Classification of Musical Instruments: Translated from the Original German by Anthony

Baines and Klaus P. Wachsmann

Author(s): Erich M. von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs
Source: The Galpin Society Journal, Vol. 14 (Mar., 1961), pp. 3-29
Published by: Galpin Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/842168
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ERICH

M. VON

HORNBOSTEL

AND

Classification of

CURT

SACHS

Musical

Instruments
TRANSLATED
BY ANTHONY

FROM
BAINES

THE
AND

TRANSLATORS'

ORIGINAL
KLAUS

GERMAN*

P. WACHSMANN

PREFACE

The revival of a learnedtreatiseabout half a century after its first appearanceis

an unusual event, and there must be cogent reasons for taking such a step.
In the presentcase the reasonsare not hard to state. No other system of classification is more frequently quoted, nor has any later system been able to supplant it. On these grounds alone it would be difficultto write it off as being
out-of-date.
Apart from the arguments of the system itself, the biting comments on
curators and collectors, and on the waywardnessof their cataloguing, are as
relevanttoday as they were fifty years ago. Reed instrumentsare still apt to be
labelledas trumpetsif the bell is flared-there is a dismal case of this in one of
our great museumsat present-and the terminology is still at times as muddled
as it was in the many instancesof which Hornbostel and Sachs complained;
while as for anthropologists,their publicationsdo not invariably give proof
that all have read their ZeitschriftfiirEthnologie.
It is true that criticismshave been made, and modifications demandedhere
and there; even the authorsdid not subsequentlyfeel themselvesrigidly bound
to what they had first stated in 1914, when they also tried to anticipatethose
points over which need for revisionwas most likely to arise.A good account of
these criticismshas been given in Jaap Kunst'sEthnomusicology
(3rd edn., The
Hague, 1959). None of the critics, however, could persuadethe presenttranslators that a returnto the original text might involve the undesirableresurrection of some best-forgotten error. On the contrary, the discussionsof the
system'smeritsor demeritshave convinced them thatit is necessaryfor students
to have easy access to the source itself. This is not meant to imply that the
Hornbostel-Sachstables are in all circumstanceseasily applied; one need but
think of some of the many varieties of stamping tubes, e.g. of the slender
'stampingtubes' of the Shambalaof East Africa, who 'make slits [in the tubes]
and wave them backwardsand forwards while dancing, so that the tongues
are caused to vibrate by atmosphericpressure' (Hornbostel, 1933, p. 296), or

* ErichM. von Hornbostelund Curt Sachs,

'Systematikder Musikinstrumente.EinVersuch',Zeitschriftjiir
Ethnologie,
Jahrg.1914. Heft4 u. 5. (Berlin,
are gratefulto ProfessorGeorgEckert,Editorof the
1914.)The translators
his
for
assent
to the work'srepublication.
Zeitschrift,
3

of the bamboo tubes which they strike againstthe ground or drum upon with
twigs; or of the stampingtubes of their next-door neighbours, the Pare, who
cover the end of the tube that hits the ground with a membrane. Are these
cases of Kontamination(see below, paragraph14) of a basic type 'stamping
tube', or is the first a type of free aerophone (41 in the tables), the second a
plosive aerophone (413), the third a percussion idiophone (111.2), and the
fourth a membranophone(zI) of sorts?
The original text did not reacha large musicalpublic since it appearedin the
comparativeobscurity of an ethnologicaljournal, while also, being written in
German,it did not become as widely known in the English-speakingworld as
it might have done otherwise. Thus there is a clear case for now offering an
Englishtranslation.To do so at this moment will servealso as a fitting memorial
to ProfessorCurt Sachs,who died in 1959. Posterity can pay no higher tribute
to a scholarthan to returnto his and his collaborator'swork and put it into the
hands of a wider public than knew it before. It is in this spirit that the English
translationis published.
The text paragraphswere not numbered in the original. Words in square
bracketsare the authors'if German,and the translators'if otherwise.The translators' terminology in the tables takes due account of English terms used by
the authorsin theirvariouslaterpublications--asHornbostelin 'The Ethnology
of African Sound-Instruments',Africa, vol. VI (London, 1933), glossary,
(New York, 1940),
pp. 303-II; and Sachsin The Historyof MusicalInstruments
'Terminology', pp. 454-67. Many of their English terms have come into wide
use, and have been kept save in a few cases where a change (even in one case
to French) seemed to the translatorsunavoidable or greatly preferable.Most
of the more obscure instrumentscited in the tables are describedby Sachs in
his Real-Lexikon(Berlin, 1913). Footnotes are original unless stated.

of MusicalInstruments
Classification
REATISES

on systemsof classification
areby andlargeof uncertain

value. The material to be classified, whatever it may be, came into

existence without any such system, and grows and changes without
reference to any conceptual scheme. The objects to be classified are

andsetform,while
to sharpdemarcation
aliveanddynamic,indifferent
and
are
static
demarcationsand
dependupon sharply-drawn
systems
categories.
2. These considerations
bring specialdifficultiesto the classifier,
thoughalso an attractivechallenge:his aim mustbe to developand
refinehis conceptsso thatthey betterand betterfit the realityof his
material,sharpenhis perception,and enablehim to place a specific
casein the schemequicklyandsecurely.
concernsfirts
for musicalinstruments
3. A systematicarrangement
of all musicologists,ethnologists,and curatorsof ethnologicalcollec4

tionsandthoseof culturalhistory.Systematicarrangement
andterminare
not
for
collections
of
needed,
however,
ology
urgently
only
He who refers
material,butalsofor theirstudyandin its interpretation.
to a musicalinstrumentby anynameor descriptionhe pleases,being
unawareof the pointswhichmatter,will causemoreconfusionthanif
he hadleft it altogetherunnoticed.In commonspeechtechnicalterms
are greatly muddled,as when the same instrumentmay be indiscriminatelycalleda lute, guitar,mandoline,or banjo.Nicknamesand
popularetymology also misleadthe uninitiated:the GermanMaulis not a drum,nor the EnglishJew's (properlyjaw's) harpa
trommel
nor
a Geige[fiddle],nor the Flemishtromp
harp, the Swedishmungiga
a trumpet;only theRussians
arecorrectwhentheycallthissameinstrument, a plucked lamella,by the uncommittedterm vargan(from
Greek'opycvov,
'instrument').
Homonymsare no less dangerousthan
for instance,denotesin the Congo the
synonyms:the word marimba,
set of lamellaeusuallycalledsansa,but elsewhereit denotesa xylophone. Ethnologicalliteratureteamswith ambiguousor misleading
terms for instruments,and in museums,where the field-collector's
on
reporthasthe lastsay,the mostsenselesstermsmay be perpetuated
the labels.Correctdescriptionandnomenclature
dependuponknowledge of the most essentialcriteriafor the varioustypes,-a condition
which,as a visit to a museumwill show,is hardlyevermet. One will
find, for instance,that oboes,even when stillin the possessionof the
doublereedwhich unmistakably
proclaimsthem for what they are,
arenotedas flutes,or at best as clarinets;and shouldthe oboe have a
brassbell one may be certainof the label'trumpet'
has theoreticaladvantagesas well as
4. A systemof classification
uses.
which
otherwise
practical
Objects
appearto be quiteunrelated
to eachothermay now becomeassociated,revealingnew geneticand
culturallinks. Herein will alwaysbe found the leadingtest of the
validityof the criteriauponwhichthe systemis based.
must
5. The difficultieswhichan acceptablesystemof classification
surmountarevery great,sincethatwhichsuitsone eraor nationmay
be unsuitableas a foundationfor the instrumentalarmouryof all
nationsandall times.Thusthe AncientChinesebasedtheirclassificabetweeninstrumentsmade of stone,
tion on material,distinguishing
metal,wood, gourd,bamboo,hide and silk; consequently,to them,
and marbleflutes,shawmsand
trumpetsandgongs,stoneharmonicas
clappers,eachbelongedtogether.
6. Our own present-daypracticedoesnot amountto much more.
Sound-instruments
are dividedinto threemajorcategories:stringed
instruments,wind instruments,and percussioninstruments.This
5

