III.

Causes of Fire
A.

Sources of Fire Hazard

Fire and combustion have been defined in various ways. For our purposes, the most important
statements in connection with combustion, as a phenomenon, are as follows:

Combustion represents a self-sustaining run of reactions consisting of physical and chemical

transformations.

The materials involved enter into reaction with the oxidizing agent in their surroundings, which
in most cases is with the oxygen in the air.

Ignition requires favorable starting conditions, which are generally a sufficient heating up of the
system that covers the initial energy demand of the chain reaction of burning.

The resultant of the reactions is often exothermic, which means that during burning, heat is
released and this phenomenon is often accompanied by visibly observable flaming.
Ignition may be considered the first step of the self-sustaining process of combustion. It may
occur as piloted ignition (or forced ignition) if the phenomenon is caused by any outer ignition source, or
it may occur as auto ignition (or self ignition) if the phenomenon is the result of reactions taking place in
the combustible material itself and coupled with heat release.
The inclination to ignition is characterized by an empirical parameter, the ignition temperature
(i.e., the lowest temperature, to be determined by test, to which the material has to be heated to for
ignition). Depending upon whether or not this parameter is determinedwith special test methodsby
the use of any ignition source, we distinguish between the piloted ignition temperature and the auto
ignition temperature.
The ignition mechanism of materials in different states may be simply illustrated. This involves
examining materials as solids, liquids or gases.
Most solid materials take up energy from any outer ignition source either by conduction,
convection or radiation (mostly by their combination), or are heated up as a result of the heat-producing
processes taking place internally that start decomposition on their surfaces.
For ignition to occur with liquids, these must have the formation of a vapor space above their
surface that is capable of burning. The vapors released and the gaseous decomposition products mix
with the air above the surface of liquid or solid material.
The turbulent flows that arise in the mixture and/or the diffusion help the oxygen to reach the
molecules, atoms and free radicals on and above the surface, which are already suitable for reaction.
The particles induced enter into interaction, resulting in the release of heat. The process steadily
accelerates, and as the chain reaction starts, the material comes to ignition and burns.
Ignition Sources:
The phenomena supplying heat energy may be grouped into four fundamental categories as to
their origin (Sax 1979):

1.
Heat energy generated during chemical reactions (heat of oxidation, heat of combustion, heat of
solution, spontaneous heating, heat of decomposition, etc.)
2.
Electrical heat energy (resistance heating, induction heating, heat from arcing, electric sparks,
electrostatic discharges, heat generated by lightning stroke, etc.)
3. Mechanical heat energy (frictional heat, friction sparks)
4. Heat generated by nuclear decomposition.
The following discussion addresses the most frequently encountered sources of ignition.
Open flames:
Open flames may be the simplest and most frequently used ignition source. A large number of
tools in general use and various types of technological equipment operate with open flames, or enable
the formation of open flames. Burners, matches, furnaces, heating equipment, flames of welding
torches, broken gas and oil pipes, etc. may practically be considered potential ignition sources. Because
with an open flame the primary ignition source itself represents an existing self-sustaining combustion,
the ignition mechanism means in essence the spreading of burning to another system. Provided that the
ignition source with open flame possesses sufficient energy for initiating ignition, burning will start.
Spontaneous ignition:
The chemical reactions generating heat spontaneously imply the risk of ignition and burning as
internal ignition sources. The materials inclined to spontaneous heating and spontaneous ignition
may, however, become secondary ignition sources and give rise to ignition of the combustible materials
in the surroundings.
Although some gases (e.g., hydrogen phosphide, boron hydride, and silicon hydride) and liquids
(e.g., metal carbonyls, organometallic compositions) are inclined to spontaneous ignition, most
spontaneous ignitions occur as surface reactions of solid materials. Spontaneous ignition, like all
ignitions, depends on the chemical structure of the material, but its occurrence is determined by the
grade of dispersity. The large specific surface enables the local accumulation of reaction heat and
contributes to the increase of temperature of material above spontaneous ignition temperature.
Spontaneous ignition of liquids is also promoted if they come into contact with air on solid
materials of large specific surface area. Fats and especially unsaturated oils containing double bonds,
when absorbed by fibrous materials and their products, and when impregnated into textiles of plant or
animal origin, are inclined to spontaneous ignition under normal atmospheric conditions. Spontaneous
ignition of glass-wool and mineral-wool products produced from non-combustible fibers or inorganic
materials covering large specific surfaces and contaminated by oil have caused very severe fire
accidents.
Electric ignition sources:
Power machines, instruments and heating devices operated by electric energy, as well as the
equipment for power transformation and lighting, typically do not present any fire hazard to their
surroundings, provided that they have been installed in compliance with the relevant regulations of
safety and requirements of standards and that the associated technological instructions have been
observed during their operation. Regular maintenance and periodic supervision considerably diminish

