Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
I. Fofana
Canada Research Chair
on Insulating Liquids and Mixed Dielectrics
for Electrotechnology (ISOLIME),
Universit du Qubec Chicoutimi,
Qubec, Canada
The importance of liquids in the field
of dielectrics and electrical insulation is highlighted. Engineering
problems in using these liquids in
electrical equipment are discussed.
Their applications and perspectives
are addressed.
Petroleum-based oil, so-called mineral oil, has been the main
insulating liquid in industrial power systems since the 1900s
[14][16] because of its good aging behavior, low viscosity,
ready availability, and low cost [14]. Because of the necessity
of operating distribution transformers in locations where high
fire security standards were required, polychlorinated biphenyl
(PCB)-based insulating liquids were introduced in the early
1930s. Until the 1960s they did not raise environmental concern.
However, since the 1970s the public has been increasingly critical of the use of PCB-based transformer oils [1][4]. While most
PCB oils have now been replaced with PCB-free liquids, the latter have not been widely accepted as alternatives to mineral oils
in power equipment. Driven by the desire for a safer nonflammable and environmentally acceptable insulating liquid for use in
power equipment, researchers and engineers have investigated
countless alternatives to mineral oil, and significant advances
have been achieved during the last four decades [17][25].
0883-7554/12/$31/2013/IEEE
13
Mineral Oils
Mineral oils are complex mixtures of hundreds of different
organic compounds, consisting mainly of carbon and hydrogen in molecules with different structures [22][24]. They are
made by refining a fraction of the hydrocarbons collected during
the distillation of petroleum crude stock. The physicochemical
properties of an oil may vary significantly from one batch to
another, even from the same supplier.
There are three categories of crude oils, namely paraffinic,
naphthenic, and mixed crudes [14][16], [22], [24]:
(a) Paraffinic crudes contain a small amount of naphthenic
hydrocarbons and can be subdivided into normal paraffins (straight chain wax-type molecules) and isoparaffins (branched paraffins). Isoparaffins are preferred
over normal paraffins because of their lower pour
points.
(b) Naphthenic crudes have higher naphthenic compound
content than do paraffinic crudes.
(c) Mixed crudes are intermediate between paraffinic and
naphthenic crudes.
The early mineral oils were paraffin based, but after 1925
they were replaced with naphthenic oils because of the high pour
points of paraffinic oils [14]. In addition, paraffinic crudes contain waxes, whereas naphthenic crudes contain very little wax.
Since naphthenic oils have lower viscosities than paraffinic oils,
the former become thinner and less viscous at elevated operating
temperatures and therefore provide, at least theoretically, better
heat exchange.
Modern petroleum refining has changed dramatically over
the last 30 to 40 years. Improved technology, specifically catalytic hydroprocessing, has brought many benefits and efficiencies. Reviews of various refining technologies exist [14], [15],
[26], [27]. Refined oils are very complex blends and may consist
of more than 3,000 different hydrocarbons, principally paraffinic (4060%), naphthenic (3050%), and aromatic (520%)
chains of carbon atoms [14][16], [19], [24][27]. Aromatic hydrocarbons contain unsaturated ring molecules and have many
names, e.g., polynuclear aromatics, polycyclic aromatics, and
polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Aromatic content is the main factor
that determines the difference in the water solubilities of different oils [13]. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons may present a health
concern; recent studies suggest that naphthenic oils with more
than 2% polyaromatic hydrocarbon content are potentially carcinogenic [13], [28].
14
Naphthenic oils are typically manufactured by solvent refining processes with hydroprocessing/hydrotreating or mild hydrofinishing. Such processes leave residual substances in oil,
including sulfur compounds and aromatic nitrogen [26], [27],
[29]. Naphthenic isoparaffinic liquids are highly refined using
hydrocracking and hydroisomerization, which eliminate almost
all contaminants from the liquid, leaving it almost free of sulfur
[26], [27]. Isoparaffinic oils have better heat transfer capabilities
than do naphthenics [30].
Halogenated Hydrocarbons
(Nonflammable Liquids)
Nearly all nonflammable liquids are classified as halogenated hydrocarbons, typically including chlorine or fluorine [31]
which react with hydrogen atoms to form HCl and HF.
