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Chapter 6: METAMORPHISM
Modification of Rocks by
Temperature and Pressure

Lecture Outline
1. Metamorphism and the Earth system
2. Causes of metamorphism
3. Types of metamorphism
4. Metamorphic textures
5. Regional metamorphism and
metamorphic grade
6. Plate tectonics and metamorphism

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Definition of metamorphism:
Metamorphism is a subsolidus process leading to
changes in mineralogy and/or texture (e.g. grain size)
and often in chemical composition in a rock. These
changes are due to physical and/or chemical conditions
that differ from those normally occurring at the surface
of planets and in zones of cementation and diagenesis
below this surface. They may coexist with partial
melting.

2. Causes of metamorphism

heat
pressure
fluid composition

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2. Causes of metamorphism- Temperature

temperature increases with

depth (geothermal gradient)
shallow (20 C / km)
(thick lithosphere)
steep (50 C / km)
(thin lithosphere)
Average = 30 C / km
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2. Causes of metamorphism- Temperature

Q. Why is continental
geothermal gradient
higher than the oceanic
geotherm?

b/c concentration of
radioactive (LIL)
elements is higher in
the continental crust

Figure. Estimated ranges of oceanic and

continental steady-state geotherms to a
depth of 100 km using upper and lower limits
based on heat flows measured near the
surface. After Sclater et al. (1980), Earth. Rev.
Geophys. Space Sci., 18, 269-311.

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Effect of Temperature
Increasing temperature has several effects
1) Promotes recrystallization increased grain
size: Larger surface/volume ratio of a mineral
The grain size increases with increase in T
2) Drive reactions (that are endothermic) that
consume unstable mineral(s) and produces
new minerals that are stable under the new
conditions (isochemical change)
3) Overcomes kinetic barriers to recrystallization
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Grades of metamorphism

Metamorphic grade: a general increase in degree of metamorphism

without specifying the exact relationship between temperature and
pressure

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2. Causes of metamorphism- Pressure

the role of pressure (stress)

confining (Lithostatic) pressureequal pressure from all three directions
differential (Deviatoric) pressureforce exerted in a particular direction.
Dictates the shape and orientation of new
minerals formed

rate of increase = 0.3 to 0.4 kbar / km

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2. Causes of metamorphism- Pressure

Foliation is a common result, which allows us to
estimate the orientation of s1

s1 is the maximum principal stress

s2 is an intermediate principal stress
s3 is the minimum principal stress

s1 > s2 = s3 foliation and no lineation

s1 = s2 > s3 lineation and no foliation
s1 > s2 > s3 both foliation and lineation

Deviatoric stress affects the textures and structures,

but not the equilibrium mineral assemblage

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2. Causes of metamorphism- fluids

Evidence for the existence of a metamorphic fluid:

Fluids can be meteoric, magmatic, subducted

material, trapped sedimentary brines, or
degassing of the mantle
Metamorphic fluids dominated by H2O, but CO2
may also be present in rocks with a significant
carbonate
The motion of fluids may transport various
chemical species over considerable distances-

metasomatism
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3. Types of metamorphism
1. Shock
metamorphism

2. Regional
Metamorphism
(high P and T)

Regional
metamorphism

Depth,
km
0

3. Contact
Metamorphism
(High T and low P)

Oceanic
crust

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Oceanic
lithosphere

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Water

4. Low-grade Burial
metamorphism

5. Seafloor
metamorphism
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Contact Metamorphism

Adjacent to igneous intrusions. Thermal ( metasomatic) effects of

hot magma intruding cooler shallow rocks

Occurs over a wide range of pressures, including very low

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Prograde: increase in metamorphic grade

with time as a rock is subjected to
gradually more severe conditions
Prograde metamorphism: changes in a
rock that accompany increasing
metamorphic grade
Retrograde: decreasing grade as rock
cools and recovers from a metamorphic or
igneous event

