of clinical, community, and school environments are the
PANAS and the PH-PANAS-C respectively. The literature has identified certain
anomalies that relate to both theoretical and structural aspects of these instruments and
the TRAD model on which they are based. However, in light of our limited
understanding of how complex emotional interactions contribute to affective disorder in
a range of ages, genders and populations, the TRAD model lays basis to our present
30
knowledge and offers a credible explanation of disordered affect that has been
recognised in research and diagnostic fields alike.
Aims and Hypotheses of the Research

The aim of the present study was to investigate the TRAD models psychometric
properties in both adults and young people in an Australian sample to assess its threefactor integrity and gender and age related response characteristics. The Adult PANAS
and the Child PH-PANAS-C were used to test three hypotheses. It was hypothesised
that the three dimensional structure of the TRAD model and the dimensional
independence of the factors will be supported by the adult participants self-reported
responses on the PANAS, and child participants self-reported responses on the PHPANAS-C. It was further hypothesised that adolescent females will report higher levels
of NA than adolescent males on the PH-PANAS-C. The third hypothesis was that child
and adult participants who completed both tests would report different levels of NA and
PA on the PANAS compared to the levels of NA and PA they reported on the PHPANAS-C.
31
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Psychometric Properties of TRAD in an Australian Sample
43
Part 2: Research Report
Validating Psychometric Properties of the Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression

(TRAD) in Australian Children and Adults
Michael Scott1
James Cook University, Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Social Sciences,
Cairns, Australia
Corresponding Author:
Michael Scott
Department of Psychology
School of Arts and Social Sciences
James Cook University
McGregor Road, Smithfield
Queensland 4878, Australia
Email: michael.scott@my.jcu.edu.au
44
Validating Psychometric Properties of Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression

(TRAD) in Australian Children and Adults
Abstract
The tripartite model of anxiety and depression (TRAD model) is well validated and
used extensively across multiple cross-cultural settings. In Australia, TRAD-based
instruments are widely used in adult and child samples from both clinical and
community populations. However, the psychometric integrity of these instruments in
Australian populations remains largely unexamined. The present study investigated the
psychometric validity of two of the most widely used TRAD measures - the adult
PANAS and child PH-PANAS-C in Australian adults and children. Results support
the integrity of the model and the age-specific requirements of separate measures for
use in adults and younger populations.
Keywords: Tripartite Model; Depression; Anxiety; Affective Disorders; Positive Affect;