cannot be defended even on the grounds that it satisfiesday-to-day

requirements.A large number of instrumentscannot be fitted into any
of the three groups without placing them in an unnaturalposition, like
the celesta, which, as a percussion instrument, is brought into close
proximity to drums and so on. As a remedy one introduces a fourth
group under the disconcerting heading 'miscellaneous'-in any
systematic grouping an admission of defeat. Moreover, the current
classificationis not only inadequate, but also illogical. The first requirement of a classificatorysystem is surely that the principle of
demarcation remains the same throughout for the main categories.
Our customary divisions, however, follow two different principles,
stringedinstrumentsbeing distinguishedby the nature of the vibrating
substancebut wind and percussionby the mode of sound-excitationignoring the fact that there are stringedinstrumentswhich are blown,
like the Aeolian harp, or struck, like the pianoforte. The customary
subdivisions are no better. Wind instrumentsare divided into woodwind and brass, thus giving a subordinatecriterion of differentiation,
namely, material, an unjustifiablepredominance and flagrantly disregarding the fact that many 'brass' instruments are or were once
made of wood, like cornetts, serpentsand bass horns, and that in any
case many 'woodwind instruments'are optionally or invariablymade
of metal, as flutes, clarinets, saxophones, sarrusophones,tritonicons,
etc.
7. The objections which can be raised against the crudity of the
customary divisions are now familiar to organology [Instrumentenkunde], and in recent decades scholars have made more than one
attempt to attain something more satisfactory.Leaving aside classifications which have owed their structureto the peculiaritiesof this or
that collection, catalogues have latterly in general adopted a system
which Victor Mahillon has used since 1888 for his comprehensive
catalogue of the Museum of the BrusselsConservatoire.
8. Mahillon takes the nature of the vibrating body as his first principle of division, and thus distinguishesbetween instruments [i] whose
material is sufficientlyrigid and at the same time sufficientlyelasticto
undergo periodic vibration, and named by him 'self-soundinginstruments' (instruments
autophones*);[2] in which sound-waves are excited
the
agency of tightly-stretched membranes; [3] in which
through
and lastly [4] in which a column of air vibrates. Thus
vibrate;
strings
he distinguishesfour categories:self-sounders,membraneinstruments,
stringed, and wind instruments.Besides the uniformity of its principle
* Forreasonswhich Sachshas explainedin his
derMusikinstruReallexikont
we
the
term
1913,
idiophones.
prefer
p.
(Berlin,
I95a),
mnente
6

of division, the system has the great advantagein that it is capable of

absorbing almost the whole range of ancient and modem, European
and extra-Europeaninstruments.
9. Mahillon's system of four classesdeservesthe highest praise; not
only does it meet the demandsof logic, but also it provides those who
use it with a tool which is simple and proof against subjectivepreferences. Moreover, it is not so far removed from previously-used
divisions as to offend well-establishedcustom.
Io. It has seemed to us, however, that the four-classsystem standsin
pressing need of development in fresh directions. Mahillon startedon
the basisof the instrumentsof the modern orchestra,with which, as an
instrumentmanufacturerand musician, he was in closest contact, and
it was these which gave him the initial challenge to work out his
system. Then, as the collections of the Brusselsmuseum grew under
his direction, he explored over years of relentlesseffort the limitless
field of Europeanand exotic organology. Inevitably a newly-acquired
specimen would now and then fail to fit into the system, while certain
subdivisionswhich figure importantlyamong Europeaninstrumentse.g. those of keyboard and mechanicalinstruments-assumed an unwarrantablyprominent place. Mahillon had indeed been led for the
sake of the European instruments, to juxtapose categories which did
not logically build a uniform concept. Thus he divided the wind
instruments into four branches, (i) reed instruments [instruments
ta
a bouche],(3) polyphone instruanche], (2) mouth-hole [instruments
ments with air reservoir,and (4) cup-mouthpieceinstruments [instrumentsa embouchure].
Consider too the drums, which he grouped as
frame drums, vessel drums, and double-skin drums; he consequently
divided the skin drums correspondingto our side- and kettle drumsand likewise the autophones-into instruments of untuned pitch
(instruments
bruyants)and those of tuned pitch (a intonationditerminees).
This is an awkward distinction, since a wide range of transitional
sounds occurs between pure noises and noise-free tones; indeed, save
for a few laboratory instruments, there are no sound-producersthat
can truly be said to yield either pure noise or pure tones, the sounds of
all the usual musical instrumentsbeing more or less wrapped in noise.
Mahillon later seems to have sensed this when he contrasted noiseinstruments with those a intonation nettement or intentionellement
but the criterion is subjective and as a rule incapable of
determine'e;
proof.
i 1. In general,Mahillon was right to subdividethe four main classes
into 'branches'differentiatedby playing action. Yet for stringedinstruments it was a dubious procedure; a violin remains a violin whether
7

one bows it with a bow, playsit pizzicatowith thefingers,or strikesit

col legno.Perhapsthis seemsa lopsidedargument,sincethe violin is,
afterall, designedto be bowed. But there are other instances.One
couldcite instruments
whoseplayingactionhaschangedin the course
of time but whoseformhasremainedunaltered.Thiswas the case,for
example,with the ancientCelticcrowd,whichcanbe provedto have
beenpluckedin the earliesttimes,but whichcameto be bowedin the
High MiddleAges: shouldthe historyof instrumentsthereforedeal
with it half in a chapteron pluckedstringedinstrumentsand half in
one on bowed, althoughthe instrumentitselfremainsjust the
Then thereis the psaltery,whichis turnedinto a dulcimer[Hackbrett]
same.
when the playerusesbeaters;shouldone, in a collection,separatethe
psalteries,otherwise indistinguishablefrom each other, into two
groupson the groundsthatin one countryof originit was customary
to pluckit but in anotherto beatite ShouldI placethe clavichordand
the pianofortesideby sidebut housethe harpsichord
with the guitars
becauseits stringsare plucked?
12. All theseconsiderations
have persuadedus to undertakeafresh
the attemptto classifymusicalinstruments.We were fortunatein
havingat our disposalas a ready-madebasethe largeandextensively
describedcollectionsof the Brusselsmuseumout of whichMahillon's
systemhadgrown.At the sametimewe areawarethatwith increasing
forms,new difficultiesin the
knowledge,especiallyof extra-European
of
a
consistent
classification
will
way
constantlyarise.It would thus
seem impossibleto plan a system today which would not require
futuredevelopmentand amendment.
of sound13. LikeMahillon,we acceptthe physicalcharacteristics
productionasthe mostimportantprincipleof division;buteven at this
difficultiesare met sinceacousticphysicshasso far
point considerable
covered but the smallestfractionof the preliminaryinvestigations.
Thus inadequateresearchhas yet been undertakenon the soundproductionof the bull-roarer,the vibratorymannerin north-west
American'ribbon-reeds',
the vibrationeventsin bells, gongs, kettledrums,pluckeddrums,and wind instrumentswith free reeds and
mustbe addedothersarisingfromthe
fingerholes.To suchdifficulties
The problemof definingthe term'frame
morphologyof instruments.
drum'(tamburin)
for example,is scarcelycapableof satisfactory
solua conciseconcept
tion;undoubtedlythe typicalframedrumrepresents
not to be disregarded
in any classificatory
system,but the transition
between this and the pronouncedlytubulardrum occurswithout a
break,often makingit impossibleto decide on the basis of shape
whethera specimenbelongsto the one kindor to the other.
8