less common. Exothermic reactions take

places. It is difficult to add fluid than driving it
out.
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4. Metamorphic textures
Foliation/ schistosity : parallel
alignment of sheet silicate
minerals and/or compositional and
mineralogical layering in the rock.
Most foliation is caused by the
preferred orientation of
phylosilicates, like clay minerals,
micas, and chlorite.
slaty cleavage (do not confuse
with mineral cleavage)
develops in slate. aligned platy
phyllosilicates are too fine grained
to see individually with the unaided
eye.
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4. Metamorphic textures
Lineation: (sub)parallel
alignment of elongate
linear fabric elements in a
rock, commonly
penetrative at outcrop
and/or hand-specimen
scale
They have no genetic
connotations
An analogy would be a
bunch of pencils held
tight in your hand, all
arranged parallel to
one another.
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Slaty Cleavage

Metamorphism changes
sedimentary rocks, thus
forming slaty cleavage planes.
slaty cleavage planes

bedding
planes

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Foliation
The original bedding
can be seen in the
thin sandy layers.

Regional metamorphism
causes cleavage planes
to develop.

foliation
plane
shale
sandstone
layers

original
bedding

5 cm

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4. Metamorphic texturesFoliation in Thin Section View

Mineral crystals become
elongated perpendicular
to the compressive force.

Foliation is the result

of compressive forces.

Feldspar

Quartz
Mica
Pyrite

Staurolite
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4. Metamorphic textures

Increasing intensity of metamorphism

Low grade

Intermediate grade

High grade

Increasing crystal size

Increasing coarseness of foliation

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5. Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

foliated rocks

Texture
Non-foliated rocks
Basis of classification of foliated rocks
1. Size of crystals
2. Nature of foliation
3. Degree of banding: lighter and darker bands
4. Metamorphic grade
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4. Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

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Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

by the degree of slaty cleavage, schistosity, and banding.

Diagenesis
Slate

Low grade

Intermediate
grade

Phyllite

Slaty cleavage

High grade

Schist
(abundant
micaceous
minerals)

Gneiss
(fewer
micaceous
minerals)

Migmatite

Schistosity

Banding

Banding

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Phyllite

silky sheen due to the presence of tiny

mica crystals

Figures: copyright 2011-R.Weller, Cochise College

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schist
with
garnet
porphyroblasts

Porphyroblast: the metamorphic equivalent of phenocrysts

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Schist

copyright 2011-R.Weller

Left Fig: Garnet muscovite schist: Muscovite crystals are

visible and silvery, garnets occur as large dark
porphyroblasts.

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copyright 2011-R.Weller

Gneiss

Gneiss: displaying gneissose structure. Gneisses are typically

layered (also called banded), generally with alternating felsic
and darker mineral layers.
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Some gneisses have

large eye-shaped
grains (commonly
feldspar) that are
derived from preexisting large crystals
by shear. Individual
grains of this sort are
called auge (German
for eye), and the
(German) plural is
augen. An augen
gneiss is a gneiss with
augen structure.

Augen Gneiss

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Granoblastic
textures: Non-foliated

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Eclogite

Eclogite: green pyroxene [omphacite]

red garnet [pyrope]
The protolith is typically basaltic. Eclogites usually
do not show foliation.

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Hornfels

fine-grained non-foliated.
It is a baked rock.
If formed from basalt or dark
shale, it will be almost black in
color.

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Figures: copyright 2011-R.Weller, Cochise College

5. Regional metamorphism
and metamorphic grade
mineral isograds (zones of change)
An isograd represents the first
appearance of a particular metamorphic index
mineral in the field as one progresses up
metamorphic grade
index minerals reflect pressure and
temperature conditions
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5. Regional metamorphism

Index minerals define

metamorphic zones.

