Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
TERRORISM IN MALAYSIA
Mej Mohd Raslam bin Hj Dollah (Malaysian Army)
INTRODUCTION
1.
Post-Cold War era was the period with full of optimism and possibility and
perceived by many scholars the end of history while others claimed the triumph of
democracy over totalitarianism.1 On the contrary, recent global scenario saw the world
facing with the new security challenges with the growing of non-traditional security threat
particularly international terrorism. The new breed of terrorism so-called New Terrorism
has raised great concern to world community due to the capability of inflicting devastating
damage to wide range of targets.2 Sep 11 incident is wake-up call for the world
community to a new face of terror. The message conveys is very clear that the act of
terrorism could be occurred in any parts of the worlds where no place is safe and even
superpowers are not immune. The threat of terrorism is present across the entire world
including in the Southeast Asia region. Thus, Malaysia is no exception to this threat and
potentially to be terrorist target in the absence of effective combating terrorism program.
This broad effort is responsibility of security agencies and relies heavily on predictive
intelligence.
2.
economic, social, environmental, health, and cultural. However, throughout history the use
of Intelligence is prominent in the military and security agencies. As such, intelligence
proven plays an important role in the success of various military campaigns. Sun Tzu in
his book, The Art of War said with advance information, costly mistake can be avoided,
destruction averted, and the way to lasting victory made clear. Subtly, very subtly, do not
neglect the use of intelligence. Today, intelligence has increasingly been more crucial as
the face of threat changes from traditional form to asymmetric. Hence, intelligence is
considered as the first line of defence against terrorism.
Rebecca Johnson, Post-Cold War Security: The Lost Opportunities, Disarmament Forum 1999,
http://www.unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-art257.pdf [Accessed on 17 Apr 2011]
2
Assaf Moghadam, The Roots of Terrorism, New York: Infobase Publishing, 2006, p. 7
DEFINITIONS OF TERRORISM
3.
Terrorism or terrorist acts have been in existence for millennia. Despite having a
longer history, definitions of terrorism vary widely and are usually in adequate because of
the difference in life values and beliefs. It is becoming more complicated when discussing
about terrorism on international level. Furthermore, the use of terror by governments and
those that contest their power remains poorly understood. Different states, departments or
agencies of even the same government will themselves often have very different
definitions for terrorism. Each of the definitions reflects the priorities and particular
interests of the specific government and agency involved. In this regard, the US State
Department, for example use the definition of terrorism contained in Title 22 of the United
States Code, Section 2656f(d):
premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant
targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an
audience,3
4.
For Malaysian Government, the term is based on Directive No. 18, National
Russell D. Howard, Reid L. Sawyer, Terrorism and Counterterrorism: Understanding the New Security
Environment, Reading and Interpretations, Connecticut: Mc Graw Hill Companies Inc, 2004, p. 19.
4
Ibid.
forcing government or organization to follow their impressed will including those act in
support directly or indirectly.5
5.
On the other hand, the term of terrorist is stipulated in the Internal Security Act
(ISA) 1960, where terrorist defined as any person who: (1) by the use of any fire-arm,
explosive or ammunition acts in a manner prejudicial to the public safety or to the
maintenance of public order or incites to violence or counsels disobedience to the law or to
any lawful order; (2) carries or has in his possession or under his control any fire-arm,
ammunition or explosive without lawful authority; or (3) demands, collects or receives any
supplies for the use of any person who intends or is about to act, or has recently acted, in a
manner prejudicial to public safety or the maintenance of public order.6
6.
Generally, the stated definitions did not have much difference. The meaning of
terrorism is more towards the use of whatever aspect of violence or force aimed to gain a
political end. In this aspect, the aim is major distinction between the acts of terrorism with
criminal or other unlawful activities. Base on the frequencies of definitional elements in
109 definitions of terrorism, the five most prominent elements are violence, force (83.5%),
political (65%), fear, terror emphasized (51%), threat (47%) and psychological effect
(41.5%).7
7.