14. Other obstacles in the path of the classifier are instruments

The fact of
showing adulterationsbetween types [Kontaminationen].
adulterationshould be accounted for by placing such instrumentsin
two (or more) groups. In museums and cataloguesthese caseswill be
arrangedaccordingto the dominant characteristic,but cross-references
to other characteristicsshould not be omitted. Thus, among instruments of every class one may find rattling devices which belong to the
inventory of idiophones-a featurewhich cannot be taken into account
when placing the instrumentin the classification.But where the adulteration has led to an enduring morphological entity-as when kettledrum and musical bow combine in a spike lute-it must have a place
of its own within the system.
15. We must refrain from arguing our subdivisions in detail.
Whosoever will check these critically, or test them in practice, will
doubtless repeat the lines of thought which are not set out here, with
minor variationsof his own.
16. In classificationsit is often customary to indicate the ranking
of divisions within the system by means of specific headings, as especially in zoology and botany with expressionslike class, order, family,
genus, species, variant. In the study of instruments,Mahillon himself
felt this need and met it by introducing the terms classe, branche,
section,sous-section;on Gevaert's advice he refrained from using the
term 'family' on account of its widely-known use for instrumentsof
like design but of differentsizes and pitches.
17. We consider it inadvisable to maintain consistent headings
throughout all rubricsfor the following reasons.The number of subdivisions is too big to manage without bringing in a petty superfluity
of headings.Moreover, in any system one must leave room for further
division to meet special cases, with the result that the number of subdivisions could for ever increase. We have purposely not divided the
differentmain groups accordingto one uniform principle,but have let
the principle of division be dictated by the nature of the group concerned, so that ranksof a given position within a group may not always
correspondbetween one group and another. Thus terms like 'species'
may refer in one case to a very general concept but in another to a
highly specialized one. We therefore propose that the general typological headings be restrictedto the topmost main groups, though one
could, like Mahillon, speak of the four main groups as classes,of the
next divisions (with a two-unit symbol [zweiziffrig]) as sub-classes,
the next (three-unit)as orders,and the next (four-unit) as sub-orders.*
* Translators'
note:Itisnot clearwhethertheauthorsherereferto Mahillon's
or to theirown numericalcodingdescribedfurtheron.
letter-symbols
9

18. We have refrainedfrom providing a subdivisioncontaining no

known existing representative,save in cases where a composite type
may be assumedto have had a precursorin a simplertype now extinct.
Thus it can be assumedfrom analogy with numerous types that Man
rubbed a solid, smooth block of wood with the moist hand before he
ever carved a series of differently-pitchedtongues by cutting notches
into the block, as in the friction block of New Ireland.Again, where
the wealth of forms is exceptionally vast, as with rattles,only the more
general aspects of their classificationcan be outlined in the scheme,
and these will certainly requirefurther elaboration.
19. In general we have tried to base our subdivisionsonly on those
features which can be identified from the visible form of the instrument, avoiding subjective preferences and leaving the instrument
itself unmeddled with. Here one has had to consider the needs not
only of museum curatorsbut also of field workers and ethnologists.
We have carried the subdivisions as far as seemed important for the
observationof culturalhistory and detail, though the plan of the whole
classificationmakes possible its applicationto the materialeither summarily or in great detail as desired;generaltreatisesand smallercollections may not requireto follow our classificationto its last terms, while
specialistmonographsand cataloguesof large museumsmay well wish
to extend it in further detail.
20. The applicationof our findings in describingand cataloguing is
substantiallyfacilitated by use of the Dewey numerical system.* If
those in charge of large collections who issue catalogues in the future
decide to accept our numerical arrangement,it will become possible
to find out at first glance whether a given type of instrumentis represented in the collection.
21. The ingenuity of Dewey's idea lies in the exclusive use of
figures, replacing the more usual conglomeration of numbers, letters
and double letters by decimal fractions. These are so used that every
further subdivision is indicated by adding a new figure to the righthand end of the row; the zero before the decimal point being always
omitted. Thus it becomes possible not only to pursue specification to
whatever limits one desiresand with never any trouble in the manipulation of the numbers,but also directly to recognize from the position
of its last figure the ranking of a given term with the system.
It is also feasiblein a row of numbersto divide off any set of figures
which
by points. Say, for example, that it is a bell chime [Glockenspiel]
* Since the numerical
arrangementfor the Bibliographie Internationaleof
Musical Instrumentsapplies only to Europeaninstruments,and is anyhow as
inadequateas can be, we have plannedour own numericalorderindependently.
IO0

is to be coded and placed in the system. In the context of the system we

are dealing with an idiophone, the classto which the initial code-figure
I is allotted. Since the instrumentis struck it belongs to the first subclass, and so another I is added (struck idiophones=II). Further
addition of relevant code-figuresproduces the ranking III since it is
struck directly; and then, as a struck-upon [percussion]idiophone, it
earns a fourth figure, in this case 2 (1112=percussion idiophones).
Furtherspecificationleads to 11124 (percussionvessels), 111242 (bells),
1112422 (setsof bells),11124222 (setsof hangingbells),and 111242222
(ditto with internal strikers)--obviously, everyone must decide for
himself how far to go in a given case. Instead of the unmanageable
number now arrivedat, we write 111.242.222. The first cluster shows
that we are dealing with an idiophone that is struckdirectly, while the
second and third together imply that we are dealing with bells.
22. Common considerationsamong all instrumentsof a class-e.g.
with membranophonesthe method of fixing the skin, and with chordophones the playing method-may be noted with the aid of figures
appended to the essential code-number by a hyphen: the pianoforte
would be entered as 314.122-4-8 and the harpsichord 314.122-6-8,
because 8 representsthe keyboard, 4 the hammer playing-action, and
6 the plectrum playing-action, both instrumentshaving the same main
number indicating board zitherswith resonatorbox.
23. Any of the subordinate criteria of division may, if desired,
easily be elevated and treated as a higher rank in the classification,by
switching the positions of figures. Thus, for a bagpipe in which chanter
and drone are both of the clarinettype, the code-number would read
i.e. a set of clarinetswith flexibleair reservoir.But if, for
422.22-62,
instance in a monograph on bagpipes, one wished to especially distinguish these [chanterand drone] features,one could write 422-62:22,
i.e. reed instrument with flexible air reservoirwhose pipes are exclusively clarinets.
24. Conversely, in order to bring closer together groups which are
separatedin the system, it is possible to turn a main criterionof division
into a subordinate one without destroying the system: one simply
replacesthe first relevant figure by a point (.) and then adds it after a
square bracket ] at the end of the number. Thus in the example of
bagpipes, it might be important to specify these instrumentsas always
polyorganic* but with components which are sometimes clarinetsand
sometimes oboes; instead of 422-62:22=reed instrument [Schalmeieninstrument],with flexible air reservoir, polyorganic, composed of
clarinets,it might be preferableto write 422-62 : . 2=set of reedpipes
*

Polyorganic means composed of several single instrumentalunits.

II

[Schalmeienspiel]with flexible air reservoir=bagpipe, and then to

differentiatefurther by writing 422-62:. 2]1I=bagpipe of oboes, or
422--62 : .2]2=bagpipe of clarinets.*
25. Other specificationsapplying to a subordinategroup are suffixed
to the code-figures of the latter, e.g. 422-62:. 2]212=a bagpipe of
clarinetswith cylindricalbore and fingerholes.
26. These innumerablecasesin which an instrumentis composed of
parts which in themselves belong to different groups of the system
could be indicated by linking appropriatefigures by a plus sign. One
then avoids repetitionof a number common to both suchparts, writing
this number once and following it with a point: a modem trombone
with slide and valve would then appearnot as 423.22+423.23, but as
4232.2+3, and similarly bagpipes composed partly of clarinets and
partly of oboes as cited above, would become 422.62 : .2]I +2.
27. In certain circumstancesit may be necessary not only to rearrangethe rankings of the concepts and create new subdivisions,but
also to incorporate into the higher ranks of the classificationsome
criterion which has purposely not so far been used. There is nothing
to prevent this being done, and we should like to illustrateit by a final
example, at the same time showing how we envisage the development
of our system for special purposes.Let us imagine the case of a monograph on the xylophone. The system divides struck idiophones
(I 11.2) by the shape of the struck bodies, thus: struck sticks (III.21),
struck tubes (111.23), and struck vessels
struck plaques (111.22),
Xylophones could fall into any of the first three, but the
(111.24).
shape of the sounding bodies is here of little relevance-the transition
from sticksto plaquesbeing quitefluid-and so the fifth figure may be
removed, and, if desired, added as ]2 at the end. For the sixth figure
we insert 2, if the description is to concern only multi-tone instruments, giving 1112. .2=sets of struck idiophones [Aufschlagspiele].
We must, however, exclude sounding bodies of metal, stone, glass,
etc., and must therefore create a subdivision according to material
which the system does not alreadyprovide, thus:
.. sounding bodies of wood
..
11I2. .21 =xylophone
metal
..
..
1112. .22=metallophone
,,
,,
* Thisuseof the symbols- : ] is slightlydifferentfromthatof the Classificawithinits spirit.The rules
tion Bibliographique
Decimale,but is nevertheless
are:the hyphenis employedonly in connectionwith the appendedfigures
listedin the tables[atthe end of eachof the fourmainsections];subdivisions
beyond these are preceded by a colon (thus 422-62=reed instrument with
flexible air reservoir, but 422-6 : 2=422.2-6=oboe with air reservoir); sub-

divisionansweringto the omissionof a figureis precededby a squarebracket.