Negative Affect; Physiological Hyperarousal; Autonomic Arousal.
45
Introduction
Research suggests that although depression and anxiety disorders may coexist or
overlap in regards to symptomology, they can be differentiated (Aina & Susman, 2006;
2007). Developed by Watson and Clark (1991) the tripartite model of affective
disorders (TRAD model) differentiates anxiety and depression via a process of profiling
symptoms in three independent clusters or dimensions. These are negative affect (NA),
positive affect (PA) and physiological hyperarousal (PH) (J. Buckby, Yung, Cosgrave,
& Killackey, 2007; Watson & Clark, 1991).
NA is characterised by feelings such as fear, sadness, guilt, and anger, while PA
is characterised by more positive emotion such as joy, happiness, confidence, and
optimism. Similarly, NA reflects low energy states, lassitude and anhedonia while PA
reflects a positive outlook associated with high energy and motivation (Watson & Clark,
1992). The third dimension of PH is characterised by elevated autonomic arousal such
as a racing heart, shortness of breath, trembling, temperature increases (blushing, hot
flushes), and light-headedness (Cox, Norton, Dorward, & Fergusson, 1989).
The TRAD model posits that all affective disorders share the common
component of NA, with low levels of PA being an additional characteristic that is
specific to depression and high levels of PH a characteristic specific to anxiety. Mixed
type anxiety-depression (AD) is then identified by the presence of all three of these
characteristics or symptoms. That is, high NA, Low PA, and high PH (Voelz & Joiner,
2002). The dimensions of the TRAD model have been proposed to be unique. It is this
independence that enables the TRAD model to differentiate anxiety and depression
(Imam, 2008; Joiner, Catanzaro, & Laurent, 1996; Watson et al., 1995). The TRAD
model has empirical and clinical support for its use in child, adolescent and adult
samples with its psychometric properties being established in large samples of both
46
community and clinical populations (Brown, Chorpita, & Barlow, 1998; J. Buckby, et
al., 2007; Chorpita, 2002; Cook, Orvaschel, Simco, Hersen, & Joiner, 2004; Joiner, et
al., 1996; Laurent & Ettelson, 2001; Yang, Hong, Joung, & Kim, 2006).
Although the TRAD model has received extensive empirical support (Crawford
& Henry, 2004; Joiner, et al., 1996; Ostir, Smith, Smith, & Ottenbacher, 2005), several
studies have identified issues relating to validity in specific populations and to the PH
dimension. In relation to the dimension of PH, it has been suggested that this dimension
may not be able to fully account for the heterogeneity of anxiety disorders (Anderson,
2007; J. Buckby, et al., 2007; De Bolle & De Fruyt, 2010). Initially identified by
Barlow (1996), replicated by Mineka, Watson, and Lee (1998), and supported by
several more recent studies, it was found that PH is more specifically related to panic
disorder and generalised anxiety disorder and is not as sensitive to other forms of
anxiety such as phobias and social anxiety disorders.
The ability of the model to sustain its three dimensional structure amongst
varied populations has also been questioned. For example, Buckby and colleagues
(2007) have reported that they were not able to demonstrate an acceptable fit for a threefactor model in a principle components analysis (PCA) of the model in a clinical sample
of older adolescents and young adults. Further, the dimensional independence of the
three factors in the TRAD model has also been questioned in child and adolescent
samples. In a Dutch investigation by De Bolle and De Fruyt (2010) it was found that the
correlation between PA and NA was significantly higher in child samples than in adult
samples. In younger populations, further validity concerns relate to gender differences.
Jacques and Mash (2004) found significant interactions for gender and age revealing
that adolescent girls reported more symptoms of anxiety and depression and scored
higher on NA and PH, and lower on PA than age matched boys. This was supported by
47
Joiner and colleagues (1999) who detected sex differences between males and females
in adolescent clinical populations. However, sex differences were not found in the same
sample when the analysis was conducted on adolescents with single disorder diagnoses
of either anxiety or depression (Voelz & Joiner, 2002).
Few studies have been conducted with Australian samples using the TRAD
model. The literature reports only two studies, each having used the first measure
developed to test the TRAD model - the Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire
(MASQ: Watson, et al., 1995).
The Australian studies reported factorial inconsistencies in adult and adolescent
clinical samples respectively (Boschen & Oei, 2006; J. A. Buckby, Cotton, Cosgrave,
Killackey, & Yung, 2008). In one of the Australian studies, Boschen and Oei (2006)
failed to show support for a three factor structure at either the item or scale level of
analysis in an adult clinical sample of 470 anxious and depressed participants. Contrary
to the psychometric properties and theoretical predictions of the TRAD model reported
by the developers, the results of the study revealed poor dimensional independence with
significant correlations identified between dimensions (Boschen & Oei, 2006). In the
second Australian study, Buckby and colleagues (2008) tested the fit of the three factor
TRAD model in an clinical sample of 150 youth. The results supported a two factor
model of NA and PA however, the two factors that accounted for anxiety and
depression were highly correlated (r = .88). (J. A. Buckby, et al., 2008).
Attempts to address some of the psychometric issues associated with measures
utilising the TRAD model have resulted in a number contemporary measures for both
adult and child assessment. Two contemporary self-report instruments that utilise the
TRAD model to measure anxiety and depression include the Positive and Negative
Affect Schedule (PANAS) developed for adults, and the Physiological Hyperarousal
48
and Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children (PH-PANAS-C) for use in
adolescent and child populations aged seven to seventeen years of age (Chorpita &
Daleiden, 2002; Laurent, Catanzaro, & Joiner, 2004).
Developed by Watson, Clark, and Tellegen (1988) the 20 item PANAS consists
of a selection of words that relate to positive and negative emotions (e.g. sad, happy,
blue, joyful, cheerful, gloomy). Respondents are asked to report their experiences of
these emotional states over the previous month using a five-point Likert-type scale
ranging from one (very slightly or not at all) to five (extremely). Utilising the two
dimensions of PA and NA, the PANAS primarily acts as a self-report instrument that
defines anxiety and depression in various clinical and non-clinical settings (Crawford &
Henry, 2004; Yang, et al., 2006). Although the PANAS only uses two dimensions to
differentiate anxious and depressive symptoms, it has been shown to be a valid and
reliable instrument that is theoretically grounded in the TRAD model. According to
Watson, Clark and Carey (1988), the two-dimensional PANAS is effective because,
Anxiety is essentially a state of high NA, and has no significant relation with PA, but
depression is a mixed state of high NA and low PA (p. 347).
Established by Laurent, the 30 item PANAS-C and the 18 item PH-C have been
combined (PH-PANAS-C) to differentiate anxiety and depression in child and
adolescent populations (Laurent, et al., 2004; Laurent, Catanzaro, Rudolph, Joiner, & et
al., 1999). The PH-PANAS-C was developed primarily for use as a screening tool in
community and outpatient populations (Laurent, Joiner, & Catanzaro, 2011). The
measure has been validated using culturally diverse clinical and non-clinical child and
adolescent samples (Kiernan, Laurent, Joiner, Catanzaro, & MacLachlan, 2001;
Laurent, et al., 2004; Laurent, et al., 1999).
49
While both the PANAS and PH-PANAS-C have integrated psychometric