the probability of fires and explosions. The most frequent causes of fires in electric devices and wiring
are overloading, short circuits, electric sparks and high contact resistances.
Overloading exists when the wiring and electrical appliances are exposed to higher current than
that for which they are designed. The over current passing through the wiring, devices and equipment
might lead to such an overheating that the overheated components of the electrical system become
damaged or broken, grow old or carbonize, resulting in cord and cable coatings melting down, metal
parts glowing and the combustible structural units coming to ignition and, depending on the conditions,
also spreading fire to the environment. The most frequent cause of overloading is that the number of
consumers connected is higher than permitted or their capacity exceeds the value stipulated.
The working safety of electrical systems is most frequently endangered by short circuits. They
are always the consequences of any damage and occur when the parts of the electrical wiring or the
equipment at the same potential level or various potential levels, insulated from each other and the
earth, come into contact with each other or with the earth. This contact may arise directly as metalmetal contact or indirectly, through electric arc.
Mechanical heat energy:
Technical practice is steadily coupled with friction. During mechanical operation, frictional heat
is developed, and if heat loss is restricted to such an extent that heat accumulates in the system, its
temperature may increase to a value that is dangerous for the environment, and fire may occur.
Friction sparks normally occur at metal technological operations because of heavy friction
(grinding, chipping, cutting, hitting) or because of metal objects or tools dropping or falling on to a hard
floor or during grinding operations because of metal contaminations within the material under grinding
impact. The temperature of the spark generated is normally higher than the ignition temperature of the
conventional combustible materials (such as for sparks from steel, 1,400-1,500 C; sparks from coppernickel alloys, 300-400 C); however, the ignition ability depends on the whole heat content and the
lowest ignition energy of the material and substance to be ignited, respectively. It has been proven in
practice that friction sparks mean real fire risk in air spaces where combustible gases, vapors and dusts
are present in dangerous concentrations. Thus, under these circumstances the use of materials that
easily produce sparks, as well as processes with mechanical sparking, should be avoided. In these cases,
safety is provided by tools that do not spark, i.e., made from wood, leather or plastic materials, or by
using tools of copper and bronze alloys that produce sparks of low energy.
Hot surfaces:
In practice, the surfaces of equipment and devices may warm up to a dangerous extent either
normally or due to malfunction. Ovens, furnaces, drying devices, waste-gas outlets, vapor pipes, etc.
often cause fires in explosive air spaces. Furthermore, their hot surfaces may ignite combustible
materials coming close to them or by coming in contact. For prevention, safe distances should be
observed, and regular supervision and maintenance will reduce the probability of the occurrence of
dangerous overheating.
B.