12

..
1112. .23=lithophone
stone
,,
,,
.
..
1112. .24=crystallophone ..
,,
,,
glass.
28. Furtherstagesin this classificationof the xylophone would make
use of morphological criteria significant from an ethnological point
of view:

Classification

Bedded xylophone The soundingbodiesreston an elastic

foundation
1112. .21.I
Log xylophone The foundationconsistsof separatelogs.
NE Thereis generallya shallowpit in the groundbeneath
the soundingbodies Oceania,
Indonesia,
E. andW. Africa
1112. .21.12 Frame xylophone The bearersarejoinedby crossrodsor
bars
1112.

.21.1

1112.

.21.121*

Rail xylophone

The frame hangs from the player's neck

on a sling and is kept clear of his body by a curved rail

S.E.,E. andW.Africa
Table xylophone The frameis borneon a trestle
Senegambia
1112. .21.13 Sledge xylophone The soundingbodies lie acrossthe
C. Africa
edges of two boards
1112. .21.14 (Bedded) trough xylophone The soundingbodies lie
acrossthe edgesof a trough-or box-shapedvessel Japan
III12. .21.2 Suspension xylophone The soundingbodieslie on two
cordswithoutanyotherfoundation
1112. .21.21 (Free)suspensionxylophone Withoutcase
CochinChina
1112. .21.22 (Suspension) trough xylophone With trough-shaped
box
Burma,Java
* To be furthersubdividedthus:
I Withoutresonators
2 With resonators
21 With resonators
suspended
singly
22 With resonators
stuckinto a commonplatform.
in mostcasesgourds,oftenhaveholessealedby a memNE The resonators,
with 242 (vesselkazoos).Possiblythe method
brane,showingadulteration
of mountingthe membranes(directly,or over a cone-shapedframe)will
demandanothersubdivision.
One can,however,dispensewith addinganother
numbersinceframexylophoneswithoutresonators
areunknown.
1112.

.21.122*

29. The systematicsurvey of musicalinstrumentswhich now follows

in tabularform is meant equally to serve the purposesof identification.
Hence the descriptionsof characteristicsare here and there expandedto
include warnings against likely misunderstandingsand confusion.
13

Explanationsand examples are kept to a minimum; the former are not

intended as descriptions,nor the latter as notes on the history of cultures. Also, visual study of specimens far outvalues pages of written
description.The expert will know what we are driving at, while the
layman will be able to find his bearings with the aid of a visit to a
museum.

Classification
I IDIOPHONES The substanceof the instrumentitself,owing to its
solidityandelasticity,yieldsthe sounds,withoutrequiring
or strings
stretchedmembranes
is madeto vibrateby beingstruck
The
instrument
Struck
idiophones
II
upon
III Idiophones struck directly The playerhimselfexecutesthe movement of striking;whether by mechanicalintermediate
devices,beaters,keyboards,or by pullingropes,etc., is
it is definitivethatthe playercanapplyclearly
immaterial;
itselfis
definedindividualstrokesand thatthe instrument
equippedfor thiskindof percussion
I II.I Concussionidiophones or clappers Two or morecomplementary
sonorouspartsarestruckagainsteachother
Is.
sticks or stick clappers Annam,India,Marshall
Concussion
III. II
or
Concussion
China,
India
plaque
clappers
plaques
III.12
Burma
111.13 Concussiontroughs or trough clappers
111I.4 Concussionvesselsor vessel clappers Evena slighthollow in the
surfaceof a boardcountsasa vessel
111.141 Castanets Vesselclappers,eithernatural,or artificiallyhollowed
out

Cymbals Vesselclapperswith evertedrim

is struckeitherwith a non111.2 Percussionidiophones The instrument
sonorousobject (hand,stick, striker)or againsta nonsonorousobject(humanbody,the ground)
11.142

111.21 Percussion sticks

111.211 (Individual)percussionsticks

alsothetriangle
Japan,Annam,Balkans;
of different
Several
sticks
sticks
Sets
of
percussion
III.212
percussion
pitcharecombinedto forma singleinstrument
arenotin
as longas theirsounding
All xylophones,
components
twodifferent
planes[nichtbiplan]
111.22 Percussionplaques
Church
Christian
111.221 (Individual)percussion plaques In theoriental
111.222 Sets of percussionplaques
Lithophone
(China),andmostmetallophones
111.23

14

Percussion tubes

111.231 (Individual)percussiontubes
II111.232 Sets of percussiontubes

bell
Slitdrum,tubular
tubular
xylophone
Tubaphon,

Percussion vessels
III.24
111.241
Gongs The vibrationis strongestnear the vertex

III.241.I

(Individual)gongs
S. andE. Asia;

theso-calledmetaldrums,or rather
including
kettle-gongs
S.E. Asia
II111.241.2 Sets of gongs [gongchimes]
111.242 Bells The vibrationis weakestnearthe vertex
111.242.1 (Individual)Bells
11II.242.II

II 1.242.12
111.242.121

Resting bells The cup is placedon the palm of the hand or on

a cushion; its mouth faces upwards
China,Indo-China,
Japan
Suspended bells The bell is suspendedfrom the apex
Suspended bells struck from the outside. No striker is

attachedinsidethe bell,therebeinga separatebeater

is attachedinsidethe bell
111.242.122 Clapperbells A striker(clapper)
as 111.242.1)
(subdivided
111.242.2 Sets of bells [chimes]
112 Indirectlystruckidiophones Theplayerhimselfdoesnot go through
the movementof striking;percussionresultsindirectly
throughsomeothermovementby the player.The intention of the instrumentis to yield clustersof soundsor
noises,andnot to let individualstrokesbe perceived
112.2 Shakenidiophonesor rattles Theplayerexecutesa shakingmotion
112.11 Suspensionrattles Perforatedidiophonesare mountedtogether,
andshakento strikeagainsteachother
112.111
rattles
Strung
Rattlingobjectsarestrungin rowson a cord
Necklaces
withrowsof shells
112.112 Stick rattles Rattlingobjectsarestrungon a bar(orring)
Sistrum
withrings
112.12 Frame rattles Rattling objectsare attachedto a carrieragainst
whichtheystrike
112.121
Pendant rattles Rattlingobjectsarehung from a frame
rings
Dancingshieldwithrattling
112.122 Sliding rattles Non-sonorousobjectsslideto andfro in the slots
of the sonorousobjectso thatthe latteris madeto vibrate;
or sonorousobjectsslideto andfro in the slotsof a nonsonorousobject,to be setin vibrationby the impacts
withrods(recent)
sistrum
Anklung,
z112.13 Vessel rattles Rattlingobjectsenclosedin a vesselstrikeagainst
each other or againstthe walls of the vessel,or usually
againstboth.NB The Benuegourdrattleswith handle,in
which the rattlingobjects,insteadof being enclosed,are
knottedinto a net slippedover the outersurface,countas
a varietyof vesselrattle
15