improvements on the original TRAD measure (MASQ), some issues have remained.
These include cross-loading of some items on the PA and NA scales, (De Bolle & De
Fruyt, 2010; Laurent & Ettelson, 2001) sex differences in male and female adolescents.
(Jacques & Mash, 2004), and stronger sensitivity for both Panic Disorder and General
Anxiety Disorder symptoms over other forms of anxiety disorder in scores on the PH
dimension of the PH-PANAS-C (Anderson, 2007; Anderson, Veed, Inderbitzen-Nolan,
& Hansen, 2010).
The aim of the present study was to investigate the TRAD model psychometric
properties in both adults and young people in an Australian sample to assess its factor
integrity, and gender and age-related response characteristics. The Adult PANAS and
the Child PH-PANAS-C were used to test three hypotheses. It was hypothesised that the
dimensional structure of the TRAD model and the dimensional independence of the
factors will be supported by the adult participants self-reported responses on the
PANAS, and child participants self-reported responses on the PH-PANAS-C. It was
further hypothesised that adolescent females will report higher levels of NA than
adolescent males on the PH-PANAS-C. The third hypothesis was that child and adult
participants who completed both tests would report different levels of NA and PA on
the PANAS compared to the levels of NA and PA they reported on the PH-PANAS-C.
Method
Participants
A community sample of 299 participants aged 7 - 73 were recruited in North
Queensland, Australia, using a combination of local media, community noticeboards,
and snowball promotion. During analysis the cohort was divided into adults (>18 years)
50
and children (<18 years). The child group was further divided into younger children
(<12 years) and adolescents (>12 years) for further hypothesis testing. Participant age,
sex, and socioeconomic status appear in Table 1.
Table 1. Mean Age, Sex and Socioeconomic Status of Participants in Each Participant
Group.
Group (age)
Male
Female
Low SES
<$45,000pa
N (M Age) Hhold (%)
Total
n (%)
M Age
n (%)
M Age
Total
134 (45)
23
165 (55)
24.8
299 (24)
131 (44)
Adult (19-73)
73 (39.7)
31.49
111 (60.3)
30.6
184 (31)
95 (52)
Child (7-18)
61 (53)
12.80
54 (47)
12.9
115 (12.8)
36 (31)
Young Child (7-12)
26 (50)
9.67
26 (50)
9.5
52 (9.6)
13 (25)
Adolescent (13-18)
35 (55.5)
15.13
28 (44.5)
16
63 (15.5)
23 (37)
Design and Procedure

Participants were recruited as a part of a larger neurosciences research project
being undertaken through the School of Medicine and Dentistry at James Cook
University, Australia. Local media promotion combined with community noticeboard,
pharmacy and medical centre flyer distribution, was used to promote the study and
invite participation by children and adults from population centres in North Queensland,
Australia. People interested in the study were asked to contact the investigators for more
information. On contact, potential participants were provided with verbal and/or written
information about the study and, if they wanted to participate, were issued with a
participation package by mail that included informed consent, written information about
the study, details of available counselling services, a personal and demographic details
questionnaire, and the PANAS and PH-PANAS-C self-report measures.
51
Prior to attending an appointment to participate in the broader research study,

