Ceramics

WindowsToTheFuture

AMASTModule
MaterialsScienceandTechnology
1995

ii

Acknowledgments
Theauthorswouldliketothankthefollowingpeoplefortheiradviceandsupportinthe
developmentofthismodule:
Dr.JenniferLewis
DirectoroftheMaterialsScienceWorkshop
Dr.JamesAdams
AssistantDirector
Dr.JohnKieffer
DepartmentofMaterialScienceandEngineering
UniversityofIllinoisUrbanaChampaign,Urbana,IL
JoeGrindley
UniversityofIllinois
CeramicsLabCoordinator

Authors:
GeorgeBaehr
HarlemConsolidatedSchoolDistrict122,LovesPark,IL
JeraldDay
TurkeyRunHighSchool,Marshall,IN
LaurelDieskow
OakForestHighSchool,OakForest,IL
DianeFaulise
StillwaterAreaHighSchool;,Stilllwater,MN
ElizabethOverocker
AntiochCommunityHighSchool,Antioch,WI
JohnJ.Schwan
UniversityofIllinois,Urbana,IL

iii

iv

Foreword
Thismoduleisintendedasacurriculumsupplementforhighschoolscienceteacherswhowould
liketointroducetheirstudentstoconceptsinMaterialsScienceandTechnolology.Teachersare
urgedtouseone,some,oralloftheMASTmodules.Someteachersmaywishtoimplementthis
moduleinitsentiretyasasubjectunitinacourse.Othersmaywishtoutilizeonlypartofthe
module,perhapsalaboratoryexperiment.Weencourageteacherstoreproduceandusethese
materialsintheirclassroomsandtocontacttheworkshopwithanyassessment,comments,
orsuggestionstheymayhave.
ThisisoneinaseriesofMASTmodulesdevelopedandrevisedduringtheMaterialsTechnology
WorkshopheldattheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaignduring1993'95.
A combination of university professors, high school science teachers, and undergraduates,
workedtogethertocreateandrevisethismoduleoverathreeyearperiod.
FinancialsupportfortheMaterialsTechnologyWorkshopwasprovidedbytheNationalScience
Foundation(NSF)EducationandHumanResourceDirectorate(Grant#ESI9253386)Other
contributorsincludetheNSFCenterforAdvancedCementBasedMaterials,theDowChemical
Foundation,theMaterialsResearchSociety,theIronandSteelSociety,andthePeoriaChapter
of the American Society for Metals. The University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign
Department ofMaterials Science andEngineering andtheCollege ofEngineering Officeof
ExtramuralEducationprovidedorganizationalsupport.

vi

TableofContents
Acknowledgments..........................................................................

ii

Foreword....................................................................................

iii

Introduction.................................................................................

F.Y.I.......................................................................................

WhatareCeramics?.........................................................................

HistoricalTimeline..........................................................................

FutureTrends................................................................................

ScientificPrinciples.........................................................................
Introduction........................................................................
AtomicBonding...................................................................
Classification......................................................................
ThermalProperties................................................................
OpticalProperties..................................................................
MechanicalProperties............................................................
ElectricalProperties..............................................................
CeramicProcessing...............................................................
Summary...........................................................................

7
7
7
8
9
13
15
17
21
24

References....................................................................................

25

Resources....................................................................................

26

EquipmentandMaterialsGrid.............................................................

27

LaboratoryActivities........................................................................

ClayLabs:ReadyBeamFire................................................

FlocculationDemonstration:InSchoolSuspensions.........................

GlassLabs:Wow,YouCanSeeRightThroughMe!........................

ElectricalResistanceinaGlassBulbDemo....................................

FiberOpticsLab:LightattheEndoftheTunnel..............................

28
28
35
37
45
46

ModuleQuiz..................................................................................

50

Glossary......................................................................................