Fire Hazard on Materials

Fire Hazards of Materials and Products:

The presence of combustible material in combustible systems represents an obvious condition

of burning. Burning phenomena and the phases of the burning process fundamentally depend on the
physical and chemical properties of the material involved. Therefore, it seems reasonable to make a
survey of the flammability of the various materials and products with respect to their character and
properties. For this section, the ordering principle for the grouping of materials is governed by technical
aspects rather than by theoretical conceptions (NFPA 1991).
Wood and wood-based products:
Wood is one of the most common materials in the human milieu. Houses, building structures,
furniture and consumer goods are made of wood, and it is also widely used for products such as paper
as well as in the chemical industry.
Wood and wood products are combustible, and when in contact with high-temperature surfaces
and exposed to heat radiation, open flames or any other ignition source, will carbonize, glow, ignite or
burn, depending upon the condition of combustion. To widen the field of their application, the
improvement of their combustion properties is required. In order to make structural units produced
from wood less combustible, they are typically treated with fire-retardant agents (e.g., saturated,
impregnated, provided with surface coating).
The most essential characteristic of combustibility of the various kinds of wood is the ignition
temperature. Its value strongly depends on some of the properties of wood and the test conditions of
determination, namely, the wood samples density, humidity, size and shape, as well as the ignition
source, time of exposure, intensity of exposure and the atmosphere during testing. It is interesting to
note that the ignition temperature as determined by various test methods differs. Experience has shown
that the inclination of clean and dry wood products to ignition is extremely low, but several fire cases
caused by spontaneous ignition have been known to occur from storing dusty and oily waste wood in
rooms with imperfect ventilation. It has been proven empirically that higher moisture content increases
the ignition temperature and reduces the burning speed of wood.
Fibers and textiles:
The majority of the textiles produced from fibrous materials that are found in the close
surrounding of people are combustible. Clothing, furniture and the built environment partly or totally
consists of textiles. The hazard which they present exists during their production, processing and storing
as well as during their wearing.
The basic materials of textiles are both natural and artificial; synthetic fibers are used either
alone or mixed with natural fibers. The chemical composition of the natural fibers of plant origin
(cotton, hemp, jute, flax) is cellulose, which is combustible, and these fibers have a relatively high
ignition temperature (<<400C). It is an advantageous feature of their burning that when brought to high
temperature they carbonize but do not melt. This is especially advantageous for the medical treatments
of burn casualties. The fire hazardous properties of fibers of protein base of animal origin (wool, silk,
hair) are even more favorable than those of fibers of plant origin, because a higher temperature is
required for their ignition (500-600 C), and under the same conditions, their burning is less intensive.

The most important fire hazard characteristics of textiles are the properties connected with
ignitability, flame spread, heat generation and the toxic combustion products. Special testing methods
have been developed for their determination. The test results obtained influence the fields of
application for these products (tents and flats, furniture, vehicle upholstery, clothes, carpets, curtains,
special protective clothing against heat and weather), as well as the stipulations to restrict the risks in
their use. An essential task of industrial researchers is to develop textiles that sustain high temperature,
treated with fire-retardant agents, (heavily combustible, with long ignition time, low flame spread rate,
low speed of heat release) and produce small amounts of toxic combustion products, as well as to
improve the unfavorable effect of fire accidents due to the burning of such materials.
Combustible and flammable liquids:
In the presence of ignition sources, combustible and flammable liquids are potential sources of
risk. First, the closed or open vapor space above such liquids provides a fire and explosion hazard.
Combustion, and more frequently explosion, might occur if the material is present in the vapor-air
mixture in suitable concentration. From this it follows that burning and explosion in the zone of
combustible and flammable liquids may be prevented if:

The ignition sources, air, and oxygen are excluded; or

Instead of oxygen, inert gas is present in the surrounding; or
The liquid is stored in a closed vessel or system (see Figure 1); or
By proper ventilation, the development of the dangerous vapor concentration is prevented.

Figure 1. Common types of tanks for storage of flammable and combustible liquids.