Generally, the recorded history of terrorism could be divided into five eras. The
first era of terrorism span up from the beginning of human history until the period
immediately prior the French Revolution.8 The Zealots of Judea or dagger-men were the
earlier known organisation that demonstrated aspects of a modern terrorist organisation.
Most terrorism during the first era is classified as Establishment Terrorism as such action
usually constitutes the acknowledged policy of the government. The second era closely
Majlis Keselamatan Negara, Arahan No 18 (Semakan Semula), Pengurusan dan Pengendalian Krisis
Keganasan, p. 3.
6
Internal Security Act (1960), http://www.atlantic.metropolis.net/security/malaysia-isa.html, [Accessed on 2
May 2011].
7
Russell D. Howard, Reid L. Sawyer, Terrorism and Counterterrorism: Understanding the New Security
Environment, Reading and Interpretations, Connecticut: Mc Graw Hill Companies Inc, 2004, p. 21.
8
US Army Manual, Sup R, 244-F8-Intelligence In Combating Terrorism, US Army Intelligence Centre, Fort
Huachuca, Arizona, 2009, p. 13.
related with the French Revolution, specifically the several years of the French Revolution
commonly called the Reign of Terror.9 The French Revolution provided the first uses of
the words Terrorist and Terrorism.
8.
The third era saw the political and philosophical foundations of modern terrorism
were formed. This era begins in the mid-1800s and extends through the end of World War
II.10 The action and writings of few people, especially those in and from Czarist Russia
and Germany, had a remarkable impact on the political thoughts and actions of many.11
The fourth era dates from the end of World War II and marked by advances in technology
and with the end of colonial era.12 The fifth era or also known as the age of modern
terrorism, begun in 1968, representing by the incident of the hijacking of E1 A1 airliner
route from Tel Aviv to Rome by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
(PFLP).13
CAUSES OF TERRORISM
9.
Terrorism has occurred throughout history for a variety of reasons. Its causes can
US Army Manual, Sup R, 244-F8-Intelligence In Combating Terrorism, US Army Intelligence Centre, Fort
Huachuca, Arizona, 2009, p. 14.
10
Ibid, p. 15.
11
Ibid.
12
Ibid.
13
Ibid, p. 17.
14
Assaf Moghadam, The Roots of Terrorism, New York: Infobase Publishing, 2006, p. 10.
15
Ibid.
16
Ibid.
the justification and the social support required to carry out terrorist activities.17 The third
perspective lies on environmental factors such as political, social, economic and other
condition. The differences and grievances derive from these factors may affect
organizations and individuals and have an impact on their decisions to commit acts of
violence to achieve their goals.18
CATEGORIES OF TERRORISM
10.
a.
Scope of Operations.
consider where, geographically, the group conducts its terrorist operations. There
are three classifications of terrorist group within this category which is domestic or
national, transnational and international.20 Domestic or national terrorist group are
local terrorist that operate within and against government or social system of their
home country. Their aim principally focuses on their nations socio-political arena
and all attacks are conducted within the borders of that single country.21
Meanwhile, the transnational terrorist group is one whose target is singular. The
groups operations targeted both the interests of that particular country internally
and externally.22 The third group, international terrorist group on the other hand,
conduct terrorist operations whenever they perceive it to be to their advantage and
their targets are not singular. They operated across international boundaries with
no limit to area of operations.23
17
Assaf Moghadam, The Roots of Terrorism, New York: Infobase Publishing, 2006, p. 11.
Ibid.
19
US Army Manual, Sup R, 244-F8-Intelligence In Combating Terrorism, US Army Intelligence Centre,
Fort Huachuca, Arizona, 2009, p. 33.
20
Ibid.
21
Ibid.
22
Ibid.
23
Ibid, p. 34.
18
b.