adult and child participants were asked to read the information sheet and contact the
investigators with further questions. If participants continued to choose to participate
then they were instructed to sign the informed consent form and complete the paperbased versions of both the adult PANAS and child PH-PANAS-C measures to indicate
their feelings and emotions during the previous two weeks. Completed measures were
either handed to investigators during participation in the larger study or returned via
reply-paid envelopes provided. Signed informed consent was obtained from both the
participating child or adult and, in the case of child participants, a parent or legal
guardian. Human ethics approvals were obtained from James Cook University Human
Research Ethics Committee prior to the initiation of the study.
Measures
The study employed three questionnaires to gather self-reported data on
participants. The first was a basic personal details and demographic information
questionnaire. The two additional measures were the Positive and Negative Affect
Schedule (PANAS: Watson & Clark, 1999) and the Physiological Hyperarousal and
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PH-PANAS-C: Laurent, et al.,
2004; Laurent, et al., 1999). These two measures are the adult and child measures
(respectively) of anxiety and depression based on the TRAD model (Merz & Roesch,
2011; Laurent, et al., 2011).
PANAS
The PANAS is a 20 item self-report instrument that measures affective symptoms
based on the TRAD model of anxiety and depression differentiation (Crawford &
Henry, 2004). The measure assesses affect in two dimensions - negative affect and
52
positive affect with each dimension being assessed by a distinct 10-item scale (Watson,
Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Respondents indicate the extent to which they have
experienced a range of affective states over a previously defined period (one week, a
fortnight, the past month, or the past year) using a five point Likert-type response
format. In the present study, respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they
had experienced the listed affective states in the previous two week period with
response options ranging from one for very slightly or not at all to five for
extremely. The PANAS is well validated and extensively used as a screening and
diagnostic tool in diverse clinical and community populations of adolescents and adults.
The psychometric properties of the measure have been widely published previously
(Ostir, et al., 2005; Terracciano, McCrae, & Costa, 2003; Thompson, 2007; Watson &
Clark, 1999; Watson & Clark, 1991; Watson, Clark, & Carey, 1988; Watson, Clark, &
Tellegen, 1988).
PH-PANAS-C
The PH-PANAS-C is a three dimension, 48-item self-report measure of affect and
autonomic arousal used to assess affective states in children aged seven to seventeen
years of age (Chorpita, 2002; Kiernan, Gormley, & MacLachlan, 2004; Laurent, et al.,
2004; Laurent, et al., 2011). Originally developed as two separate measures - the two
dimension PANAS-C (Laurent, et al., 1999), and the single dimension PH-C (Laurent
2004) were combined by the developers to form a three dimensional structure in order
to create an instrument for younger populations that was representative of the complete
three-dimensional TRAD model (Chorpita, 2002; Laurent, et al., 2004; Laurent, et al.,
1999). Two dimensions assess affective states (NA and PA) while the third measures
autonomic arousal (PH). Both the NA and PA dimensions contain 15 items that
characterise affective states of either a negative or positive nature (happy, sad, gloomy,
53
joyful). The PH dimension contains 18 items that reflect autonomic arousal such as
cant sit still, sweaty palms, and racing heart. Similar to the adult PANAS, the
PH-PANAS-C asks respondents to indicate how they have felt in the past two weeks
using a five point Likert-type scale. The PA and NA items have responses ranging from
one for not really to five for a lot. The PH dimension responses range from one for
never to five for all the time. The tool is well validated and widely used as a
diagnostic and screening tool in a diverse range of clinical, community, and educational
settings of school-aged children. The psychometric properties of the PH-PANAS-C
have been published previously (Chorpita, 2002; Kiernan, et al., 2004; Laurent, et al.,
2004; Laurent, et al., 2011).
Statistical Analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and chi-square tests were used for between
groups comparisons (T1D vs NoT1D). Chi-square and independent samples t-tests were
used to assess demographic and personal characteristics. Bonferroni corrections were
applied to ANOVA results to allow for multiple comparisons, therefore ANOVA p
values were considered significant only if p .017 ( (.05) /3). All analysis was
undertaken using SPSS v20.0.
Ethical Considerations
In accordance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human
Research, 2007 (Australia)
(http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/e72syn.htm); written informed
consent was obtained independently from both adult and child participants.
54
Results
Participant descriptive statistics were analysed and appear in Table 1. Internal
reliability was assessed and showed good to excellent reliability in all dimensions.
Cronbachs Alpha statistics appear in Table 2.
Table 2. Cronbachs Alpha Reliability Results for all Participants on both the PANAS
and PH-PANAS-C.
Group (age)
PANAS
PH-PANAS-C
NA
PA
NA
PA
PH
Adult (19-73)
.86
.74
.86
.93
.86
Child (7-18)
.87
.89
.87
.92
.88
Young Child (7-12)
.76
.82
.79
.89
.86
Adolescent (13-18)
.88
.90
.88
.94
.90
Hypothesis One
A factorial analysis was undertaken to explore the factorial structure and
dimensional independence of the test items in the PANAS and the PH-PANAS-C. In the
first assessment, Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was used to assess the 48 items
of the PH-PANAS-C. Initial assessment of data obtained from participants 7-18 years of
age (N=115) to assess the datas suitability for PCA was undertaken using analysis of
the correlation matrix, Keyser-Meyer-Oklin (KMO; Kaiser, 1970, 1974) values, and
Bartletts Test of Sphericity (Bartlett, 1954). Results all supported the factorability of
the PH-PANAS-C data. Eigenvalues and the Scree Plot of an initial unrotated PCA
revealed three factors that were suitable for extraction and further investigation. The
three factors that were retained for further investigation explained 41.70% of the total
variance (20.78%, 13.54%, and 7.34% respectively).
Further investigation showed that the correlation between components one and
three was above .3 (-.35) indicating a relationship between the factors and therefore
55
further PCA was undertaken using an Oblimin Rotation to control for this relationship
(Pallant, 2005). A rotated three-factor solution converged in eight iterations and
revealed a simple structure (Thurstone, 1947, cited in Pallant, 2005) with all three
components showing a number of loadings above .6 and all variables except one (pain
in chest loading to factor three at .415 and factor one .347) loading to only one factor
above .3 (Pattern Matrix shown at Table 3 and Structure Matrix shown at Table 4).
These results support the three-factor structure of the TRAD model as it is reflected in
the PH-PANAS-C and the uniqueness of the three dimensions.
In the second assessment, PCA was again used, this time to assess the 20 items
of the PANAS. Preliminary assessment of data obtained from adult participants
(N=184) to assess the datas suitability for PCA was undertaken using analysis of the
correlation matrix, KMO (Kaiser, 1970, 1974) values, and Bartletts Test of Sphericity
(Bartlett, 1954). Results all supported the factorability of the PANAS data. Eigenvalues
and the Scree Plot of an initial unrotated PCA revealed two factors that were suitable for
extraction and further investigation. The two factors that were retained for further
investigation explained 46.20% of the total variance (28.82% and 17.38% respectively).
Further investigation showed that the correlation between the two components
was below .3 (-.21) indicating no significant relationship between the two factors and
therefore further PCA was undertaken using a Varimax Rotation (Pallant, 2005). A
rotated two-factor solution revealed a simple structure (Thurstone, 1947, cited in
Pallant, 2005) with both components showing a number of loadings above .6 and all
variables except one (irritable loading to Factor 2 at .58 and Factor 1, .35) loading to
only one factor above .3 (Varimax Rotated Component Matrix shown at Table 5). These
results support the two-factor structure of PANAS and the uniqueness of the
dimensions.