52

Introduction
ModuleObjective:
Theobjectiveofthismoduleistoexploretheworldofceramicmaterialsthroughapplications,
properties,andprocessing.
KeyConcepts:
Examplesandapplicationsofceramicmaterials
Ceramicbondingmechanismsandhowtheyinfluenceproperties
Propertiesofceramics(mechanical,electrical,thermal,andoptical).
Preparationandtestingofcrystallineandamorphousceramicmaterials
Prerequisites:
Some familiarity with the following concepts would be helpful in the understanding of the
informationinthismodule.
Basicchemicalbonding(ionic&covalent)
Electronegativity
Hydratedmaterials
Density
PlacementinCurriculum:
This module could be included in a chemistry course with crystalline structure, density or
bonding;inphysicswithmechanics,heat,optics,andelectronics;andingeneral/techscienceas
anapplicationofmaterialsintheirlives.

Ceramics

Pottery

Conventional
Brick

Advanced

Space
Shuttle
Tiles

Electronics

Artificial
Bones
Turbine
Blades
Cutting Tools

F.Y.I.:
Ceramics arematerialsthatarecomposedofinorganicsubstances (usuallyacombinationof
metallic and nonmetallic elements). Just where in your life would you use items based on
ceramicmaterials?Letslookatascenariothatweallhaveincommon.
"Beeeeppp,"thealarmclocksoundstoroustyoufromyoursleep.Theelectricity
thatkeptthatclocktickingallnightwasgenerated,stored,andtraveledthrougha
whole array of ceramic products such as transducers, resistors, and various
insulators.Youturnonthelightwhichisencasedinaglass(ceramic)bulb.
Upandgoing,yourfeethittheceramictiledfloorofthebathroomasyoudrag
yourselfovertotheslipcastedceramicthrone(toilet).Dutyattendedto,youhead
fortheceramicsinkwherehandsandteetharecleaned(eventheceramiconethat
wasimplantedafterthatathleticaccident).Beforeyoustepintotheshower,you
warmuptheroomwiththeelectricheaterthatcontainsceramicheatingelements.
"Brrrinnng,"thephone,whichcontainsaceramicmicrophonethatcantransmit
yourvoicethroughfiberopticlines,rings.Hello,andinthebackgroundyou
detect that click click of a computer which contains ceramicbased
microelectronicpackagesthathousesiliconwafers.
Thebathroomhaswarmed.Youpausetolookoutoverthesnowcoveredlawn
andcontemplateaddinganotherlayeroffiberglassinsulationtohelpholdthe
2

heat in the house. You realize that you really dont want to put those pink
fiberglassrollsintoyourbrandnewcar,whichinitselfcontainsover70pounds
ofceramicsensorsandparts.
"Zoooommmm,"overheadajetpassesby,andyouthinkaboutthereturningspace
shuttleandits manyusesofceramic materials fromthenoseconetotheheat
shieldingtiles.
Wecouldcontinueourjourneythroughtheday,butmaybeyououghttoexplorewhatceramics
are.Wouldyouliketodiscoverwhatspecialpropertiesceramicshave,andwhy?Oryoucould
evenfindoutwhatapplicationsexistintoday's,aswellastomorrow'sworldofceramics.

WhatAreCeramics?

Ceramicsencompasssuchavastarrayofmaterialsthataconcisedefinitionisalmostimpossible.
However, one workable definition of ceramics is a refractory, inorganic, and nonmetallic
material. Ceramics can be divided into two classes: traditional and advanced. Traditional
ceramicsincludeclayproducts,silicateglassand cement;whileadvancedceramicsconsistof
carbides (SiC), pure oxides (Al2O3), nitrides (Si3N4), nonsilicate glasses and many others.
Ceramicsoffermanyadvantagescomparedtoothermaterials.Theyareharderandstifferthan
steel;moreheatandcorrosionresistantthanmetalsorpolymers;lessdensethanmostmetalsand
their alloys; and their raw materials are both plentiful and inexpensive. Ceramic materials
displayawiderangeofpropertieswhichfacilitatetheiruseinmanydifferentproductareas.
ProductArea
Aerospace