Fruitshellswithseeds,'pelletbells'enclosing
loosepercussion
pellets
112.2 Scraped idiophones The player causes a scrapingmovement
directlyor indirectly:a non-sonorous
objectmovesalong
the notchedsurfaceof a sonorousobject,to be alternately
liftedoff the teethandflickedagainstthem;or an elastic
sonorousobjectmovesalongthe surfaceof a notchednonsonorousobjectto causea seriesof impacts.This group
mustnot be confusedwith thatof frictionidiophones
112.21
Scrapedsticks A notchedstickis scrapedwith a littlestick
112.211
Scrapedsticks without resonator
musical
S. America.
India(notched
bow),Congo
112.212
with
E. Asia (tiger)
sticks
resonator
Usumbara,
Scraped
S. India
II2.22 Scrapedtubes
surfaceof a vesselis scraped
112.23 Scrapedvessels The corrugated
S. America,
Congoregion
112.24 Scrapedwheels or cog rattles A cog wheel,whoseaxleservesas
the handle,anda tonguefixedin a framewhichis freeto
turnon the handle;when whirled,the tonguestrikesthe
India
teethof the wheelone afteranother
Europe,
in theshapeof two springyarmscon112.3 Split idiophones Instruments
nectedat one end andtouchingat the other:the armsare
forcedapartby a littlestick,tojingleor vibrateon recoil
Balkans
China(huant'u),Malacca,
Persia(qalsik),
12 Plucked idiophones Lamellae,
i.e. elasticplaques,fixedat one end,are
flexedandthenreleasedto returnto theirpositionof rest
121 In the form of a frame The lamellavibrateswithina frameor hoop
121.1 Clack idiophones (cricri) The lamellais carvedin the surfaceof a
Melanesia
fruit shell,which servesas resonator
121.2 Guimbardes (Jews'harps) The lamellais mountedin a rod- or
frameand dependson the player'smouth
plaque-shaped
cavityfor resonance
Idioglot guimbardes The lamellais carvedin the frameitself,its
I21.21
baseremaining
joinedto the frame
Melanesia
India,Indonesia,
121.22 Heteroglot guimbardes A lamellais attachedto a frame
India,China
Europe,
I21.221 (Single)heteroglot guimbardes
121.222 Sets of heteroglot guimbardes Severalheteroglotguimbardes
of differentpitchesarecombinedto form a singleinstruAura
ment
122 In board- or comb-form The lamellaearetiedto a boardor cut out
froma boardlikethe teethof a comb
122.1 With laced-on lamellae
All sansason a plainboard
122.11 Without resonator
122.12 With resonator
All sansaswitha boxorbowlbelowtheboard
16

122.2 With cut-out lamellae (musical

boxes) Pinson a cylinderpluckthe

lamellae
Europe
is madeto vibrateby friction
13 Friction Idiophones The instrument
131 Friction sticks
131.1 (Individual)friction sticks
Unknown
131.2 Sets of friction sticks
arerubbed
131.21 With direct friction The sticksthemselves
Nailfiddle,nailpiano,Stockspiele
131.22 With indirectfriction Thesticksareconnectedwith otherswhich
are rubbedand, by transmitting
theirlongitudinalvibravibrationin the former
tion, stimulatetransverse
Chladni's
euphon
132 Friction plaques
Unknown
132.1 (Individual)friction plaques
NewIreland
132.2 Sets of friction plaques [livika]
133 Friction vessels
Brazil(tortoise
133.1 (Individual)friction vessels
shell)
Verillon
133.2 Sets of friction vessels
(glassharmonica)
is madeto vibrateby beingblown
14 Blown idiophones The instrument
upon
141 Blown sticks
Unknown
141.1 (Individual)blown sticks
Aeolsklavier
141.2 Sets of blown sticks
142 Blown plaques
Unknown
142.1 (Individual)blown plaques
Pianochanteur
142.2 Sets of blown plaques
Suffixesfor usewith anydivisionof thisclass(idiophones):
-8 with keyboard
-9 mechanicallydriven

2 MEMBRANOPHONES
The soundis excitedby tightly-stretched
membranes
21 Struckdrums The membranes
arestruck
211 Drums struckdirectly The playerhimselfexecutesthe movementof
devices,
striking;thisincludesstrikingby anyintermediate
suchas beaters,keyboards,etc.; drumsthatareshakenare
excluded
Kettle
drums
211.1
(timpani) The bodyis bowl- or dish-shaped
kettle
drums
21I.II (Separate)
European
timpani
Sets of kettle drums W.Asianpermanently
211.12
joinedpairsofkettledrums
2II.2 Tubulardrums The body is tubular
17

211.21

211.211

zlI.zlI.I

Cylindrical drums The diameteris the sameat the middleand

the ends;whetheror not the endstaperor haveprojecting
disks,is immaterial
Single-skin cylindrical drums The drumhas only one usable
membrane.In some Africandrumsa secondskin forms
partof the lacingdeviceandis not usedfor beating,and
hencedoesnot countasa membrane
in the presentsense
Open cylindrical drums

The end opposite from the membrane

is open
Malacca
zII.zII.2 Closed cylindrical drums The end oppositefrom the membraneis closed
WestIndies
211.212
Double-skin cylindrical drums The drum has two usable
membranes
(Individual)cylindrical drums
Europe(sidedrum)
2II.212.I
211.212.2
Sets of cylindrical drums
211.22*
Barrel-shapeddrums The diameteris largerat the middlethan
at the ends;the body is curvilinear
Asia,Africa,AncientMexico
Double-conical drums The diameteris largerat the middlethan
211.23
at the ends;the body is rectilinear
with angularprofile
India(mrdanga,
pakhavaja)
banya,
211.24* Hourglass-shapeddrum The diameteris smallerat the middle
E. Africa
thanat the ends
Asia,Melanesia,
211.25* Conical drums The diametersat the ends differconsiderably;
minor departures
from conicity,inevitablymet, are disIndia
here
regarded
211.26* Goblet-shapeddrums Thebodyconsistsof a mainsectionwhich
is either cup-shapedor cylindrical,and a slenderstem;
borderlinecasesof this basicdesignlike those occurring
notablyin Indonesia,do not affectthe identification,so
formis not in factreached Darabuka
long asa cylindrical
211.3 Framedrums The depthof the body doesnot exceedthe radiusof
the membrane.NB The Europeanside-drum,even in its
mostshallowform,is a developmentfromthe long cylindricaldrumandhenceis not includedamongframedrums
drums
Frame
211.31
(without handle)
Tambourine
211.311
Single-skin frame drums
N. Africa
211.312 Double-skin frame drums
211.32 Frame drum with handle A stickis attachedto the framein line
with its diameter
Eskimo
211.321
Single-skinframe drumswith handle
Tibet
211.322 Double-skin frame drums with handle
212 Rattle drums (sub-divisions
as for drumsstruckdirectly,21I) The
drum is shaken;percussionis by impactof pendantor
* To be sub-divided like 211.21.
18

India,Tibet
enclosedpellets,or similarobjects
22 Plucked drums A stringis knottedbelowthe centreof themembrane;
to
whenthe stringis plucked,its vibrationsaretransmitted
the membrane
India(gopiyantra,anandalahari)
is madeto vibrateby friction
23 Friction drums The membrane
231 Friction drums with stick A stickin contactwith the membraneis
eitheritselfrubbed,or is employedto rubthe membrane
With inserted stick The stickpassesthrougha hole in the mem231.1
brane
Friction drums with fixed stick The stickcannotbe moved;the
231.11
stickaloneis subjectedto frictionby rubbing
Africa
231.I2 Friction drums with semi-fixed stick The stickis movableto a
sufficientextent to rub the membranewhen it is itself
rubbedby the hand
Africa
231.13 Friction drums with free stick The stickcan be movedfreely;
it is not itselfrubbed,butisemployedto rubthemembrane
Venezuela
With
tied
stick
The
is
stick
tied
to
the
in
membrane
an
231.2
upright
position
Europe
232 Friction drum with cord A cord, attachedto the membrane,is
rubbed
232.1 Stationaryfriction drum with cord The drumis held stationary
Europe,
Africa
232.11
Single-skin stationarydrums with friction-cord
232.12 Double-skin stationarydrums with friction-cord
232.2 Frictiondrum with whirling stick Thedrumis whirledon a cord
whichrubson a [resined[notchin the holdingstick.
India,E. Africa)
Waldteufel
[cardboard
buzzer](Europe,
233 Hand friction drums The membraneis rubbedby the hand
24 Singing membranes (Kazoos) The membraneis madeto vibrateby
speakingor singinginto it; the membranedoesnot yield
a noteof its own butmerelymodifiesthevoice
Europe,W.Africa
is inciteddirectly,withoutthewind first
241 Free kazoos The membrane
passingthrougha chamber
Comb-and-paper
is placedinsidea tubeor box
242 Tube- or vessel-kazoos Themembrane
Africa;whilealso,E. Asianfluteswitha lateralholesealedbya
exhibitanadulteration
withtheprinciple
of thetube
inmembrane,
kazoo
Suffixesfor usewith any divisionof thisclass(membranophones):
-6 with membraneglued to drum
-7 with membranenailed to drum
-8 with membranelaced to drum
-8i Cord-(ribbon-)bracing The cordsarestretchedfrommembraneto
19