11.
ideology.27 Thus, all terrorist is extremist which by their very nature intolerant of beliefs
which differ from their own. Ideological categories explain the political, religious or social
orientation of the group. Terrorist believe that the use of any means including violence is
justified by their particular ideological objective. A terrorist groups ideological
motivations are segregated into three, specifically politically motivated terrorism,
Nationalist/Territorialist and Religiously Inspired Groups.
TERRORIST ORGANISATION
12.
base on the membership, terrorist organization structure could be segregated into three
level group of people; Terrorist Leadership, Direct Support and Indirect Support.28
Terrorist Leadership and Support Group can be distinguished by a few key criteria.
Terrorist Leadership is the terrorist; those who provide direction and policy, approve goals
24
and objectives and provide guidance for operations.29 Support Structure, however, lead
normal lives, relatively immobile, and conduct their support activities in the area of their
homes and workplaces.
13.
The major difference between the direct and indirect tiers is one of knowledge.
Members of the direct support are generally fully knowledgeable of the purpose of their
activities. Despite their diversity in motives, sophistication and strength, terrorist
organizations share a basic structure as depicted in Figure 1.30
14.
The immediate objective of any terrorist attack normally complies with one or
more categories. The goals may be either for immediate or long term gain. Generally, they
are recognised by coercion, intimidation and provocation. Amongst the common short
term goals that terrorists wish to attain are to obtain recognition for their cause, to force
government reaction and to harass, weaken or embarrass government, military or other
security forces.31 Meanwhile, the long term goals are to cause dramatic changes in
29
TERRORIST TACTICS
16.
The act of violence is the terrorist common strategy principally aims to draw the
attention of the people, the government and the world to their cause. In order to attain their
goals, some common tactics terrorists use are bombing, arson, hijacking, ambush,
kidnapping, hostage taking and assassination.36 On top of that, the tactics choose usually
simple to apply, dynamic in effect, hit-and-run by nature and designed to strike their
objective rather than the victim. Terrorists will always do a thorough reconnaissance and a
detailed plan where time is not a factor.37
DEFINITIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
17.
Intelligence could be simply defined as the information that has been processed,
evaluated and interpreted. Intelligence in military term is the product derived from the
32
collation, evaluation and interpretation of all available information which concerns the
enemy or potential enemy or area of operations which is significant to military planning
and operations.38 Based on this definition, any information yet to be process is considered
as raw material. There are two crucial steps involved in the process, specifically evaluation
and interpretation of the information. The sources of information may come from various
collecting disciplines.
18.
The good intelligence is utmost important for the commander or decision maker in
the planning and decision making process. In order to produce sound intelligence, there
are basic principal needs to be observed by intelligence personnel. To meet this
requirement, intelligence must accuracy, timely, usability, completeness, precision, and
reliable.39 The characteristic of effective intelligence could be explained as follows:
a.
complete and objective picture of the enemy or threat and other aspects of the Area
of Operation. Effective intelligence should be derived from multiple sources and
disciplines.
b.
c.
d.
Malaysian Army Manual, MP 10.1.2 TD-Intelligence, Army Hq, MINDEF, Kuala Lumpur, 2003, p. 1.
US Field Manual 2.0, Intelligence, Headquarters of Department of the Army, p 17.
http://www.fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fm2-0.pdf, [Accessed on 4 Apr 2011].
39
e.
Precision. Intelligence product and briefings must offer only the required
f.
PURPOSE OF INTELLIGENCE
19.
provide commanders and staffs with timely, relevant, accurate, predictive, and tailored
intelligence about the enemy or threat and other aspects of the area of operation. In this
regard, Intelligence supports the planning, preparing, execution, and assessment of
operations. The most important role of intelligence is to drive operations by supporting the
commanders decision making.40 In military, the role of intelligence in combating
terrorism is closely associated with the counter insurgency, a form of asymmetric warfare.
INTELLIGENCE PROCESS
20.