Table 3. Oblimin Rotation Pattern Matrix Results for Child Participant Scores on the
PH-PANAS-C.
Component
1
2
3
Upset
-.112
.159
.834
Sad
-.055
.052
.827
Blue
.035
.088
.794
Lonely
-.104
.019
.734
Gloomy
-.045
-.017
.653
Miserable
-.196
.088
.641
Afraid
.073
-.099
.640
Scared
.135
-.059
.610
Mad
-.085
-.071
.469
Nervous
.058
-.018
.444
Frightened
.114
-.275
.433
Disgusted
-.012
-.066
.410
Ashamed
-.124
-.062
.391
Guilty
-.045
-.022
.318
Jittery
.050
-.202
.262
Joyful
-.229
-.058
.791
Lively
-.101
-.042
.774
Delighted
-.226
-.115
.735
Cheerful
-.214
-.097
.734
Active
-.017
-.177
.733
Energetic
.023
-.106
.727
Proud
-.007
.094
.726
Exited
.183
.125
.722
Daring
.133
-.005
.702
Fearless
.121
.175
.674
Strong
-.056
.130
.656
Happy
-.234
.002
.631
Interested
.128
.203
.587
Alert
.064
.036
.556
Calm
-.240
-.088
.527
Sweaty Hands/Palms
-.110
-.064
-.748
Dizzy
-.095
-.052
-.739
Heart Pounding
-.105
-.108
-.737
Hot flashes
-.179
-.034
-.712
Feeling like throwing up
-.045
-.078
-.652
Sweating when you are not hot
-.058
.001
-.650
Shaky
.097
.027
-.592
Numbness
.166
.160
-.556
Tingling
.142
-.187
-.541
Dry mouth
-.024
.075
-.497
Can't catch your breath
.256
-.026
-.494
Stomach Ache
.241
.023
-.491
Can't sit still
.175
.067
-.479
Pain in your chest
.347
-.108
-.415
Feeling of choking
.189
.071
-.360
Cold Flashes/Chills
.248
.179
-.306
Tight muscles
.115
-.152
-.305
Blushing
.262
-.003
-.264
Notes: 1. Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis; 2. Rotation Method: Oblimin
with Kaiser Normalization; 3. Rotation converged in 8 iterations
PH-PANAS-C Items
56
57
Table 4. Oblimin Rotation Structure Matrix Results for Child Participant Scores on the
PH-PANAS-C.
Component
1
2
3
Sad
-.178
-.238
.817
Upset
-.231
-.136
.795
Blue
-.081
-.186
.758
Lonely
-.215
-.241
.744
Gloomy
-.145
-.246
.666
Afraid
-.030
-.317
.663
Miserable
-.289
-.144
.640
Scared
.039
-.264
.610
Frightened
.034
-.419
.511
Mad
-.160
-.239
.507
Nervous
-.011
-.170
.441
Disgusted
-.078
-.208
.434
Ashamed
-.187
-.204
.431
Guilty
-.095
-.135
.333
Jittery
-.001
-.291
.325
Joyful
-.329
.061
.823
Lively
-.204
.032
.787
Delighted
-.298
.001
.763
Cheerful
-.292
.014
.762
Proud
-.150
.134
.732
Active
-.067
-.133
.726
Energetic
-.051
-.077
.718
Excited
.030
.098
.701
Daring
.028
-.016
.682
Strong
-.201
.183
.671
Happy
-.331
.115
.667
Fearless
-.042
.167
.665
Interested
-.032
.189
.578
Calm
-.290
.022
.559
Alert
-.033
.042
.548
Sweaty Hands/Palms
.159
-.085
-.713
Dizzy
.169
-.076
-.708
Heart Pounding
.167
-.130
-.706
Hot flashes
.073
-.043
-.651
Feeling like throwing up
.193
-.105
-.640
Sweating when you are not hot
.167
-.024
-.630
Shaky
.298
-.018
-.625
Numbness
.335
.106
-.605
Tingling
.358
-.236
-.600
Can't catch your breath
.431
-.091
-.584
Stomach Ache
.408
-.038
-.573
Pain in your chest
.508
-.182
-.541
Can't sit still
.331
.016
-.536
Dry mouth
.137
.053
-.485
Feeling of choking
.303
.024
-.421
Cold Flashes/Chills
.327
.126
-.383
Blushing
.354
-.056
-.355
Tight muscles
.244
-.185
-.352
Notes: 1. Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis; 2. Rotation Method:
Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization
PH-PANAS-C Items
58
Table 5. Varimax Rotated Component Matrix Results for Adult Participant Scores on
the PANAS.
Component
1
2
inspired
-.075
.792
excited
-.045
.737
strong
-.146
.718
interested
-.163
.711
active
-.122
.711
determined
-.143
.694
proud
-.008
.693
alert
.065
.595
attentive
-.133
.569
enthusiastic
-.008
.367
upset
-.165
.777
distressed
-.121
.749
scared
-.055
.748
jittery
.037
.692
afraid
-.074
.628
ashamed
-.047
.619
nervous
.037
.618
hostile
-.040
.616
guilty
-.139
.613
irritable
-.346
.583
Notes: 1. Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis; 2. Rotation Method: Varimax
with Kaiser Normalization; 3. Rotation converged in 3 iterations
PANAS Items
Hypothesis Two
A Univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) was undertaken to assess the variation in
self-reported levels of NA between adolescent female (n= 28) and male (n= 35)
participants (N=63; aged 13-18 years; Figure 1). Levenes test revealed no violation of
homogeneity (p= .41). The results of the ANOVA showed no difference between the
mean NA scores reported by adolescent females compared to those reported by
adolescent males. Results of Univariate ANOVA showed no difference between the
group means (females= 27.57, SD= 10.24; males= 25.14, SD= 9.48) for self-reported
NA (F(1, 61)= .95, p= .33, partial eta square .015) (Figure 1).
59
35
NA
27.57
30
25.14
Mean Score / 75
25
20
15
10
5
0
Adolescent Females
Adolescent Males
Figure 1. Mean NA scores with standard error bars (females= 1.86, males= 1.66) for
adolescent male and female participants.
Hypothesis Three
Results for the NA and PA factors of the PANAS and the PH-PANAS-C were
converted into scores out of 100 in order to allow for direct comparisons. A subsequent
correlational analysis was used to assess the relationship between comparable factors on
the PANAS and PH-PANAS-C (NA-NA and PA-PA) in child and adult participants.
Spearmans rho was used as it provides a more conservative estimate of the relationship
(Pallant, 2005). As predicted, scores on the PANAS NA and PA factors correlated with
scores on the PH-PANAS-C NA and PA factors respectively for both children and
adults. Table 6 shows the results of the correlational analysis.
Further analysis identified the unique age-related characteristics of item scoring
in the PANAS and PH-PANAS-C. Independent Samples t-Tests revealed a significant
60
difference between the NA and PA factor scores on the PANAS and the NA and PA
scores on the PH-PANAS-C respectively for both child and adult participants (Table 6).
Table 6. Results of Spearmans rho Correlational Analysis and Independent Samples tTests Showing Significant Positive Relationships between Corresponding Dimensions
and Significant Variations between Dimensional Means on the PANAS Compared to the
PH-PANAS-C for Both Adult and Child Participants.
PANAS to
PH-PANAS-C
Children (n=115)
Adults (n=184)
Spearmans rho t-Test (df= 114) Spearmans rho t-Test (df= 183)
rho
p*
rho
p*
NA - NA
.42
<.001
4.06
<.001
.76
<.001
3.19
.002
PA - PA
.41
<.001
5.63
<.001
.85
<.001
3.96
<.001
* 2-tailed
Discussion
The current study sought to examine the psychometric properties of the TRAD
model in an Australian community sample. Structural integrity, sex differences, and the
age-specific applicability of trad-based child and adult measures were explored. Selfreport measures of affect comprised the PANAS (adult) and PH-PANAS-C for children.
Two of the three hypotheses were supported. PCA of participant responses for the
PANAS in adult participants and the PH-PANAS-C in child and adolescent participants
provided strong support for the dimensional structure of the TRAD model in Australian
community populations. Comparative analysis of the responses of participants on the
two instruments - that is child scores on the PANAS versus child scores on the PHPANAS-C, and adult scores on the PANAS versus adult scores on the PH-PANAS-C supported the need for the use of the age-specific instruments in their appropriate
61
populations. Finally, the prediction that adolescent females would report higher levels
of anxiety than adolescent males on the PH-PANAS-C was not supported.
Hypothesis One: Dimensional and Structural Integrity of the TRAD model and
the PH-PANAS-C and PANAS
Results supported the first hypothesis. Both the PANAS and PH-PANAS-C
displayed clear TRAD factor structures with the appropriate items loading well on the
corresponding dimensions. PCA results confirmed a robust three-factor TRAD structure
for the PH-PANAS-C, and a similar two-factor trad-based structure for the PANAS.
This is consistent with previous studies (Chorpita, 2002; Cook, et al., 2004; Lim, Yu,
Kim, & Kim, 2010; Novovic, Mihic, Tovilovic, & Jovanovic, 2008; Ostir, et al., 2005;
Pandey & Srivastava, 2008; Thompson, 2007; Watson & Clark, 1999; Watson & Clark,
1991; Yang, et al., 2006).
PCA: PH-PANAS-C
The TRAD model structure in the 48 item PH-PANAS-C was supported with
three unique dimensions that were representative of PA, NA, and PH. Items loaded
strongly on their respective dimensions, replicating TRAD model structure as described
by Laurent (2004). However, while the majority of items loaded to their respective
dimensions at .4 or above, some items had lower loading values.
Two NA items loaded below .40 (guilty .31 and jittery .26). Jittery also crossloaded on PH at .20 (Table 3). The word jittery may be problematic as it has been
suggested that the word is an informal term. The word may not be suitable for use with
younger children or cultural populations that are not primarily American-English
speaking and of Euro-American ethnicity (Thompson, 2007).
62
Four PH items failed to load at or above .40 (feeling of choking .36, cold
flashes/chills .30, tight muscles .30, and blushing .26) with the latter cross loading on
NA at .26. (Table 3). The four lower loading PH items relate directly to acute bodily
manifestations of autonomic arousal (e.g. muscle contraction, choking, chills, and
blushing) and the results may reflect childrens lower capacity to externalise and
cognitively separate physical and affective symptoms (Nilsson, Buchholz, & Thunberg,
2012). Accordingly, Laurent et al. (Laurent, et al., 2011), suggest that the strong loading
characteristics of the PA and NA items demonstrates that these dimensional items do
indeed demonstrate equivalent validity to the more established PA and NA scales of the
PANAS, and that the low loading of some the PH items indicates developmental
immaturity and the need for further refinement. Nonetheless, the results of the factorial
analysis in the present study do show strong support for the three-factor TRAD model
structure and the dimensional independence of the NA, PA, and PH factors of the PHPANAS-C in Australian children.
PCA: PANAS
PCA conducted on the 20 PANAS items revealed strong support for two unique
dimensions characteristic of NA and PA. In support of a two-factor trad-based structure,
the appropriate items loaded strongly on the corresponding dimensions of PA and NA.
Of the PA items, only one failed to load at or above .40 (enthusiastic .36) (Table 5).
Why the item enthusiastic failed to load more strongly on PA is not clear. All NA
items loaded strongly to their target dimension however, one item also cross-loaded
onto PA (irritable NA= .58 and PA= .35) (Table 5). In this case, such a dimensional
cross loading is of minor consequence as the item (irritable) loaded primarily on its
target dimension at .58.
63
Factor analytical results supported the TRAD structure and dimensional