membraneor arrangedin the formof a net, withoutembelow

ployinganyof the devicesdescribed
Everywhere
-811 Without specialdevices for stretching
-812 With tension ligature Crossribbonsor cordsare tied round the
middleof the lacingto increaseits tension
Ceylon
-813 With tension loops The cordsarelacedin a zigzag;everypairof
stringsis caughttogetherwith a smallringor loop India
-814 With wedge-bracing Wedgesareinsertedbetweenthe wall of the
drumandthecordsof thelacing;by adjustingthe position
of the wedgesit is possibleto controlthetension
India,Indonesia,
Africa
-82 Cord-and-hidebracing The cordsarelacedat the lower end to a
non-sonorouspieceof hide
Africa
-83 Cord-and-boardbracing The cordsarelacedto an auxiliaryboard
Sumatra
at the lowerend
-84 Cord-and-flangebracing The cordsarelacedat the lower end to a
Africa
flangecarvedfromthe solid
-85 Cord-and-beltbracing The cordsarelacedat the lowerendto a belt
India
of differentmaterial
-86 Cord-and-pegbracing The cordsarelacedat the lowerend to pegs
stuckinto the wallof the drum
Africa
NB -82 to -86 aresub-divided
as-81 above
-9 With membrane lapped on A ring is slippedover the edge of the
membrane
-91 With membranelapped on by ring of cord
Africa
-92 With membranelapped on by a hoop
drum
-921 Without mechanism
European
-922 With mechanism
Machine
-9221 Without pedal
timpani
Pedaltimpani
-9222 With pedals

One or more stringsare stretchedbetween

3 CHORDOPHONES
fixedpoints
31 Simple chordophonesor zithers The instrumentconsistssolelyof a
whichis
stringbearer,or of a stringbearerwith a resonator
not integraland can be detachedwithout destroyingthe
apparatus
sound-producing
it maybe a boardplaced
311 Bar zithers The stringbeareris bar-shaped;
edgewise
311.1 Musicalbows The stringbeareris flexible(andcurved)
311.11 Idiochord musical bows The stringis cut from the barkof the
cane,remainingattachedat eachend
311.111 Mono-idiochord musical bows The bow has one idiochord
string only
20

New Guinea(SepikR.), Togo

Poly-idiochord musical bows or harp-bows The bow has

severalidiochordstringswhich passover a toothedstick
or bridge
W.Africa(Fan)
musical
is
Heterochord
bows
The
of
materialfrom
string
separate
31I.I2
the bearer
311.121 Mono-heterochord musical bows The bow has one heterochordstringonly
311.121.1 Without resonator NB If a separate,unattachedresonatoris
311.112

311.121.1I
311.121.12

used, the specimen belongs to 311.121.21. The human

mouth is not to be taken into account as a resonator
Without tuning noose
Africa(ganza,samuius,to)
With tuning noose A fibre noose is passedround the string,

dividingit into two sections

South-equatorial
Africa(n'kungo,uta)
311.12.1.2
311.I121.21

311.121.22

With resonator
With independent resonator
With resonator attached

Borneo (busoi)

Without tuning noose

S. Africa(hade,thomo)
With tuning noose S. Africa,Madagascar
(gubo, hungo, bobre)
311.122 Poly-heterochord musical bows The bow has several heterochord strings
Without
Oceania(kalove)
311.122.1
tuning noose
With
Oceania(pagolo)
tuning noose
311.I22.2
311.2 Stick zithers The string carrieris rigid
311.21 Musical bow cum stick The stringbearerhas one flexible, curved
end. NBStickzitherswith bothendsflexibleand curved,

311.121.221
311.121.222

liketheBasutobow, arecountedasmusicalbows India

311.22 (True)stick zithers NB Round stickswhichhappento be hollow
by chancedo not belongon thisaccountto thetubezithers,
butareround-bar
in whicha
zithers;however,instruments
tubularcavity is employedas a true resonator,like the
modernMexicanharpa,aretubezithers
India(tuila),Celebes(suleppe)
311.221 With one resonatorgourd
India(vina)
311.222 With several resonatorgourds
312 Tube zithers The string beareris a vaulted surface
312.1 Whole-tube zithers The string carrieris a complete tube
312.11 Idiochord (true) tube zithers
AfricaandIndonesia(gonra,togo,valiha)

312.I2 Heterochord (true)tube zithers

S.E.Asia (alligator)
312.12I Without extra resonator
312.122 With extra resonator An internodelengthof bamboois placed
insidea palmleaftiedin theshapeof a bowl
Timor
the
convex
surface
312.2 Half-tube zithers The stringsarestretched
along
of a gutter
Flores
312.21 Idiochord half-tube zithers
21

E. Asia(k'in,koto)
312.22 Heterochord half-tube zithers
313 Raft zithers The stringbeareris composedof canestied togetherin
the mannerof a raft
313.1 Idiochordraft zithers
India,UpperGuinea,Central
Congo
N. Nyasaregion
313.2 Heterochordraft zithers
314 Board zithers The stringbeareris a board;the groundtoo is to be
countedas such
314.1 True board zithers The planeof the stringsis parallelwith thatof
the stringbearer
314.11

Without resonator

Borneo

314.12 With resonator

314.121 With resonator bowl The resonatoris a fruit shell or similar
object,or an artificiallycarvedequivalent Nyasaregion
314.122 With resonatorbox (box zither) The resonatoris madefrom
slats
Zither,Hackbrett,
pianoforte
zither
Board
variations The planeof the stringsis at right angles
314.2
to the stringbearer
314.21 Groundzithers The groundis the stringbearer;thereis only one
Malacca,
Madagascar
string
314.22 Harp zithers A boardservesas stringbearer;there are several
Borneo
stringsanda notchedbridge
315 Trough zithers Thestringsarestretchedacrossthe mouthof a trough
Tanganyika
315.1

Without resonator

315.2 With resonator Thetroughhasa gourdor a similarobjectattached

to it
316 Framezithers The stringsarestretchedacrossan openframe
medieval
316.1 Without resonator
psalteries
amongst
Perhaps
theKru(kani)
W.Africa,amongst
316.2 With resonator
32 Composite chordophones A stringbeareranda resonatorareorganiwithoutdestroyingthe
callyunitedandcannotbe separated
instrument
321 Lutes The planeof the stringsrunsparallelwith the sound-table
321.1 Bow lutes [pluriarc]Eachstringhasits own flexiblecarrier
wambi)
Africa(akam,kalangu,
321.2 Yoke lutes or lyres The stringsareattachedto a yoke whichlies
in the sameplaneas the sound-tableand consistsof two
armsanda cross-bar
321.21 Bowl lyres A naturalor carved-outbowl servesasthe resonator
lyre
Lyra,E. African
321.22 Box lyres A built-upwoodenbox servesasthe resonator
crwth
Cithara,
necks,
321.3 Handle lutes The stringbeareris a plainhandle.Subsidiary
as are
vinaare disregarded,
as e.g. in the Indianprasarini
alsoluteswith stringsdistributedover severalnecks,like
22