Product
space shuttle tiles, thermal barriers, high
temperatureglasswindows,fuelcells

ConsumerUses

glassware, windows, pottery, Corning

ware,magnets, dinnerware,ceramic tiles,
lenses, home electronics, microwave
transducers
catalyticconverters,ceramicfilters,airbag
sensors, ceramic rotors, valves, spark
plugs, pressure sensors, thermistors,
vibration sensors, oxygen sensors, safety
glasswindshields,pistonrings

Automotive

Medical(Bioceramics)

orthopedic joint replacement, prosthesis,

dentalrestoration,boneimplants

Military

structuralcomponentsforground,airand
navalvehicles,missiles,sensors

Computers

insulators, resistors, superconductors,

capacitors, ferroelectric components,
microelectronicpackaging

OtherIndustries

bricks,cement,membranesandfilters,lab
equipment

Communications

fiberoptic/laser communications,TVand
radiocomponents,microphones
4


Humanshavefoundapplications forceramicsforthepast30,000years;everydaynewand
differentapplicationsarebeingdiscovered.Thistrulymakesceramicsastoneagematerial,with
spaceagequalities.


26,000B.C.
Earlymandiscoversthat
clay,consistingofmammothfat
andbonemixedwithboneashand
localloess,canbemoldedanddriedin
thesuntoformabrittle,heatresistant
material.Thusbeginsceramicart.

HISTORYOF
CERAMICS
50B.C.50A.D.
Opticalglass(lensesand
mirrors),windowglassand
glassblowingproductionbeginsin
Romeandspreadsaroundtheworld
withtheRomanempire.

6,000B.C.
Ceramicfiringisfirstused
inAncientGreece.TheGreek
potteryPithoiisdevelopedandused
forstorage,burial,andart.

4,000B.C.
Glassisdiscoveredinan
cientEgypt.Thisprimitive
glassconsistedofasilicateglaze
overasinteredquartzbodyandwas
primarilyusedforjewelry.Theuseof
ceramiccoatingcontinuestodayinmany
thingsfrombathtubstotailpipesofjet
aircraft.

26,000B.C.
PRESENT
600A.D.
Porcelain,thefirstceramic
composite,iscreatedbythe
Chinese.Thisdurablematerialis
madebyfiringclayalongwithfeld
sparandquartz.Porcelainisusedin
everythingfromelectricalinsulators,to
dinnerware.

1870s
Refractorymaterials(able
towithstandextremelyhightemp
eratures)areintroducedduringtheIn
dustrialrevolution.Materialsmadefrom
limeandMgOareusedforeverything
frombricksforbuildingstoliningthe
insideofsteelmakingfurnaces.

1877
Thefirstexampleofhigh
techmaterialsresearchisdirected
byinventorThomasEdison.Edison
testsaplethoraofceramicsforresistiv
ity,foruseinhisnewlydiscoveredcar
bonmicrophone.

1889
TheAmericanCeramic
SocietywasfoundedbyElmer
E.Gorton,SamuelGeijsbeekand
ColonelEdwardOrtonJr..Theprimary
goalofthissocietycontinuestobe
unlockingthemysteriesofhightech
ceramics.
AmericanCeramicSociety
735CeramicPlace
Westerville,Ohio430818720
6148904700

1965
Thedevelopmentofphoto
voltaiccellswhichconvertlight
intoelectricityopensanewwayto
accesssolarenergy.

1987
Scientistsdiscovera
superconductingceramicoxide
withacriticaltemperatureof92K,
surpassingtheoldmetallicsuper
conductorscriticaltemperatureby
over60K.Apotentialapplicationof
ceramicsuperconductorsisininte
gratedcircuitsinnewhighspeed
computers.

1960
Withthediscoveryofthe
laserandtheobservationthat
itslightwilltravelthroughglass,
anewfieldcalledfiberopticsopens.
Fiberopticcableallowslightpulsesto
carrylargeamountsofinformationwith
extremelylowenergyloss.