independence of PANAS PA and NA factors in an Australian community sample.
Results support a two factor orthogonal structure of affect as has been proposed by the
instruments developers and the TRAD models structure and theoretical framework
(Watson & Clark, 1999; Watson & Clark, 1991; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988).
Independent researchers (Chorpita, 2002; Imam, 2008; Joiner, et al., 1996; Joiner et al.,
1999; Laurent, et al., 1999; Novovic, et al., 2008) have also reported comparative
findings that have verified the dimensional uniqueness associated with the TRAD model
and replicated similar results as those published by the developers.
Hypothesis Two: Sex Differences between Adolescents would be defined by
Increased levels of NA in Female Adolescents Compared to Male Adolescents
Results did not support the second hypothesis that adolescent females would
report higher levels of NA than adolescent males on the PH-PANAS-C. As NA is a
shared component of disordered affect, it was proposed that an investigation of
adolescent NA mean scores might reveal any indications of gender variation that might
have been present in either domains of anxiety or depression. However, univariate
analysis (ANOVA) performed on the adolescent sample mean scores did not reveal sex
differences (Figure 1). These findings conflict with the findings of Jacques and Mash
(2004) who found that the NA scores of adolescent females were higher than that of
age-matched males. It is noteworthy that the participants involved in the Jacques and
Mash study (2004) were of comparable age and gender, and also drawn from a
community sample comparable with Australia, namely Canada. Although results
support the position that the PH-PANAS-C NA scale effectively demonstrates the
capacity to assess NA scores equivalently across gender in adolescents, the present
study sample was small (female n= 28; male n= 35) compared to the Jacques and Mash
64
adolescent sample (female n= 131; male n= 87). In addition, univariate analysis