Because of the desire for nonflammable liquids, PCBs were
used for insulation purposes between 1929 and 1977 [32]. These
liquids (generic name askarels = fire resistant) were mixed
with varying quantities of trichlorobenzene or tetrachlorobenzene [19], [22], [24] and marketed as insulating fluids under the
name Aroclors (one of the most commonly known trade names
for PCB mixtures). Technical specifications of askarels can be
found in CEI 60588-3 [33]. They were used primarily in transformers (for their fire resistance), capacitors (for their resistance
to partial discharges), and hydraulic machines requiring stable,
fire-retardant materials [19], [22], [24]. When it became clear
that PCBs may cause adverse health effects, their manufacture
was banned after 1978 [32]. In the European Union, equipment
containing more than 50 ppm of PCBs was to be destroyed by
incineration by the end of 2009 [24].
Researchers have tried countless combinations of chemicals
to remove PCBs from older equipment and to find other insulating liquids with which to fill new equipment. Various chlorinated
fluids, e.g., benzyltoluene, perchlorethylene, trichlorobenzene,
and dichlorotoluene were developed as replacements for PCBs
in applications where nonflammability was important [34][36].
The most popular include polychloro-diphenyl-methanes and
chlorinated diphenyl (or benzyltoluene) substitutes. Polychlorodiphenyl-methanes are readily biodegradable and do not form
dioxins in case of fire [22], [24].
PCB-free halogenated hydrocarbons have had limited industrial success, mainly because of strong resistance to chlorination
[22], [24]. Fluorinated products have been investigated in the
United States, but their high cost has inhibited their development [24]. Perfluorinated polyethers were proposed in 2000 for
capacitors in which resistance to fire is of great importance [1],
[24].
15
O
X
X
X
X
X
X
Polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCB)
Other halogenated
hydrocarbons
Silicone oils
High-molecular-weight
hydrocarbons
Tetraester of pentaerythritol
Alkylbenzenes
Aromatic hydrocarbons
(M/DBT, PXE, MIPB, etc.)
Vegetable oils
Polybutenes
Nanofluids
Mixed liquids
Traction
transformers
Instrument
transformers
Special
transformers
Bushings
Tap
changers
Distribution
transformers
Mineral oils
Insulating liquid1
Power
transformers
and reactors
Table 1. Application of Insulating Liquids in Electrical Power Equipment (Updated Version of a Table Published in [22]).
Terminal
boxes
Circuit
breakers
Capacitors
Cables
Loading
resistance
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
These liquids are mainly used in capacitors and cables [19].
Their technical specifications are defined in IEC 60867 [37].
Alkylbenzenes
In the 1960s a new family of insulating liquids known as alkylbenzenes became available. Their stability under partial discharge is their most important property for todays applications.
They have considerably greater ability (relative to mineral oil) to
absorb gas produced by partial discharges [38] and are therefore
often used in hermetically sealed equipment. Their low viscosity is another important property, especially for oil circulating
in cables. Heavier alkylbenzenes are used for filling capacitive
dividers [22], [24]. The addition of about 30% of alkylbenzene
liquid (by volume) to mineral oil used for impregnation of cable
systems greatly improves the gas absorbency of the oil [22],
[24], [38].
Polyarylalcanes
Polyarylalcanes were primarily developed to replace PCBs
as impregnating liquids for capacitors [22], [24]. Among the
first generation developed in the 1970s were phenyl-xylyl-ethane, mono-isopropyl-biphenyl, and di-isopropyl-naphthalene.
Mono-isopropyl-biphenyl is no longer used in North America,
but phenyl-xylyl-ethane and di-isopropyl-naphthalene are still
used in Asia [24]. In the 1980s phenyl-xylyl-ethane and monoisopropyl-biphenyl were replaced by diphenyl-methane derivatives, specially developed for capacitors, e.g., mono/dibenzyltoluene 75/25 and benzyl-toluene/diphenyl-ethane 60/40. (The
numbers indicate the mass percentages in the mixtures.) Mono/
dibenzyltoluenes have been used in power capacitors for more
than 25 years. They have also been approved for other electrical
equipment such as capacitive voltage transformers and bushings
[19]. Polyarylalkanes are also used for filling capacitive dividers. Their dielectric properties, much better than those of alkylbenzenes and mineral oils, improve their competitiveness [24].
Polyarylalcanes have kinematic viscosities less than 8 mm2/s
at 40C [22], [24], so that removing moisture from them under
vacuum is much easier than from mineral oils. Their thermal stability is much better than that of mineral oils and alkylbenzenes.