the harpolyre,
andthoselike the Lyre-guitars,
in whichthe
yoke is merelyornamental
321.31 Spike lutes The handlepassesdiametrically
throughthe resonator
consistsof anaturalorcarved-out
321.311 Spikebowllutes Theresonator
bowl
Persia,India,Indonesia
is builtup from
321.312 Spike box lutes or spike guitars The resonator
wood
Egypt(rebab)
321.313 Spike tube lutes The handlepassesdiametricallythroughthe
wallsof a tube
China,Indochina
321.32 Necked lutes Thehandleis attachedto or carvedfromthe resonator, likea neck
balalaika
Mandoline,
321.321 Necked bowl lutes
theorbo,
321.322 Necked box lutes or necked guitars NBLuteswhose body is
builtup in the shapeof a bowl areclassified
asbowllutes
Violin,viol,guitar
322 Harps The planeof the stringslies at rightanglesto the sound-table;
a linejoining the lower endsof the stringswould point
towardsthe neck
322.1 Open harps Theharphasno pillar
322.11 Archedharps Theneckcurvesawayfromthe resonator
Burma
andAfrica
322.12 Angularharps Theneckmakesa sharpanglewith theresonator
Korea
Assyria,Ancient
Egypt,Ancient
322.2 Frameharps Theharphasa pillar
All medieval
322.21 Without tuning action
harps
322.211 Diatonic frame harps
322.212 Chromaticframe harps
322.212.1 With the stringsin one plane Mostof theolderchromatic
harps
322.212.2 With the strings in two planes crossing one another
TheLyonchromatic
harp
322.22 With tuning action The stringscanbe shortenedby mechanical
action
322.221 With manual action The tuningcanbe alteredby hand-levers
Hookharp,ditalharp,harpinella
322.222 With pedal action Thetuningcanbe alteredby pedals
323 Harp lutes The planeof the stringslies at rightanglesto the soundtable;a linejoiningthelowerendsof the stringswouldbe
to the neck.Notchedbridge
perpendicular
W. Africa(kasso,
etc.)
Suffixesfor usewith anydivisionof thisclass(chordophones):
-4 sounded by hammers or beaters
-5 sounded with the bare fingers
-6 sounded by plectrum
-7 sounded by bowing
-71 with a bow
23

-72
-73
-8
-9

by a wheel
by a ribbon [Band]
with keyboard
with mechanicaldrive

4 AEROPHONES The airitselfis the vibratorin the primarysense

41 Free aerophones The vibratingairis not confinedby the instrument
meetsa sharpedge,
411 Displacement free aerophones The air-stream
or a sharpedge is movedthroughthe air.In eithercase,
of
accordingto morerecentviews,a periodicdisplacement
airoccursto alternateflanksof theedge Whip,sword-blade
is interrupted
412 Interruptivefree aerophones The air-stream
periodically
is
4I2.1 Idiophonic interruptive aerophones or reeds The air-stream
directedagainsta lamella,settingit in periodicvibration
to interruptthe streamintermittently.
In this group also
belong reedswith a 'cover',i.e. a tube in which the air
vibratesonlyin a secondarysense,not producingthesound
butsimplyaddingroundness
andtimbreto thesoundmade
the
reed's
vibration;
by
generallyrecognizableby the
absenceof fingerholes
Organreedstops
makea gapwhichclosesperiodireeds
Two
lamellae
Concussion
412.II
A splitgrass-blade
cally duringtheirvibration
412.12 Percussionreeds A singlelamellastrikesagainsta frame
Brit.Columbia
412.121 Individual percussion reeds
Theearlier
reedstopsoforgans
412.122 Sets of percussionreeds
slot
412.13 Free reeds Thelamellavibratesthrougha closely-fitting
motorhorn
412.131 (Individual)free reeds
Single-note
like the Chineseshengthe
412.132 Sets of free reeds NB In instruments
serve
to
do
not
modify the pitch and are
fmgerholes
of otherpipes
thereforenot equivalentto thefingerholes
Reedorgan,mouthorgan,
accordion
412.14 Ribbon reeds The air-streamis directedagainstthe edge of a
stretchedbandor ribbon.The acousticsof thisprocesshas
Brit.Columbia
not yet beenstudied
instruments
The
412.2 Non-idiophonic interruptive
interruptive
agent
is not a reed
412.21 Rotating aerophones The interruptiveagentrotatesin its own
Sirens
plane
412.22 Whirling aerophones The interruptive
agentturnson its axis
Bull-roarer,
disc,ventilating
whirring
fan
413 Plosive aerophones The air is madeto vibrateby a singledensity
stimuluscondensation
shock
Popguns
24

42 Wind instruments proper The vibratingair is confinedwithin the

instrument
itself
421 Edge instrumentsor flutes A narrowstreamof airis directedagainst
an edge
421.1 Flutes without duct The playerhimselfcreatesa ribbon-shaped
streamof airwith hislips
End-blown
flutes The playerblows againstthe sharprim at the
4zI.11
upperopenendof a tube
42I.111I (Single) end-blown flutes
Open single end-blown flutes The lower end of the fluteis
421.III.I
open

Bengal
42I.III.II Without fingerholes
Almostworld-wide
421.III.12 With fingerholes
Stopped single end-blown flutes The lowerend of the flute
421.III.2
is closed
Without
Theboreofa key
fingerholes
421.III.21
With
New Guinea
fingerholes
421.III.22
Especially
421.112 Sets of end-blown flutes or panpipes Severalend-blownflutes
of differentpitcharecombinedto forma singleinstrument
421.112 Open panpipes
421.112.II Open (raft)panpipes The pipesaretiedtogetherin the form
of a board,or theyaremadeby drillingtubesin a board
China
bundle
The
are
tied
421.112.2 Open
(pan-) pipes
pipes
togetherin a
roundbundle
Solomon
NewIreland,
Is.
Is., NewBritain,
Admiralty
S. America
421.112.2 Stopped panpipes
Europe,
Solomon
Is., S. America
421.112.3 Mixed open and stopped panpipes
421.12 Side-blown flutes The playerblows againstthe sharprim of a
hole in the sideof the tube
421.121 (Single) side-blown flutes
421.121.1 Open side-blown flutes
S. W. Timor
421.I21.II Without fingerholes
European
421.I21.I2 With fingerholes
flute
421.121.2 Partly-stoppedside-blown flutes The lowerend of the tube
is a naturalnode of the pipepiercedby a smallhole
N. W.Borneo
side-blown
flutes
Stopped
42I.I21.3
421.121.31 Without fingerholes
non-existent
421.121.311 With fixed stopped lower end
Apparently
With
lower
end
adjustable
stopped
421.121.312
(pistonflutes)
NewGuinea
Malacca,
E. Bengal,Malacca
421.121.32 With fingerholes
421.122 Sets of side-blown flutes
Chamber
421.122.I Sets of open side-blown flutes
fluteorum
25

421.122.2. Sets of stopped side-blown flutes

theSiusi)
N. W. Brazil(among
flutes
Vessel
distinct
The
of
the
beak)
(without
body
pipeis not
421.13
tubularbut vessel-shaped
LowerCongo(Bafiote)
Brazil(Karaja),
421.2 Flutes with duct or duct flutes A narrowduct directsthe airstreamagainstthe sharpedgeof a lateralorifice
Flutes
with
external duct The duct is outsidethe wall of the
421.21
in
flute;thisgroupincludesfluteswith the ductchamfered
the wallundera ring-likesleeveandothersimilararrangements
(Single) flutes with external duct
Open flutes with external duct
421.211.I
421.211.11I Without fingerholes
421.211.12 With fingerholes
421.211.2
Partly-stopped flutes with external duct
421.211

China,Borneo
Indonesia

Malacca

Stopped flutes with external duct

421.211.3
Sets of flutes with external duct
421.212

421.22

Tibet
Flutes with internal duct The duct is inside the tube. This group
includes flutes with the duct formed by an internal baffle
(naturalnode, block of resin)and an exterior tied-on cover
(cane, wood, hide)