In practice, a large number of material characteristics are known in connection with the
dangerous nature of combustible and flammable liquids. These are closed-cup and open-cup flash
points, boiling point, ignition temperature, rate of evaporation, upper and lower limits of the
concentration for combustibility (flammable or explosive limits), the relative density of vapors compared
to air and energy required for the ignition of vapors. These factors provide full information about the
sensitivity for ignition of various liquids.
Nearly all over the world the flash point, a parameter determined by standard test under
atmospherically conditions, is used as the basis to group the liquids (and materials behaving as liquids at
relatively low temperatures) into categories of risk. The safety requirements for storage of liquids, their
handling, the technological processes, and the electrical equipment to be set up in their zone should be
elaborated for each category of flammability and combustibility. The zones of risk around the
technological equipment should also to be identified for each category. Experience has shown that fire
and explosion might occurdepending on the temperature and pressure of the systemwithin the
range of concentration between the two flammable limits.
Gases:
Although all materialsunder a specific temperature and pressuremay become gases, the
materials considered gaseous in practice are those that are in a gas state at normal temperature (~20 C)
and normal atmospheric pressure (~100 kPa).
In respect to fire and explosion hazards, gases may be ranked in two main groups: combustible
and non-combustible gases. According to the definition accepted in practice, combustible gases are
those that burn in air with normal oxygen concentration, provided that the conditions required for
burning exist. Ignition only occurs above a certain temperature, with the necessary ignition
temperature, and within a given range of concentration.
Non-combustible gases are those that do not burn either in oxygen or in air with any
concentration of air. A portion of these gases support combustion (e.g., oxygen), while the other portion
inhibit burning. The non-combustible gases not supporting burning are called inert gases (nitrogen,
noble gases, carbon dioxide, etc.).
In order to achieve economic efficiency, the gases stored and transported in containers or
transporting vessels are typically in compressed, liquefied, or cooled-condensated (cryogenic) state.
Basically, there are two hazardous situations in connection with gases: when they are in containers and
when they are released from their containers.
For compressed gases in storage containers, external heat might considerably increase the
pressure within the container, and the extreme overpressure might lead to explosion. Gaseous storage
containers will typically include a vapor phase and a liquid phase. Because of changes in pressure and
temperature, the extension of the liquid phase gives rise to the further compression of vapor space,
while the vapor pressure of the liquid increases in proportion with the increase of temperature.
If the storage vessels are insufficiently sealed or damaged, the gas will flow out to the free air
space, mix with air and depending on its quantity and the way of its flowing, may cause the formation of
a large, explosive air space. The air around a leaking storage vessel can be unsuitable for breathing and

may be dangerous for people nearby, partly due to the toxic effect of some gases and partly due to the
diluted concentration of oxygen.
Chemicals:
Information on the properties of chemicals can be obtained from the technical data sheets
issued by manufacturers and from the manuals and handbooks containing the data of hazardous
chemicals. These provide users with information not only about the general technical features of
materials, but also about the actual values of hazard parameters (decomposition temperature, ignition
temperature, limit concentrations of combustion, etc.), their special behavior, requirements for storage
and fire-fighting, as well as recommendations for first aid and medical therapy.
The toxicity of chemicals, as potential fire hazard, may act in two ways. First, the high toxicity of
certain chemicals themselves may be hazardous in a fire. Second, their presence within the fire zone
may effectively restrict fire-fighting operations.
The oxidizing agents (nitrates, chlorates, inorganic peroxides, permanganates, etc.), even if they
themselves are non-combustible, largely contribute to the ignition of combustible materials and to their
intensive, occasionally explosive burning. The group of unstable materials includes the chemicals
(acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide, organic peroxides, hydrogen cyanide, vinyl chloride) which polymerize or
decompose in violent exothermic reactions spontaneously or very easily.
The materials sensitive to water and air are extremely dangerous. These materials (oxides,
hydroxides, hydrides, anhydrides, alkali metals, phosphorus, etc.) interact with the water and air that
are always present in the normal atmosphere, and start reactions accompanied by very high heat
generation. If they are combustible materials, they will come to spontaneous ignition. However, the
combustible components that initiate the burning may possibly explode and spread to the combustible
materials in the surrounding area.
Explosives and blasting agents:
Explosive materials are used for many military and industrial purposes. These are chemicals and
mixtures which, when affected by strong mechanical force (hitting, shock, friction) or starting ignition,
suddenly transform to gases of large volume through an extremely rapid oxidizing reaction (e.g., 1,00010,000 m/s). The volume of these gases is the multiple of the volume of the explosive material already
exploded, and they will exert very high pressure on the surroundings. During an explosion, high
temperatures can arise (2,500-4,000 C) that promote the ignition of the combustible materials in the
zone of explosion.
Besides the explosive materials used for military and industrial purposes, the inductive blasting
materials and pyrotechnical products are also treated as hazards. In general, mixtures of explosive
materials are often used (picric acid, nitroglycerin, hexogene, etc.), but mixtures of materials capable of
explosion are also in use (black powder, dynamite, ammonium nitrate, etc.). In the course of acts of
terrorism, plastic materials have become well-known, and are, in essence, mixtures of brisant and
plasticizing materials (various waxes, Vaseline, etc.).
Metals:

It is known from practice that nearly all the metals, under certain conditions, are capable of
burning in atmospheric air. Steel and aluminum in large structural thickness, on the basis of their
behavior in fire, are clearly evaluated as non-combustible. However, the dusts of aluminum, iron in fine
distribution and metal cottons from thin metal fibers can easily be ignited and thus burn intensively. The
alkali metals (lithium, sodium, and potassium), the alkaline-earth metals (calcium, magnesium, and zinc),
zirconium, hafnium, titanium, etc. ignite extremely easily in the form of a powder, filings or thin bands.
Some metals have such a high sensitivity that they are stored separately from air, in inert gas
atmospheres or under a liquid that is neutral for the metals.
The combustible metals and those that are conditioned to burn produce extremely violent
burning reactions that are high-speed oxidation processes releasing considerably higher quantities of
heat than observed from the burning of combustible and flammable liquids. The burning of metal dust
in the case of settled powder, following the preliminary phase of glowing-ignition, might grow too rapid
burning. With stirred-up dusts and clouds of dusts that might result, severe explosions can occur. The
burning activity and affinity for oxygen of some metals (such as magnesium) are so high that after being
ignited they will continue to burn in certain media (e.g., nitrogen, carbon dioxide, steam atmosphere)
that are used for extinguishing fires derived from combustible solid materials and liquids.
Plastics and rubber:
Plastics are macromolecular organic compounds produced synthetically or by modification of
natural materials. The structure and shape of these macromolecular materials, produced by
polymerizational, polyadditional or polycondensational reactions, will strongly influence their
properties. The chain molecules of thermoplastics (polyamides, polycarbonates, polyesters, polystyrene,
polyvinyl chloride, polymethyl-metacrylate, etc.) are linear or branched, the elastomers (neoprene,
polysulphides, isoprene, etc.) are lightly cross-linked, while thermosetting plastics (duroplastics:
polyalkydes, epoxy resins, polyurethanes, etc.) are densely cross-linked.
Typically, as organic materials, plastics and rubber also are considered to be combustible
materials. For the description of their fire behavior, a number of parameters are used that can be tested
by special methods. With the knowledge of these parameters, one can allocate the fields of their
application (determined, pointed out, set), and the fire safety provisions can be elaborated. These
parameters are combustibility, ignitability, ability to develop smoke, inclination to produce toxic gases
and burning dripping.
In many cases the ignition temperature of plastics is higher than that of wood or any other
materials, but in most cases they ignite more easily, and their burning takes place more rapidly and with
higher intensity. Fires of plastics are often accompanied by the unpleasant phenomena of large
quantities of dense smoke being released that can strongly restrict visibility and develop various toxic
gases (hydrochloric acid, phosgene, carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, nitrous gases, etc.).
Thermoplastic materials melt during burning, then flow and depending on their location (if mounted in
or on a ceiling) produce drops which remain in the burning area and might ignite the combustible
materials underneath.
Dusts:
With regard to physical state, dusts belong to the solid materials, but their physical and chemical
properties differ from those of those same materials in compact form. It is known that industrial