However, they are more polar, and their dielectric properties are
more sensitive to contaminants. Because of their high aromatic
content they generate very little gas under partial discharge and
have high hydrogen absorbance capacity. Their low solubility in
water limits their biodegradability. Their toxicity is very low, as
is the rate at which they accumulate in the environment.
Polyolefins
Polyolefins are unsaturated hydrocarbons with double bonds.
The polybutenes, especially polyisobutenes, are the most widely
known and used. Polybutenes are nontoxic and environmentally
friendly and are used as insulants in cables and LV metalized
capacitors because of their high viscosities. Their technical
specifications are given in CEI 60465 [39]. Polyolefins recently
emerged as alternatives to mineral oils in transformers. They
are nontoxic and biodegradable, and their flashpoints are in the
range 240 to 250C [24]. However, their use has been limited by
their high cost.
16
Phthalates
The phthalates include two liquids, namely di-isononyl
phthalate and dioctyl phthalate. They were developed as alternatives to PCBs in LV and medium-voltage capacitors, but
their use has declined significantly over the last 30 years, as a
result of the development of dry-type metalized polypropylene
film capacitors. However, dioctyl phthalates are still used for LV
capacitors because their good dielectric properties facilitate the
manufacture of capacitors that are more reliable than dry-type
metalized polypropylene units. Their most important property
is their high relative permittivity (5.2 at 20C), which leads to
higher capacitances than those achievable using polybutenes or
silicone oils. The main properties of dioctyl phthalate are listed
in IEC 61099 [40].
High-Fire-Point Liquids
High-flash-point liquids, also known as less flammable liquids, were developed as replacement impregnants in transformers formerly filled with PCBs. Qualifying liquids must have a
minimum open-cup fire point of 300C [31], [35]. Because of
this high degree of resistance to ignition, they are specified for
transformers in locations with significant fire risks. At present,
most high-flash-point liquids are produced from four different
chemical bases, namely high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons
(HMWHs), synthetic esters, dimethyl silicone, and vegetable
oils [22], [24], [25].
High-Temperature or High-Molecular-Weight
Hydrocarbons (HMWHs)
Other alternatives to PCB liquids are the HMWHs or hightemperature hydrocarbons. These liquids are chemically similar
to regular petroleum-based mineral oils used in transformers.
However, they have higher boiling points and higher molecular weights, and therefore much higher fire points. HMWHs
are classified as paraffinic, consisting mainly of saturated compounds with long, straight-chain structures. They have good dielectric and lubricating properties. They also have a higher viscosity, which reduces their heat-transfer capabilities.
HMWH-based liquids have been used in transformers fitted
with load break devices such as load tap changers [41] and in
unit substations, pad-mounted transformers, and oil retrofills
[31]. Combined with Aramid insulation materials, they are also
used in high-temperature transformers, i.e., those with 175 to
185C hot spots [30] found in mobile or double-ended substations.
Synthetic Esters
Esters are a broad class of organic compounds synthesized
from organic acids and alcohols. They do not generate dioxins or
other toxic products in the presence of fire, and have good biodegradability [42], [43], forming only carbon dioxide and water.
Ester liquids have been developed to resist oxidation and can absorb considerably more moisture than mineral oils before their
performance as insulants deteriorates significantly. Previous
work [35] has shown that ester liquids can be used for retrofilling mineral oilfilled transformers. Mixing ester liquid with up
to 3% mineral oil does not degrade the electrical and dielectric
Silicone Oils
Silicone oils are known chemically as poly-dimethyl siloxanes or PDMS [22], [24]. They were introduced in the 1970s
as substitutes for PCBs and have proven popular in retrofilling
transformers [40], [42]. However, their use has been limited to
situations where fire could pose a risk to personnel and property.
Their chemical structure has been described [25], [46], [47].
Silicones are environmentally friendly and flame retardant, age
well, and are strongly resistant to oxidation and sludge formation [48]. As far as their cooling and insulating properties are
concerned, they compare well with mineral oils. Silicone oils are
colorless, and have very low pour points compared with mineral
oils, even though their viscosities at 20C are much higher. In
order to avoid large temperature rises during operation, siliconefilled transformers must be de-rated (up to 10%) or provided
with additional cooling capacity.
Vegetable Oils
Vegetable oils are readily available natural products, and
therefore should be considered as ideal raw materials for fully
biodegradable insulating liquids [49][52]. They consist essentially of triglycerides, which are naturally synthesized by esterification of the tri-alcohol glycerol with three fatty acids. The fatty
acid composition of some vegetable oils is shown in Table 2 [17].