revealed a Partial eta squared statistic (.015). This modest value suggests a small effect
size that may indicate that the sample may have been too small to detect a difference
(Cohen, 1988).
Hypothesis Three: Child and Adult PA and NA scores on the PANAS will differ
from their PA and NA scores on the PH-PANAS-C but would be correlated
The third hypothesis was supported. There was a significant moderate
relationship between the response characteristics of child participants on the adult
PANAS compared to their response characteristics on the child PH-PANAS-C. This
supports the relationship of the two instruments and the validity of their measures of the
two corresponding dimensions of NA and PA. The moderate nature of the relationship
illustrates the response variation associated with younger participants on the two
measures. Adult participants showed a stronger significant correlation on the NA and
PA dimension between each instrument. The higher correlation between the dimensions
on each measure by adults may reflect the increased cognitive capacity of adults which
enabled them to understand and complete both instruments more effectively than the
younger participants.
Although the corresponding dimensions on each sample correlated, independent
samples t-Tests revealed that both the child and adult scores on the corresponding
dimensions of each instrument differed significantly. Discussions in the literature have
questioned the need for the two tests with some advocates suggesting the PANAS is
suitable for use in both adults and children. These results support the need for the two
age-specific measures as the results clearly show age-related response variation between
the tests, even though the response characteristics do correlate (Table 6). A possible
reason why differences were found between adult and child scores (PA and NA) on
65
each instrument may relate to differences in test construction or the cognitive

