Kingdom Monera

- prokaryotic, unicellular, colonial, simple multicellular forms

- prokaryotic cell walls: peptidoglycan
- common structures with eukaryotes: DNA, plasma membrane, ribosomes
- DNA has no proteins associated with them
- photosynthetic bacteria absorbs light most strongly in the near-infrared portion of the EM spectrum,
does not produce oxygen but sulfur
- reproduction: sexually: conjugation, asexually: binary fission (no spindle fibers involved/no stages)
Division Schizophyta
Bacteria
-Gram positive: stain reacts with peptidoglycan (large amounts) in cell wall
-Gram negative: lipopolysaccharide > peptidoglycan
Cyanophyta
Cyanobacteria
- unicellular or multicellular, colonial or filamentous
- contains chlorophyll a with phycocyanin (blue accessory pigment) or phycoerythrin (red
accessory pigment)
- Nostoc: edible
Kingdom Protista
- eukaryotes with "9+2" flagella and cilia, mostly unicellular, some colonial and some multicellular with
tissues arranged in simple body parts
Algae
Division Dinophyta
Dinoflagellates
=Phyrrophyta
- unicellular, biflagellated, typically marine protist
- contains chlorophyll a & c with fucoxanthin (accessory pigment)
- causes red tide bloom, emits toxins in mollusks that harm the organisms that eat the mollusk
but not the mollusk
Chrysophyta
Golden Algae
=Chryophyta
- unicellular, biflagellated
- contains chlorophyll a & c with fucoxanthin (accessory pigment)
Bacillariophyta
Diatoms
= Xanthophyta
- contains chlorophyll a & c with fucoxanthin (accessory pigment)
- unicellular, covered by an ornate siliceous shell
Euglenophyta
Euglenoids
- mostly freshwater, flagellated, unicellular protist that moves by an anterior flagellum
- contains chlorophyll a & b with carotenoids (accessory pigment)
- food storage: paramylon
- Euglena: considered plant: chloroplast, animal: movement

Chlorophyta
Green Algae
- with chlorophyll a & b and carotenoids
- food storage: starch
- sexual reproduction: isogamous (gametes are identical in size and appearance),
anisogamous (gametes are different in size and appearance),
oogamous (eggs > sperm in size)
- Scenedesmous: 4 cells in a colony: coenobiu,
- Chlamydomonas: used in genetic analysis
- Ulothrix: filamentous
- Ulva (sea lettuce): gametophyte and sporophyte looks alike
- Caulerpa racemosa: edible, Caulerpa taxitolia: poisonous
- Acetabularia: single cell
Phaeophyta
Brown Algae
- multicellular, marine protist
- contains chlorophyll a & c with fucoxanthin (accessory pigment)
- food storage: laminarin
- source of iodine
- misconception: all brown algae are macroscopic
- Sargassum, Ectocarpus (microscopic), Turbinaria, Padina
Rhodophyta
Red Algae
- contains chlorophyll a and carotenoids
- Porphyra: nori
- Eucheuma: agar source, used in seaweed farming
- with phycobilins: phycocyanin (blue pigment) and phycoerythrin (red pigment)
-food storage: floridean starch
In old classification, Phyrrophyta + Chyrophyta + Xanthophyta = Chrysophyta
Fungus-like Protists
- with hyphae -> forms mycelia -> cross wall -> septate or aseptate
Division Myxomycota
Plasmodial Slime molds
- wall-less amoeba-like mass (plasmodium) that contains many diploid nuclei in its cytoplasm
(coenocytic)
- forms two reproductive cells at act as gametes: flagellated swarm cell and amoeba-like
myxamoeba
- feeding stage consists of a multinucleate, amoeboid plasmodium
Acrasiomycota
Cellular slime molds
- feeding stage consists of a unicellular, amoeboid organism that aggregates to form a
pseudoplasmodium during reproduction
Oomycota
Water molds and downy mildews
- body consisting of a coenocytic mycelium and with asexual reproduction by motile zoospores
and sexual reproduction by oospores