Experimental investigation of vegetable oils as dielectric
coolants began around the early 1900s, concurrently with mineral-oil trials [48]. Their poor dissipation factor and oxidation
stability, and higher pour point, relative permittivity, and viscosity [31] have been their main disadvantages as dielectric fluids. A literature survey [17], [22], [24] indicates that for many
Mono-
Di-
Tri-
7.9
55.9
22.1
11.1
Corn oil
12.7
24.2
58
0.7
Cottonseed oil
25.8
17.8
51.8
0.2
Peanut oil
13.6
17.8
51.8
0.2
Olive oil
13.2
73.3
7.9
0.6
Safflower oil
8.5
12.1
74.1
0.4
6.1
75.3
14.2
Soybean oil
14.2
22.5
51
Sunflower oil
10.5
19.6
65.7
9.2
80.8
8.4
0.2
Canola oil1
6.8
Low erucic acid variety of rapeseed oil. Recently canola oil with more than 75% monounsaturated content has been developed.
17
Boiling point
(1 atm), C
Ar
He
H2
N2
O2
Ne
186
269
253
196
183
246
years they were considered suitable only for capacitor use. Their
unsaturation confers good gas-absorbing properties, which are
desirable in capacitors, cables, and instrument transformers.
However, the unsaturated parts of the chain are vulnerable to
oxidation, resulting in poor oxidation stability. Castor oils have
been widely used in capacitors (with cellulose insulation) since
1962 [17], [53], [54]. Unlike other vegetable oils, which are fatty
acid esters, castor oil is 80% hydroxy-acid ester, the acidic part
being ricin-oleic acid.
In the 1990s, mainly because of environmental concerns,
utilities became interested in fully biodegradable insulating liquids, particularly for use in transformers located in coastal areas
where oil spills would contaminate water [31]. Many vegetable
oils, currently available, therefore contain additive chemical
packages that reduce the pour points and enhance oxidation stability. Typically a 10C lowering of the pour point, with negligible change in electrical conductivity, can be achieved by adding
a polymethyl-acrylate derivative at concentrations below 1%. In
some cases the packages contain an antimicrobial agent or copper deactivator [17], [48][53]. Recently, a new vegetable-based
insulating oil for transformers, called palm fatty acid ester, has
been proposed. Relative to mineral oil its dynamic viscosity is
60% lower and its relative permittivity is 30% higher [55], [56].
Using chemical treatment of filtered samples, Abderrazzaq et al.
[57] significantly improved the acidity of olive oil.
Nanoliquids
Nanotechnology is now being used or considered for use
in many engineering applications, with the aim of improving
equipment efficiency. Nanofluids are finding applications in a
wide variety of industries, from transportation to power engineering, in microprocessors and in micro-electro-mechanical
systems (MEMS), and in biotechnology [58], [59]. A review of
the most commonly used nanoliquid production methods can be
found in the literature [58][62]. They consist of a base liquid
in which nanosized particles (1100 nm) are suspended. The
addition of nanoparticles can greatly improve the thermal and
dielectric properties of the liquid, more specifically extending
transformer lifetime and increasing loading/cooling capacity.
The most commonly used nanoadditives include metals and
metal oxides. Yue-Fan et al. [2] developed a nanoliquid by doping mineral transformer oil with TiO2 nanoparticles, in order to
enhance its dielectric performance. Choi et al. [62] evaluated
dispersions of nanosized Al2O3 and AlN powders in transformer
oil, with small amounts of oleic acid as a dispersant. Nano-diamond particles were found to increase the dielectric strength and
life of transformer oil [59], [63]. It has been suggested that the
addition of magnetic nanoparticles may also increase the dielectric strength of transformer oil [64], [65]; although the dielectric
18
Application
Alkylbiphenyl + alkyldiarylalcane
Capacitors (biodegradability)
Ester + TCB
Traction transformer
Dielectric Behavior
During the last 50 years much work has been done with the
aim of improving our basic knowledge of insulating liquid performance. Understanding the fundamental causes of insulation
breakdown, i.e., the conditions necessary for electron avalanche
formation, is essential to ensure reliable design of liquid-filled
equipment. Earlier studies were concerned with the physical
phenomena involved in electro-hydrodynamic processes [82]
[84], and with streamer initiation and development [85][94].