1992
Certainceramicsknown
assmartmaterialsarewidely
publicized.Thesematerialscansense
andreacttovariablesurfaceconditions,
muchlikealivingorganism.Forexam
ple,airbagsincarsaretriggeredbya
smartsensorwhichinterceptsapres
suresignalwhenthecarishitand
transformsitintoanelectricalim
pulsethatinflatesthebag.

Future Trends
Ceramicsofthepastweremostlyofartisticanddomesticvalue.Ceramicsofthepresenthave
many industrial applications. Imagine what the next generation (your kids) will be doing
becauseofadvancesinceramics.
Imagine
TheFuturewithCeramics
Handheld interactive videos that fit in The electronic field looks ahead to
yourpocket
microminiaturizationofelectronicdevices.
Ceramicengineerswillturnnonfunctional
packaging parts into functional
componentsofthedevice.Toaccomplish
this, new ceramic materials will be
developed along with new methods to
processthem.
Phonesthatwontring;ringsthatwillbe The communication industry was
phoneswithnodialpad
revolutionized with the development of
fiber optics. Along with
microminiaturization of components will
cometheincorporation ofoptoelectronic
integratedcircuits.
A300mphtrainrideintoFantasyLand
High temperature superconductors will
open the doors to magnetic levitation
vehicles, cheap electricity, and improved
MRI(magneticresonanceimaging).With
microapplications of superconductors
through thin film tapes in sensors and
memory storage devices, the use of
superconductorswilltakeoff.
Ahighspeedelectriccarpoweredwitha The automobile industry, which already
fuelcellandfullofhightechsensorsthat incorporates seventy pounds of ceramics
practicallydrivethecarforyou
into a car, is looking to the field of
ceramics to provide improved sensors of
motion, gas compositions, electrical and
thermal changes;aswellaslightweight,
high strength and high temperature
components for the engines. For the
conservationofenergyandenvironmental
protection, ceramics seem to be a viable
possibilityintheuseofceramicfuelcells,
batteries,photovoltaiccells,andfiberoptic
transmissionofenergy.
Abestfriendthatsbionic/andromicwith Besides the ceramic applications in
microscopic hearing and seeing devices medicaldiagnosticinstruments,thefieldof
8

and a skeletal system all made from bioceramics for bone replacement and
ceramics
chemotherapyreleasecapsulesishere.As
ceramic materials improve in terms of
strength, nonreactivity, compatibility,
longevity,porosityfortissuegrowth,and
lowercosts,moreuseofceramicdevices
willbeseen.

ScientificPrinciples
Introduction:
Ceramics have characteristics that enable them to beusedina widevariety ofapplications
including:

highheatcapacityandlowheatconductance
corrosionresistance
electricallyinsulating,semiconducting,orsuperconducting
nonmagneticandmagnetic
hardandstrong,butbrittle

Thediversityintheirpropertiesstemsfromtheirbondingandcrystalstructures.
AtomicBonding:
Twotypesofbondingmechanismsoccurinceramicmaterials,ionicandcovalent.Oftenthese
mechanisms coexist in the same ceramic material. Each type of bond leads to different
characteristics.
Ionic bonds most often occur between metallic and nonmetallic elements that have large
differencesintheir electronegativities. Ionicallybonded structures tendtohaveratherhigh
meltingpoints,sincethebondsarestrongandnondirectional.
Theothermajorbondingmechanisminceramicstructuresisthecovalentbond. Unlikeionic
bondswhereelectronsaretransferred,atomsbondedcovalentlyshareelectrons. Usuallythe
elementsinvolvedarenonmetallicandhavesmallelectronegativitydifferences.
Manyceramicmaterialscontainbothionicandcovalentbonding.Theoverallpropertiesofthese
materialsdependonthedominantbondingmechanism.Compoundsthatareeithermostlyionic
ormostlycovalenthavehighermeltingpointsthancompoundsinwhich
neitherkindofbondingpredominates.
Table1:
Comparisonof%CovalentandIoniccharacterwithseveralceramic
compound'smeltingpoints.
Ceramic
Compound
MagnesiumOxide
AluminumOxide
SiliconDioxide