- cellulose present in cell wall, no chitin

Chytridiomycota
Chytrids
- most microscopic, unicellular, coenocytic, cell wall predominantly chitin
- spores bear a single, posterior flagellum
Protozoa
- animal like protists
Thallophytes: thallus (undifferentiated body)
- Algae and Fungi
- non-embryo forming
Other: Embryophytes, embryo forming

Kingdom Fungi
- eukaryotes, contain membrane-bound organelles
- enclosed by cell wall composed of chitin
- lack chlorophyll and chloroplast
- plasmogamy: fusion of hyphae to produce a cell with two haploid nuclei
- karyogamy: fusion of the two haploid nuclei to form diploid zygote nucleus

Division Zygomycota
Bread Molds
- reproductive structure: zygosporangium, sexual reproduction: conjugation but will only
conjugate if + and - strain are present
- produces zygospores, sexual spores that survive unfavorable environment by remaining
dormant
- aseptate, most are decomposers
- hyphae and asexual spores are haploid
- Rhizopus: black bread mold
Ascomycota
Sac fungi
- ascus contains ascopore (sexual), conidia - asexual spores
- septate hyphae
- ascospore undergo meiosis then mitosis to produce 8 cells
- Saccharomyces cerevisae: budding (asexual), good yeast
- Candida albicans: bad yeast
- Neurospora
Basidiomycota
Mushroom, shelf fungi, puffballs
- reproductive structure: basidium, cap: pileus, basidia are located in gills, stem-like structure:
stipe, roots: iulua
- Amanita (club fungi): poisonous, source of LSD
- septate hymen
- 4 basidiospores develop on basidium
- basidiocarp, more known as mushroom, is actually the cap and stipe
Deuteromycota
- imperfect fungi, no sexual reproductive structures
Lichens
- symbiosis between phycobiont (algal component) and mycobiont - (fungal component) but can
still exist on their own
- foliose, fruticose, crustose (attached to bark of old plants)
- produces pigments, e.g. orchil, litmus
- reproduce mainly by asexual, usually fragmentation
- some release soredia, units that contain cells of both symbionts

Kingdom Plantae
Non-Vascular Plants
- depends on osmosis and diffusion
- gametophyte dominant, sporophyte dependent
- sporophyte composed of foot, seta and capsule

Division Hepatophyta
Liverworts
- Marchantia: thallus (undifferentiated), male structure: antheridia, female structure:
archegonia
- dominant generation: gametophyte
- lacks stomata
- body form is flattened, lobed structure called thallus which is undifferentiated
- has antheridiophore and archegoniophore
- reproduce asexually by gemmae, contained in gemmae cups
Anthocerophyta
Hornworts
- Anthoceros
- archegonia and antheridia embedded in thallus
- single gametophyte produces multiple sporophytes
- sporophytes continue to grow from their bases for the remainder of gametophyte's life
Bryophyta
Mosses
- Moss: gametophyte first before sporophyte
- gametophyte: protonema which grows into a leafy green plant that bears gametangia on top
- used in grafting/marcotting due to high water capacity
- most advanced
- has tiny hairlike , absorptive structures called rhizoids

Vascular Plants
Seedless /Spore-bearing Plants
- microphyll: small, single vascular strand
- megaphyll: more than one vascular strand
- sporophyte dominant, gametophyte independent
Division Lycophyta
Lycophytes
- Lycopodium, Selaginella (blue "fern")
- small leaves, not upright
- Selaginella are heterosporous
- microphyllous
Pteridophyta
Ferns
- underground stem: rhizome, large conspicuous leaves: fronds
- sporophyte perennial
- young frond: fiddlehead
- clusters of sporangia: sori, covered by indusium
- mature sporophyte: prothallus
- one sporophyte develops per prothallus
- young ferns are eaten, w/ circinnate vernation
Sphenophyta
Horsetails
- Equisetum: whorled (3 or more leaves in a node)
- found in wet, marshy habitats
- have true roots
Psilophyta
Whisk fern
- lack true roots, has both rhizoids and rhizomes and vertical aerial stems
- Psilotum: upright stem is major organ for photosynthesis
- reduced fern