421.221 (Single) flutes with internal duct

421.221.1 Open flutes with internal duct
whistle
European
421.221.11 Without fingerholes
signalling
Recorder
With
421.221.12
fingerholes
421.221.2
Partly-stoppedflute with internal duct IndiaandIndonesia
421.221.3 Stopped flutes with internal duct
421.221.31 Without fingerholes
whistle
European
signalling
421.221.311 With fixed stopped lower end
lower
end
With
adjustablestopped
421.221.312
Pistonpipes[swannee
whistle]
421.221.4 Vessel flutes with duct
421.221.41 Without fingerholes
whistles(Europe,
Asia)
Zoomorphic
pottery
Ocarina
With
fingerholes
421.221.42
421.222 Sets of flutes with internal duct
421.222.1 Sets of open flutes with internal duct
Openflue stopsoftheorgan
421.222.11 Without fingerholes
Double
With
flageolet
fingerholes
421.222.I12
duct
flutes
with
internal
of
Sets
421.222.2
partly-stopped
Rohrfldte
stopsof theorgan
421.222.3 Sets of stopped flutes with internal duct
Stopped
flue stopsof theorgan
26

422 Reedpipes The air-stream

has,throughmeansof two lamellaeplaced
at the head of the instrument,intermittentaccessto the
columnof airwhichis to be madeto vibrate
422.1 Oboes The pipehasa [double]reedof concussionlamellae(usually
a flattenedstem)
422.II (Single) oboes
422.11III With cylindricalbore

Without fingerholes
Brit.Columbia
With fingerholes
Aulos,crumhorn
422.112 With conical bore
oboe
European
422.12 Sets of oboes
Doubleaulos
422.121 With cylindricalbore
422.122 With conical bore
India
422.2 Clarinets The pipe has a [single]'reed'consistingof a percussion
lamella
clarinets
422.21 (Single)
With cylindricalbore
422.211
Withoutfingerholes
Brit.Columbia
422.211.I
With fingerholes
422.211.2
clarinet
European
422.212 With conical bore
Saxophone
422.22 Sets of clarinets
Egypt(zummara)
422.3 Reedpipeswith free reeds Thereedvibratesthrough[at]a closelyfitted frame.There must be fingerholes,otherwisethe
instrumentbelongsto the freereeds412.13
S.E.Asia
422.31 Single pipes with free reed
422.32 Double pipes with free reeds
423 Trumpets The air-stream
passesthroughtheplayer'svibratinglips,so
gainingintermittantaccessto the air columnwhich is to
be madeto vibrate
Natural
trumpets Withoutextradevicesto alterpitch
423.I
Conches
A conchshellservesastrumpet
423.II
423.III End-blown
423.111.1 Without mouthpiece
India
423.III.2 With mouthpiece
Japan(rappakai)
423.112 Side-blown
Oceania
423.12 Tubulartrumpets
423.121 End-blown grumpets The mouth-holefaces the axis of the
trumpet
423.121.I End-blown straighttrumpets The tubeis neithercurvednor
folded
Somealphorns
423.121.II Without mouthpiece
Almostworld-wide
423.12I.I2 With mouthpiece
423.121.2 End-blown horns The tubeis curvedor folded
Asia
423.I21.2I Without mouthpiece
423.121.22 With mouthpiece
Lurs
422.111I.

422.11.2

27

is in the sideof the tube

423.122 Side-blown trumpets The embouchure
S. America
423.122.1 Side-blown straight trumpets
423.122.2 Side-blown horns
Africa
423.2 Chromatictrumpets With extradevicesto modifythe pitch
Cornetti,
423.21 Trumpets with fingerholes
keybugles
423.22 Slide trumpets The tube can be lengthenedby extending a
trombone
telescopicsectionof the instrument European
423.23 Trumpets with valves The tube is lengthenedor shortenedby
connectingor disconnecting
auxiliarylengthsof tube
Europe
423.231 Valve bugles The tubeis conicalthroughout
conical
423.232 Valve horns The tubeis predominantly
423.233 Valve trumpets The tubeis predominantly
cylindrical
Suffixesfor usewith anydivisionof thisclass(aerophones):
-6 with air reservoir
-6i

-62
-7
-71
-72
-8
-9

with rigid air reservoir

with flexible air reservoir

with fingerhole stopping
with keys
rollor ribbonl
with Bandmechanik
a perforated
[presumably
with keyboard
with mechanicaldrive

TRANSLATORS' GLOSSARY
SHOWING
THEIR

CERTAIN
EQUIVALENTS

TERMS
IN

EMPLOYED
THE

AND

ORIGINAL

Conicaldrums,Konustrommeln
Archedharps,Bogenharfen
drums,Fasstrommeln Doubleconical,DoppelkonusBarrel-shaped
'Cover' (in interruptiveaerophones,
Beater,Schlagel
Bow-lutes,Bogenlauten
412.1), 'Ausfatz'
Bowl-, SchalenCylindricaldrums,Zylindertrommeln
Box zither,Kastenzither
Dish-shaped,Schalenformig
Clackidiophone[cf. Sachs'sKnack- Displacement aerophone, Ablenkungsaerophone
holz],Cricri
Duct, Kernspalte
Clapperbells,Kl'ppelglocken
- flutes with external duct, AussenKlappern
Clappers,
Ratschen
rattles
[Ratchetrattles],
Cog
spaltflten
- flutes with internal duct, InnenConches,Schneckentrompeten
Concussion,Gegenschlagspaltfliten
28

Plosive aerophones, Explosiv-aeroEdge instruments, Schneideninstrumente

phone
End-blown (in conches), mit end- Plucked,ZupfMundloch
Rattle,Rassel
standigen
- flutes,Lingsflidten
Reedpipes,Schalmeien
- tubulartrumpets,LaiingstrompetenRestingbells,Standglocken
Freereeds,Durchschlagzungen
Ribbonreeds,Bandzungen
Free-reedpipes, DurchschlagzungenSet of, -spiele
Schalmeien
Shakenidiophones,Schiittel-Idiophone
Side-blown (in conch), mit seitenFriction,Reib-,Reibung
Friction drums with fixed stick,
Mundloch
stdndigen
Fesselstab-Reibtrommeln
- flutes,Querfldten
- semifixedstick,Halbfreistab-Reibtr.Singingmembrane,Ansingtrommeln
- cord, Schnur-Reibtrommeln
Wellensirene
Siren,Lochsirene,
Schnur- Slit drums,Holztrommeln
- twirlingstick,Geschwungene
Reibtr.
Spikelutes,Spiesslauten
BecherGoblet-shaped,
Splitidiophones,Reiss-Idiophone
Groundzithers,Erdzithern
Stationary
(infrictiondrums),stehende
Maultrommel
Guimbarde,
Stick,StabHandlelutes,Stiellauten
Sticks,Stdbe
Stickzithers,Musikstdbe
Hangingbells,Hdngeglocken
Harp-bow,Harfebogen
Stopped(in flutes),gedackt
Individual,selbstiindige
Stoppedlower end (in flutes),MiinInterruptiveaerophone,Unterbrech- dungsboden
ungsaerophone
Straighttrumpets:end-blown,Langstuben
Kazoos,Mirlitons
Kettlegongs,Kesselgongs
- side-blown,Quertuben
Lamella,Zunge,Lamella
Striker, internal striker (in bells),
Musical-bow-cum-stick,
Musikbogen- Kloppel
stdbe
Struckidiophones,Schlag-Idiophone
Neckedlutes,Halslauten
Stringbearer,Saitentriger
Noose:tuningnoose,StimnmschlingeStrungrattles,Schnurrasseln
Notched musicalbow, Kerb-Musik- Suspension
rattles,Reihenrasseln
bogen
Troughzithers,Schalenzithern
Valvebugles,Signalhdrner
Openharps,Biigelharfen
Pelletbells,Schellen
- horns,Waldhirner
Pendantrattles,Pendelrasseln
- trumpets,Trompeten
Percussion,
Vertex,Scheitel
AufschlagPistonflutes,Stempelfliten
Vessel,GefdssWhole-tube(in zithers),Vollriihren
Plaques,Platten
For French terminology see Andr6 Schaeffner'ssection Adaptation
franpaisede
la classificationdes ProfesseursE.M.v.Hornbostelet C.Sachs in Encyclop6die
FranqaiseVol.xvi, 1935, pp. 16'36-I5/16.

29