The intelligence process also known as intelligence cycle consists of 4 key steps
10
wide range of formats such as verbal reports, written reports, imagery products, and
intelligence databases. The intelligence process/Intelligence Cycle is shown in Figure 2.42
21.
42
Malaysian Army Manual, MP 10.1.2 TD-Intelligence, Army Hq, MINDEF, Kuala Lumpur, 2003, p. 2.
11
22.
The Sep 11 incidents followed by several terrorist attacked in Indonesia and the
Philippines was so alarming that any countries in this region also vulnerable of such
attack. Malaysias concern is that, the same incident will occurs in its soil due to its porous
long stretch land and sea border. In Southeast Asia (SEA) and regional level, the known
active terrorist group are categories as religious extremist or religious inspired terrorist
group and in geographical term they are falls into transnational terrorist group. Amongst
the prominent groups are Jemaah Islamiah (JI), Laskar Jihad, Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG)
and Kumpulan Militan Malaysia (KMM).43 Additionally, some states in SEA like
Thailand and the Philippines are encounter with the years-long separatist movement in
their soil. Although separatist group in SEA and terrorist group do not share the same
goals, their cooperation across national boundaries verifies that they are connected with
some kind of brotherhood.44
23.
Like the other nation, Malaysia condemned the terrorist attack on U.S. In the
45
idea in certain areas such as military campaign in Afghanistan, but Malaysia was actually
playing a key role in the U.S. war on terrorism. Malaysias policy on terrorism is clearly
stipulated in the Directive No. 18 NSC i.e. against any form of terrorist acts, to protect the
live of hostage/hostages and property, to find solution through negotiation, no exchange of
43
Dana Dillon, Southeast Asia and the Brotherhood of Terrorism,The Heritage Foundation, 20 Dec 2004
http://www.heritage.org/research/lecture/southeast-asia-and-the-brotherhood-of-terrorism, [Accessed on 1
May 2011].
44
Ibid.
45
Rommel C. Banloi, The War on Terrorism in Southeast Asia, (Quezon City : SISCI, 2003), p. 41.
12
hostage to resolve the crisis, and agreed that strike action as a last resort following the
failure of negotiation.46
24.
conventions to abolish on terrorism. Malaysia also offers to help as part of UN troops that
can be deployed by Security Council under Article No 42 of UN Development. Currently,
Malaysia carries out the Resolution 1373 of UN Security Council (2002) to freeze all the
financial assets and individuals fund that had relation with Al-Qaeda.47 Domestically, in
order to mitigate the threat of terrorism, Malaysia has implimented several actions such as
The Prevention Through Law and Regulations. Currently, the government has identified
regulations that can be used for handling terrorism elements. This is including Internal
Security Act (ISA) and Anti Money Laundering Act (AMLA) 2001.
25.
Malaysia had experienced the threat of terrorism in the wake of the Communist
Party of Malaya (CPM) in the 1940's and during Emergency in 1960s. Subsequently,
several incidents of terrorism, whether initiated by domestic or international elements,
happened in Malaysia since 1970s. These incidents can and have the potential to
destabilise the security of our nation. Among the incidents as listed in the National
Security Council (NSC) Directive No. 18 are as follows:48
a.
August 1975. The Japanese Red Army (JRA) took more than 50 hostages
at the AIA Building, Kuala Lumpur. The gunmen won the release of five
imprisoned comrades and flew with them to Libya.
b.
during the Japanese Embassy hostage crisis in Peru by the Tupac Amaru
Revolutionary Movement (MRTA). Their demands were as follows: 1) the release
46
Majlis Keselamatan Negara, Arahan No. 18 (Semakan Semula), Pengurusan dan Pengendalian Krisis
Keganasan, p. 5.
47
Ambassador Rastam Mohd Isa, Permanent Representative of Malaysia to the United Nations, Threat to
International Peace and Security Caused by Terrorist Acts, 19 Oct 2004, p. 1,
http://www.un.int/malaysia/SC/2004/SCTerrorism%2019%20OCT04.pdf, [Accessed on 23 Apr 2011].