Reviews are available [23], [88]. Mathematical models have
been developed to simulate the fundamental processes governing discharges in oil [95][98]. Pioneering work by Forster has
clarified the mechanisms by which high-voltage fields interact
with insulating oils [99]. Static electrification is another important factor threatening the safety of power transformers [100]
[106]. Using modern laboratory testing techniques, researchers
have improved our understanding of the physical mechanism
by which discharges are initiated in dielectric liquids. However,
much work is still required.
e.g., IEC 60599, IEEE C57.104, Duvals Triangle and the Key
Gas method [110][113]. Since all these methods are heuristic
in nature, i.e., not based on scientific formulation, combining
several of them may reduce the risk of mistaken diagnostics and
enhance accuracy [114]. Dissolved gas analysis techniques are
being developed for liquids other than mineral oil [115][117].
Use of Additives
Various additives expected to improve the dielectric or physicochemical properties of oil have been investigated during the
last 50 years. They include various chemicals that act as inhibitors, passivators, electron scavengers, or pour-point depressants
[15], [23]. Small amounts of these additives improve oxidation
stability, optimize gas absorption and/or gas evolution, increase
dielectric strength or partial discharge inception voltage, protect
against catalytic reactions, and reduce electrostatic charging. Inhibitors/additives are blended into the oil during the manufacturing process or introduced during routine servicing.
Two primary phenolic antioxidants are approved for use in
electrically insulating oils, namely 2,6-ditertiary-butyl paracresol and 2,6-ditertiary-butyl phenol. ASTM D3487 [133] and
IEC 60296 [134] specify 0.08% (by mass) of 2,6-ditertiarybutyl para-cresol, butylated hydroxytoluene, or 2,6-ditertiarybutyl phenol for Type I oils; ASTM D3487 specifies 0.3% and
IEC 60296 specifies up to 0.4% for Type II oils. These additives enhance the resistance of the oil to oxidation and therefore
increase the expected lifetime of the insulation. Severe hydroprocessing, which effectively removes natural contaminants and
pro-oxidants such as sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen compounds,
and some aromatics, enhances the effect of added synthetic antioxidants [135]. The antioxidants perform better in these cleaner
oils since they do not have to counteract the negative aspects of
contaminants [135]. The cleaner the oil, the better is its antioxidant function and the longer is the life of the transformer.
Aromatic compounds influence the oxidation resistance, gassing properties, and impulse strength of oil. However the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are environment pollutants, and
some of them are recognized as cancer initiators. The 16 main
polycyclic-aromatic-hydrocarbon pollutants are listed in [136].
The polycyclic-aromatic-hydrocarbon content of oil must be
less than 0.1% (by volume) [13], [136], [137]. In order to avoid
labeling as carcinogenic, mineral oils are hydrotreated, which
results in the removal of most aromatic hydrocarbons, including
those that are beneficial [136]. Mono/dibenzyl-toluene, a new
type of impregnant for all-film power capacitors, has therefore
been added to mineral oil or to in-service oil-filled power transformers since 2000 in order to increase the aromatic content of
the oil [24]. The addition of a few percent of mono/dibenzyl-toluene can transform a gas-generating oil into a gas-adsorbing oil.
20
Table 5. Properties of Insulating Liquids Used in the Last 50 Years (Updated Version of a Table Published in [19]).
Category
Type of liquid
Applications
Particular properties
Mineral oils
Naphthenic, paraffinic
High-molecular-weight
hydrocarbons
Paraffinic
Vegetable oils
Capacitors, transformers
Synthetic liquids
Synthetic hydrocarbons
Polybutenes
Cables
Alkylbenzenes
Capacitors
Alkylbiphenyls (MIPB)
Capacitors
Readily biodegradable
Gas absorbing under partial discharges
Capacitors
Askarels (PCB)
Nonflammable
Thermal stability
Polychoro-diphenyl methanes
Transformers
Polychoro-alcanes
Transformers
Nonflammable
Biodegradable
Thermal stability
Silicone oils
Organic esters
Simple esters
Capacitors
Phtalates
PCB substitute
Capacitors
Nanofluids
Transformers
Adaptability
Mixed liquids
Capacitors, transformers
Adaptability
Halogenated hydrocarbons
Other liquids
21
Acknowledgments
The author is much indebted to Dr. R. J. Fleming, co-editorin-chief EIM, for his help in improving the English expression
and quality of the manuscript.
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