accidents and catastrophes are caused by dust explosions. Materials that are non-combustible in their
usual form, such as metals, may initiate an explosion in the form of dust mixed with air when affected by
any ignition source, even of low energy. The hazard of an explosion also exists with dusts of combustible
materials.
Dust can be an explosion hazard not only when floating in the air, but also when settled. In
layers of dust, heat may accumulate, and slow burning may develop in the inside as a result of the
increased ability of particles to react and their lower thermal conductivity. Then the dust may be stirred
up by flashes, and the possibility of dust explosion will grow.
Floating particles in fine distribution present a more severe hazard. Similar to the explosion
properties of combustible gases and vapors, dusts also have a special range of air-dust concentration in
which an explosion may occur. The lower and upper limit values of explosion concentration and the
width of concentration range depend on the size and distribution of particles. If the dust concentration
exceeds the highest concentration leading to an explosion, a portion of the dust is not destroyed by fire
and absorbs heat, and as a consequence the explosion pressure developed remains below the
maximum. The moisture content of air also influences the occurrence of an explosion. At higher
humidity, the ignition temperature of the cloud of dust will increase in proportion with the heat quantity
necessary for the evaporation of humidity. If an inert foreign dust is mixed in a cloud of dust, the
explosivity of the dust-air mixture will be reduced. The effect will be the same if inert gases are mixed in
the mixture of air and dust, because the oxygen concentration necessary for burning will be lower.
C.

Potential Source of Fire

Not all fire hazard are caused by ignition and combustion of the working are, there are other
potential sources of fire in an industry. The following are possible sources of fire:

Improper designs or layout

Lack of proper work design process
Lack of proper ventilation
Carelessness
Equipments
Improper storage

IV. Effect of Fire Hazard

A. Burns
The skin has an important role to play in the fluid and temperature regulation of the body. If
enough skin area is injured, the ability to maintain that control can be lost. The skin also acts as a
protective barrier against the bacteria and viruses that inhabit the world outside the body.
The anatomy of the skin is complex, and there are many structures within the layers of the skin.
There are three layers:
1. Epidermis, the outer layer of the skin
2. Dermis, made up of collagen and elastic fibers and where nerves, blood vessels, sweat glands, and
hair follicles reside.

3. Hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue, where larger blood vessels and nerves are located. This is the
layer of tissue that is most important in temperature regulation.
The amount of damage that a burn can cause depends upon its location, its depth, and how much
body surface area that it involves.
The characteristics of a burn depend upon its depth. Superficial burns cause pain lasting two or
three days, followed by peeling of the skin over the next few days Individuals suffering from more
severe burns may indicate discomfort or complain of feeling pressure rather than pain. Full-thickness
burns may be entirely insensitive to light touch or puncture. While superficial burns are typically red in
color, severe burns may be pink, white or black. Burns around the mouth or singed hair inside the nose
may indicate that burns to the airways have occurred, but these findings are not definitive. More
worrisome signs include: shortness of breath, hoarseness, and stridor or wheezing. Itchiness is common
during the healing process, occurring in up to 90% of adults and nearly all children. Numbness or tingling
may persist for a prolonged period of time after an electrical injury. Burns may also produce emotional
and psychological distress.
A first degree burn is superficial and causes local inflammation of the skin. Sunburns often are
categorized as first degree burns. The inflammation is characterized by pain, redness, and a mild amount
of swelling. The skin may be very tender to touch.
Second degree burns are deeper and in addition to the pain, redness and inflammation, there is also
blistering of the skin.
Third degree burns are deeper still, involving all layers of the skin, in effect killing that area of skin.
Because the nerves and blood vessels are damaged, third degree burns appear white and leathery and
tend to be relatively painless.
Regardless of the type of burn, inflammation and fluid accumulation in and around the wound
occur. Moreover, it should be noted that the skin is the body's first defense against infection by
microorganisms. A burn is also a break in the skin, and the risk of infection exists both at the site of the
injury and potentially throughout the body.
Only the epidermis has the ability to regenerate itself. Burns that extend deeper may cause
permanent injury and scarring and not allow the skin in that area to return to normal function.
Type

Layers
involved

Appearance

Textur Sensatio Healing

e
n
Time

Superfici
al (First Epidermis
degree)

Red without
blisters

Superfici
al partial
thicknes
s

Redness with
clear blister.
Moist
Blanches with
pressure.