Seed bearing Plants

Gymnosperms
Division Ginkgophyta
Cycadophyta
Gnetophyta
Coniferophyta

Ginkgo
Cycads
Gnetae
Conifers

Angiosperms
Division Anthophyta

Flowering plants (monot or dicot)

Flowers
- Accessory: does not participate in sexual reproduction but important
- sepals -> calyx
- petals -> corolla
- sepals + petals -> perianth
- Essential: needed in reproduction
- stamen: filamen and anther -> collectively: androecium
- pistil/carpel: ovary (ovule), style, stigma -> collectively: gynoecium
- Single Flower: solitary
- Clustered Flower: inflorescence
- sessile - w/o peduncle or pedicel
Floral Variation
- Incomplete: one of the 4 parts is missing
- Complete: all 4 parts are present
- Regular: size is regular
- Irregular: size is irregular
- Papilonaceous: 1 standard (L), 2 keel (M), 2 wing (S)
- Caesalpinaceous: standard (S), keel and wing (random size, usually the same)
- Bilabiate
- e.g. Grass flowers: no petals and sepals, has lodicules. pollen grain: outer covering: exine, inner
coverin: intine
- e.g. Sunflower: outer: incomplete flower, ray; inner: complete flower, disc
Sexual Reproductions in Angiosperms
1. Sporogenesis - meiosis, product: N
- Pollen Mother Cell (2N) - counterpart of germ cell
- microsporogenesis - counterpart of spermatogenesis
Pollen Mother Cell -> microspore (N) --(encapsulated)--> pollen grain -> generative cell and tube ->
tube does not continue, generative cell into sperm
Male gametophyte: germinating pollen grain

- megasporogenesis - counterpart of oogenesis

Megaspore Mother Cell (2N) => megaspore (N) (3 degenerate, 1 functional) --(3x mitosis)--> 8nucleated embryo sac (female gametophyte)
8-nuclei: 2 synergids, 1 egg, 2 polar nuclei, 3 antipodal cells
2. Pollination - self-pollination and cross-pollination
- moisture of stigme stimulates pollen grain, pollen grain produces pollen tube as nuclei divides
- Perfect: male and female
- Imperfect: female (pistillate) or male (stamenate) only
- Monoecious or Dioecious
3. Double Fertilization - formation of embryo and endosperm which are contained in seeds
- sperm nucleus (N) + egg (N) -> zygote (2N) --(mitosis)--> embryo (cotyledons, plumule, radicle)
- sperm nucleus (N) + polar nucleus (N) + polar nucleus (N) -> endosperm (3N)
Seeds and Fruits
- from ovule
- parthenocarpy: production of seedless fruits (parthenocarpic fruits) e.g. banana
- Origin: Simple: 1 ovary
Aggregate: single flower w/ several ovaries
Multiple/collective: several flowers
Accessory: not from ovary but other floral parts
- Pericarp: Fleshy: (based on endocarp, mesocarp, exocarp)
- Berry: soft pericarp
- Hesperidium: axile
- Pepo: parietal
- Drupe: fibrous or stony (endocarp)
- Dry:
- Dehiscent: pod/legume, follice (1 suture), capsule, silique
- Indehiscent: nut, achene, caryopsis or grain (enclosed by pericarp tightly), samara
- Edible parts of fruits:
Mango unripe: endocarp, mesocarp, exocarp
Coconut: endosperm (liquid of coconut: juice, stony endocarp: charcoal, bunot: everything but
endosperm)
Palay: fruit, bigas: seed
- Exalbuminous: food for growing seed is no in endosperm but in cotyledons, no endosperm at maturity
- Albuminous: with endosperm