Isograds

Canada

line that separates the

zones (a line in the
field of constant
metamorphic grade)

ME

NY
Isograds
VT

NH
Key:

MA
CT

Not
metamorphosed
Chlorite zone

Low
grade

RI

Biotite zone
Garnet zone

Medium
grade

Staurolite zone

High grade

Sillimanite zone

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Metamorphism of Slate
Low
Grade
Intermediate
Grade

Phyllite

High
Grade
Schist

Blueschist

Gneiss

Depth (km)

Pressure (kilobars)

Slate

Migmatite

Temperature (C)

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Metamorphic Facies
In general, metamorphic rocks do not
drastically change chemical composition
during metamorphism, except in the special
case where metasomatism is involved. The
mineral assemblages that are observed must
be an indication of the temperature and
pressure environment that the rock was
subjected to. This pressure and temperature
environment corresponding to a suite of
minerals is referred to as Metamorphic
Facies.
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Degree of metamorphism
Diagenesis
Low Intermediate
Greenschists

Amphibolites

High
Granulites

Chlorite
White mica (mainly muscovite)
Biotite
Garnet
Staurolite
Kyanite
Sillimanite
Albite (sodium plagioclase)

With increasing metamorphic

grade, mineral composition
changes.

Mineral suites define

metamorphic facies.
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Metamorphic Facies
0

Hornfels

30
35

Eclogite

20

20
25

13.5

15

15

Depth (km)

10

10
Granulite

Amphibolite

5
Greenschist

Pressure (kilobars)

200

400

600

800

40
1000

Temperature (C)
Metamorphic facies correspond
and can be used
to particular combinations of
to indicate specific
minerals corresponding to specific
tectonic environments.
P and T

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6. Plate tectonics and metamorphism

metamorphism occurs in or near

plate interiors
divergent plate margins
convergent plate margins
transform plate margins
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Metamorphic pressure and temperature paths

Low
Grade

Depth (km)

Pressure (kilobars)

Intermediate
Grade

High
Grade

Temperature (C)

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High
Grade

Depth (km)

Pressure (kilobars)

Low
Grade

Peak metamorphism

Temperature (C)

Subduction mlange,
low temperature
high pressure metamorphism
Deep-ocean
sediment

Continental
crust

Ocean-continent collision
Prograde
path
Peak
metamorphism

Retrograde
path

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Low
Grade

High
Grade

Depth (km)

Pressure (kilobars)

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Peak metamorphism

Temperature (C)

Subduction mlange,
Low T-high P
metamorphism

Continental
crust

High T high P metamorphism

within mountain belts

Deformed and
metamorphosed
shallow- and deepocean sediments

Continental
crust

Prograde
path
Peak
metamorphism

Continental
crust

Continentcontinent
collision

Prograde
path
Retrograde
path

Ocean-continent collision

Peak
metamorphism

Retrograde
path

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6. Plate tectonics and metamorphism

rapid erosion (exhumation) rates of
mountain ranges show a relationship
between
tectonics (orogeny)
climate
controls the flow of metamorphic
rocks to the surface
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Thought questions for this chapter

1.At what depths in the Earth do
metamorphic rocks form? What
happens if temperatures get too high?

2. Why do foliation occur in metamorphic

rocks?
3. What are metamorphic facies?
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Thought questions for this chapter

4. What are index minerals?
5. Which kind of pluton would produce the
highest grade of metamorphism,
(i) a granite intrusion or a gabbro intrusion at a
depth of 20 km?
6. Where would you find contact metamorphism?
(i) magma intruding preexisting metamorphic/
igneous rocks or magma intruding a limestone
area
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Key terms and concepts

Amphibolite
Blueschist
Contact metamorphism
Eclogite
Exhumation
Foliated rock
Foliation
Gneiss
Granoblastic rock
Granulite
Greenschist
Greenstone
High-pressure metamorphism
Hornfels
Low-grade metamorphism

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Key terms and concepts

Marble
Mlange
Metamorphic facies
Metamorphic P-T path
Metamorphic rock
Metasomatism
Migmatite
Orogeny
Phyllite
Porphyroblast
Quartzite
Regional metamorphism
Schist
Seafloor metamorphism
Shock metamorphism

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Key terms and concepts

Slate
Stress
Ultra-high pressure metamorphism
Zeolite

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