48
Majlis Keselamatan Negara, Arahan No. 18 (Semakan Semula), Pengurusan dan Pengendalian Krisis
Keganasan, p.2.
13
of their members from prisons around Peru, 2) they singled out Japan's foreign
assistance programme in Peru for criticism, arguing that this aid benefited only a
narrow segment of the society, and 4) they protested against what they claimed
were cruel and inhumane conditions in Peru's jails.
c.
July 2000. Weapons heist at an army camp which leads to the killing of
two security personnels at Bukit Jenalik, Sauk, Perak, by the Al-Maunah Group.
d.
April 2001. Kidnapping of 21 tourists and locals by the Abu Sayyaf Group
(ASG) from the Malaysian resort of Sipadan Island, Sabah. They were taken as
hostages to Jolo Island, Southern Philippines.
e.
26.
Lumpur that was supported the September 11 attacks. This group formed part of a panAsian network known as Jemaah Islamiah (JI). With that, Malaysia was blamed as the
meeting and planning place for the attacks. Following this, Malaysia was also accused as
being the hub for international terrorism with the assistance of regional terrorist elements.
Although terrorism is increasingly decentralised, and fragmented, the basic objectives
remain the same, that is, JI still holds the desire to establish a Pan Islamic State (Daulah
Islamiah Nusantara). As such, there are efforts by JI elements to reactivate their struggle
in Malaysia with some extremist groups having links to several religious schools and
Institute of Higher Learning (IHL). Recruitment of students in IHL into extremist and
militant groups with violent extremist ideology provides intelligent and ICT-savvy
resources.
27.
The Army is the core organization in the Malaysian Armed Forces, where the role
is to defend the sovereignty and strategic interest of Malaysia from all forms of threat. The
war against terrorism is a collective responsibility and new challenge for the security
organization including the Army. Since the seized of CPM in late 80s, Malaysian Army
14
moving towards the modernization to keep the organization remain relevance and in line
with current world development. The roles of the Army also changes with times from the
Counter Insurgency orientated force then to the Conventional and nowadays the Army is
prepared to be a versatile force.
28.
manage the assets of information collection. These include clandestine and covert
operations to generate the intelligence cycle in a sustainable, secure and safe manner to
achieve information superiority in real time.
intelligence at operational and tactical level, encompassing the entire spectrum of threats
to the country. It also conducts counter-intelligence operations to counter espionage,
sabotage and subversion, and also Psychological Operation (PSYOP) and Psychological
Warfare (PSYWAR), in cooperation with Defence Intelligence Staff Division (DISD) and
local agencies concerned. The activities above are made possible by the Intelligence
Fusion Centre (IFC), which is the nerve of Intelligence Department, Army HQ.
Intelligence Fusion Centre is a centre of human and computerised automation systems or
information technology equipment for integrating, collating and analyzing all information.
This centre is responsible to produce quality and timely intelligence for the Army.
LIMITATION
29.
and systems. Likewise, legally, they are bounded by existing Malaysian laws relevant to
combating terrorism. Within Malaysia, the primary military involvement and interest in
combating terrorism only plays a supporting role. Currently, the threat of terrorism is
mainly handled by Royal Malaysian Police (RMP). In addition, military forces have no
executive authority towards key installations except in the most extraordinary of
circumstances like the declaration the state of emergency, and then only as directed by
competent authority. However, the MAF is responsible for protecting its own personnel,
bases, ships, deployed forces, equipment, and installations. Additionaly, the MAF is also
responsible for providing technical assistance or forces when requested by the national
authorities. The NSC, as the lead agency for terrorist incidents both inside and outside
Malaysia, will closely cooperate with the MAF and other government agencies.
15
30.