limitations associated with childrens item response capacity.
Firstly, the PANAS and PH-PANAS-C vary in each instruments Likert scale
rating descriptions. Although both measures present similar options in regards to how
respondents rate the severity of their symptoms, word construction associated with the
Likert scale ranking on each instrument differs. Likewise, the PA and NA descriptors
that typically utilise a one-word adjective to describe subjective affect in each
instrument (cheerful, disgusted, sad etc.), change form in the PH dimension of the PHPANAS-C and are expressed as a range of interpretive phrases such as (sweating when
you are not hot, cant catch your breath etc.).
Secondly, the descriptive items that constitute the corresponding PA and NA
scales on each instrument differ and therefore, the results that showed larger
correlations for the corresponding dimensions of PA and NA scores of adults who
completed both instruments versus children may reflect an adults increased cognitive
skills to comprehend items presented in both adult and child measures. In regards to the
lower correlations evidenced in the child sample, it is a possibility that the level of a
childs cognitive maturity may have influenced their conception of the language and
constructs conveyed in each instrument (Laurent, et al., 2011).
Finally, results suggest that the moderate to strong relationships found between
the corresponding dimensions (PA-PA; NA-NA) in adult and child measures supports
the notion of dimensional consistency. However, results additionally indicated that the
two samples were significantly different, which lends support to the position that
endorses the use of age-specific instruments in adult, child, and adolescent samples.
66
Limitations
A small effect size reported in the analysis of NA levels between male and
female adolescents (H2), may indicate that the sample size was too small (N=63) to
detect sex differences between group mean scores for NA (Pallant, 2005, p. 210).
Another constraint was that the study drew participants from the community. A clinical
sample may have presented differently than the community sample (J. Buckby, et al.,
2007), however, results do support expected and previous findings (Kiernan, et al.,
2001; Laurent, et al., 2011). A further restriction of the current study was that
participant data was collected with self-report instruments. It is known that self-report
measures create a moderated response set and therefore results may not be a complete
reflection of participant affect (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2012).
Conclusion
The present paper has outlined a number of findings related to the exploration of
theoretical, dimensional, and structural characteristics associated with the TRAD model
using a community sample of Australian children, adults, and adolescents. First, results
indicated that the dimensional structure of the TRAD model was supported in both
children and adults. Second, that principle components analysis preformed on the
PANAS and PH-PANAS-C supported the psychometric properties of TRAD model.
Third, that the predicted sex differences in adolescents were not found possibly due to
small sample size. Finally, that child and adult scores differed on the two instruments
but were correlated. This supports the age-specific properties of each instrument and
counters the suggestion that the PANAS may be suitable for use in adults, adolescents,
and young children. The PANAS and PH-PANAS-C appear to be psychometrically
sound for use in Australian community populations.
67
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Appendices
Appendix A
Notes to contributors for the selected journal
Appendix B
Ethical Clearance
Appendix C
Information Page
Appendix D
Consent Form
Appendix E
Questionnaires or Specific Instructions to Participants
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Appendix E
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Appendix E
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Appendix E
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Appendix E
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Validation of The Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression (TRAD) in Australian Children and Adults Using The PANAS (Adult) and PH-PANAS-C (Child) Self-Report Measures

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Validation of The Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression (TRAD) in Australian Children and Adults Using The PANAS (Adult) and PH-PANAS-C (Child) Self-Report Measures

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Validation of the Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression (TRAD) in Australian

Literature Review and Research Paper submitted in partial fulfilment of the

Statement of Access ........................................................................................................... i

Varimax Rotated Component Matrix Results for Adult Participant

Oblimin Rotation Structure Matrix Results for Child Participant

Oblimin Rotation Pattern Matrix Results for Child Participant

Cronbachs Alpha Reliability Results for all Participants on both

Results of Spearmans rho Correlational Analysis and Independent

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Part 1: Literature Review

A Review of the Psychometric Properties of the Tripartite Model of Anxiety and

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Statement of Research Topic/Question

Tripartite Model of Depression and Anxiety Differentiation

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Theoretical Framework of Model

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

It is important to note that researchers have experienced difficulty differentiating

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

The PANAS: Using the TRAD Model in Adults

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

TRAD model is predicated on the well conceptualised characteristics of anxiety and

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

The PH-PANAS-C: Using the TRAD Model in Children and Adolescents

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

impairments of physical, social, academic, and emotional functioning (Uba, Yaacob,

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

equation modelling (SEM) contradicted the TRAD models theory of dimensional

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Aims and Hypotheses of the Research

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Austin, A. A., & Chorpita, B. F. (2004). Temperament, Anxiety, and Depression:

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Cox, K. L. (2011). Attentional Bias in Depression and Anxiety:The Effects of Negative

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Psychometric Properties of TRAD

Stickle, T. R., Marini, V. A., & Thomas, J. N. (2012). Gender differences in

Psychometric Properties of TRAD