Extends into
superficial
(papillary)der
mis

Dry

Prognosis
Heals well;
Repeated sunburnsincr
ease the risk of skin
cancer later in life[12]

Painful

5
10 days

Very
painful

less than Local

23
infection/cellulitis but
weeks
no scarring typically

Example

(Second
degree)
Deep
partial
thicknes
s
(Second
degree)

Extends into
deep
(reticular)
dermis

Yellow or
white. Less
blanching.
May be
blistering.

Fairly
dry

Pressure
and
3
discomfo 8 weeks
rt

Prolonge
Full
d
Extends
Stiff and
thicknes
Leathe
(months)
through
white/brown
Painless
s (Third
ry
and
entire dermis No blanching
degree)
incomple
te

Fourth
degree

Extends
through
entire skin,
and into
underlying
fat, muscle
and bone

Black;
charred
with eschar

Dry

Scarring, contractures
(may require excision
and skin grafting)

Scarring, contractures,
amputation (early
excision
recommended)

Amputation, significant
Requires functional impairment
Painless
excision and, in some cases,
death.

B. Other Consequence and Injury of Fire

The killing fumes
Most fire deaths are not caused by burns, but by smoke inhalation. Often smoke incapacitates
so quickly that people are overcome and cant make it to an otherwise accessible exit. The synthetic
materials commonplaces in todays homes produce especially dangerous substances. As a fire grows
inside a building, it will often consume most of the available oxygen, slowing the burning process. This
incomplete combustion results in toxic gases.
Smoke is made of components that can each be lethal in its own way:
Particles: Unburned, partially burned, and completely burned substances can be so small they penetrate
the respiratory systems protective filters, and lodge in the lungs. Some are actively toxic; others are
irritating to the eyes and digestive system.
Vapors: Foglike droplets of liquid can poison if inhaled or absorbed through the skin.
Toxic gases: The most common, carbon monoxide (CO), can be deadly, even in small quantities, as it
replaced oxygen in the bloodstream. Hydrogen cyanide results from the burning of plastics, such as PVC
pipe, and interferes with cellular respiration. Phosgene is formed when household products, such as
vinyl materials, are burned. At low levels, phosgene can cause itchy eyes and a sore throat; at higher
levels it can cause pulmonary edema and death.

In addition to producing smoke, fire can incapacitate or kill by reducing oxygen levels, either by
consuming the oxygen, or by displacing it with other gases. Heat is also a respiratory hazard, as
superheated gases burn the respiratory tract. When the air is hot enough, one breath can kill.
When oxygen levels
are at...

...a person experiences:

21 percent

Normal outside air

17 percent

Impaired judgment and

coordination

12 percent

Headache, dizziness, nausea,

fatigue

9 percent

Unconsciousness

6 percent

Respiratory arrest, cardiac arrest,

death

In addition to the depth of the burn, the total area of the burn is significant. Burns are measured as
a percentage of total body area affected. The "rule of nines" is often used, though this measurement is
adjusted for infants and children. This calculation is based upon the fact that the surface areas of the
following parts of an adult body each correspond to approximately 9% of total (and the total body area
of 100% is achieved):

Head = 9%
Chest (front) = 9%
Abdomen (front) = 9%
Upper/mid/low back and buttocks = 18%
Each arm = 9%
Each palm = 1%
Groin = 1%
Each leg = 18% total (front = 9%, back = 9%)

Picture of the Rule of Nines - Burns on an Adult

Only second and third degree burn areas are added together to measure total body burn area.
While first degree burns are painful, the skin integrity is intact and it is able to do its job with fluid and
temperature maintenance.
If more than 15%-20% of the body is involved in a burn, significant fluid may be lost. Shock may
occur if inadequate fluid is not provided intravenously. As the percentage of burn surface area increases,
the risk of death increases as well. Patients with burns involving less than 20% of their body should do
well, but those with burns involving greater than 50% have a significant mortality risk, depending upon a
variety of factors, including underlying medical conditions and age.