31.
terrorism.51 U.S military defines counterterrorism as "operations that include the offensive
measures taken to prevent, deter, preempt, and respond to terrorism."52 Counterterrorism
operations are a tactical approach used by governments, militaries, local law enforcement,
and other parties against terrorist. Counterterrorism includes applying intelligence and
using force to eradicate terrorists, and is essentially a strategy of repression or
suppression.53 It is a highly specialized and resource intensive mission.
49
16
ROLES OF INTELLIGENCE
32.
The role of intelligence in combating terrorism although differs little from other
traditional operation in goal, is still regard as similar with the used to combat similar
threats such as sabotage, espionage, and other national security threat. Basically, the
principles, methodology, and objectives are the same. Army intelligence organizations at
various levels perform in the wide functional areas including collection, analysis,
dissemination and counter intelligence. Generally, the short term goal of such functional
areas are to prevent acts of terrorism directed against national interests, whereas the long
term goal is to defeat terrorism as an institution. In this context, the secondary objectives
within functional areas are in collection, analysis, dissemination of intelligence and
counterterrorism. The collection involved all level of intelligence from individual
personnel to the higher level including sharing information with other intelligence
agencies. The analysis on the other hand, is by and large conducted in higher level thereby
tend to look at the big picture. The intelligence then on the last stage, disseminated at
the right time to the right consumers through various means. Meanwhile,
counterintelligence has two stages in combating terrorism to safeguard security personnel
(antiterrorism) and advising the commander on specific Operational Security (OPSEC)
measures (counterterrorism) particular to counter terrorist pre-strike intelligence gathering
activities.
33.
include operations security (OPSEC), personnel protection and physical security. The
three are related elements, collectively protecting information from fall to terrorist and
lessen the vulnerability of an installation, unit, or personnel to terrorist attack.
ANALYTICAL METHODS
34.
their relationship.54 This is achieved by breaking the problem into its component parts
and studying each part separately. Usually, intelligence analyst used two basic thought
processes to study problems and reach conclusions i.e. induction and deduction.55 Time
and information are the analysts most precious assets. The situation demands that the
analyst maximise the usefulness of the information while minimising the time required for
collection, collation and analysis of that information. Throughout of terrorism analysis, the
particular part of the problem deserving the most analytical effort is the terrorist group
itself, of which intelligence analyst examine its elements and their relationships with other
members, other terrorist groups, national governments and other organizations which
support or direct terrorism and terrorist-related events. The analysts do not analyse
terrorism, but rather concentrate on a particular terrorist group or entities and their
supporting structures. The study of each terrorist group is a separate effort.
35.
18
Support Group, Striking Team and Executive Group.56 Having said that the members of
committee comes from various government agencies, the MAF is represented by Chief of
Defence Force himself (Terrorism Control Committee), Chief of Staff, MAF Hq and
Director General Defence Intelligence (Crisis Management Team). Apart from these two
top committees, the Malaysian Armed Forces also represented by other senior officers as a
permanent member in Emergency Support Group and Executive Group.
36.
The roles of the MAF are clearly stipulated in the directive to: (1) provide transport
that includes aircraft (Air Force), boat/vessel (Navy) and land vehicle (Army), (2) provide
expertise in various fields such as explosive, communication and field medical, (3)
provide logistic support during crisis, (4) provide air ambulance, (5) prepare striking team
(elite unit), (6) provide leadership in terms of the functions of crisis management team
when needed and (7) provide communication equipment/apparatus and technical support
at the scene.57 Generally, base on the roles of every agency in the committees, the MAF is
not directly involved in intelligence gathering but instead mainly carried out by Royal
Malaysian Police. Nevertheless, the participation of the Director General of Defence
Intelligence in the Crisis Management Team shows that to some extent these activities also
will be supported by the Military Intelligence.
CONCLUSION
37.
Terrorism indeed is not a new form of threat but instead has been recorded since
early history of mankind. Despite a long history, the Sep 11 incident has given terrorism
new definition. The incident has drawn world attention and instigated new set of security
concerns all over the world whereby threat of terrorism perceived as a global problem and
security issue. The threat of terrorism in Malaysia is considered as mild compare to the
threat in neighbouring countries and other parts of the world. However, base on the past
events and current indicators, Malaysia also vulnerable to terrorist attack. The existence of
terrorist activities in Malaysia suggested that the act of terrorism is a prominent threat in
Malaysia. On the contrary, the absence of terrorist attack in Malaysia so far clearly shows
the effectiveness of the government policy on terrorism and this stance is well delivered
56
Majlis Keselamatan Negara, Arahan No 18 (Semakan Semula), Pengurusan dan Pengendalian Krisis
Keganasan, p. 5-11.
57
Ibid, p. 23-24.
19
with effective law enforcement activities to curb such act from happened in Malaysia.
Therefore, Malaysian laws such as ISA, OSA and other emergency laws that can be use
in combating terrorism continues relevance until now.
38.
Many believed that Sep 11 incident, Bali Bombing and other terrorist attacks all
over the world were as a result of intelligence failures. Although this view has negative
connotation, but it is deem significant. However, in different perspective, the view itself is
self-explanatory the important of intelligence against terrorism. As a matter of fact, in
spite of the secluded failures, intelligence largely proved successful in predicting and
preventing many attempt of terrorist attack across the world. However, this achievement
is not share with the public because of various reasons especially on the pretext of need
to know. Thus, the phrase of intelligence failure is always close to our expression.
39.
This responsibility is over the shoulder of NSC and on the execution part (law
enforcement) mainly carried out by the Royal Malaysian Police. However, the MAF is
always prepared to support the NSC and other government agencies in combating
terrorism. Moreover, in some circumstances such as in the state emergency, this
responsibility will be handled by the MAF. Therefore, as far as the MAF is concern, it is
important to maintain the expertise and capability in combating terrorism. This effort
reflected with the procurement of new platform and equipment for combating terrorism
particularly for Special Force and Military Intelligence.
20
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ARMY MANUALS
Malaysian Army Manual, MP 10.1.2 TD-Intelligence, Army Hq, MINDEF, Kuala
Lumpur, 2003.
US Army Manual, Sup R, 244-F8-Intelligence In Combating Terrorism, US Army
Intelligence Centre, Fort Huachuca, Arizona, 2009.
MALAYSIAN GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS
Majlis Keselamatan Negara, Arahan No 18 (Semakan Semula), Pengurusan dan
Pengendalian Krisis Keganasan.
BOOKS
Adnan bin Said & Dr Baharudin bin Omar, The Malaysian Armys Battle Against
Communist Emergency in Peninsular Malaysia 1968-1989, Kuala Lumpur: Army
Headquarters, MINDEF, 2001.
Assaf Moghadam, The Roots of Terrorism, New York: Infobase Publishing, 2006.
Gus Martin, Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perpectives and Issues, California:
Sage Publication Inc, 2006.
Howard, Russell D., Sawyer, Reid L., Terrorism and Counterterrorism: Understanding
the New Security Environment, Reading and Interpretations, Connecticut: Mc Graw Hill
Companies Inc, 2004.
Mahathir Mohamad, Terrorism and the Real Issues, Selangor: Pelanduk Publications (M)
Sdn Bhd, 2003.
Smith, Paul J., Terrorism and Violence in Southeast Asia: Transnational Challenges to
States and Regional Stability, New York: M.E. Sharpe Inc, 2005.
NEWSPAPER ARTICLES/JOURNALS
Joseph Kaos Jr, Govt Mulls Over Biometrics to Tacke Illegal Immigrants Issue, The Malay
Mail, 21 June 2010.
Rommel C. Banloi, The War on Terrorism in Southeast Asia, (Quezon City : SISCI,
2003).
21
INTERNET SOURCES
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