MeltingPointC
2798
2050
1715

%Covalent
character
27%
37%
49%

%Ioniccharacter
73%
63%
51%
10

SiliconNitride
SiliconCarbide

1900
2500

70%
89%

30%
11%

11

Classification:
Ceramicmaterialscanbedividedintotwoclasses:crystallineandamorphous(noncrystalline).
Incrystallinematerials,a lattice pointisoccupiedeitherbyatomsorionsdependingonthe
bondingmechanism.Theseatoms(orions)arearrangedinaregularlyrepeatingpatterninthree
dimensions(i.e.,theyhavelongrangeorder). Incontrast,inamorphousmaterials,theatoms
exhibitonlyshortrangeorder.Someceramicmaterials,likesilicondioxide(SiO 2),canexistin
either form. Acrystalline formofSiO 2 results whenthis material isslowlycooledfroma
temperature(T>TMP@1723C).Rapidcoolingfavorsnoncrystallineformationsincetimeisnot
allowedfororderedarrangementstoform.

Oxygen
Silicon

CrystallineSilicondioxide
(regularpattern)

AmorphousSilicondioxide
(randompattern)

Figure1:Comparisoninthephysicalstrucutureofbothcrystallineandamorphous
Silicondioxide
Thetypeofbonding(ionicorcovalent)andtheinternalstructure(crystallineoramorphous)
affects the properties ofceramic materials. The mechanical, electrical, thermal, and optical
propertiesofceramicswillbediscussedinthefollowingsections.

12

ThermalProperties:
The most important thermal properties of ceramic materials are heat capacity, thermal
expansioncoefficient,andthermalconductivity.Manyapplicationsofceramics,suchastheir
useasinsulatingmaterials,arerelatedtotheseproperties.
Thermalenergycanbeeitherstoredortransmittedbyasolid.Theabilityofamaterialtoabsorb
heatfromitssurroundingisitsheatcapacity.InsolidmaterialsatT>0K,atomsareconstantly
vibrating.Theatomicvibrationsarealsoaffectedbythevibrationsofadjacentatomsthrough
bonding.Hence,vibrationscanbetransmittedacrossthesolid.Thehigherthetemperature,the
higher the frequency of vibration and the shorter the wavelength of the associated elastic
deformation.
Thepotentialenergybetweentwobondedatomscanbeschematicallyrepresentedbyadiagram:
6
4
Potential
Energy

2
0
2
4
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
()
SeparationDistance(A)
Separation Distance

Figure2:

Graphdepictingthepotentialenergybetweentwobondedatoms

The distance at which there is minimum energy (potential well) represents what is usually
described as the bond length. A good analogy is a sphere attached to a spring, with the
equilibriumpositionofthespringcorrespondingtotheatomatthebondlength(potentialwell).
Whenthespringiseithercompressedorstretchedfromitsequilibriumposition,theforcepulling
itbacktotheequilibriumpositionisdirectlyproportionaltothedisplacement(Hooke'slaw).
Oncedisplaced,thefrequencyofoscillationisgreatestwhenthereisalargespringconstantand
lowmassball.Ceramicsgenerallyhavestrongbondsandlightatoms.Thus,theycanhavehigh

13

frequencyvibrationsoftheatomswithsmalldisturbancesinthecrystallattice.Theresultisthat
theytypicallyhavebothhighheatcapacitiesandhighmeltingtemperatures.
Astemperatureincreases,thevibrationalamplitudeofthebondsincreases.Theasymmetryof
the curve shows that the interatomic distance also increases with temperature, and this is
observedasthermalexpansion.Comparedtoothermaterials,ceramicswithstrongbondshave
potentialenergycurvesthataredeepandnarrowandcorrespondinglysmallthermalexpansion
coefficients.
Theconductionofheatthroughasolidinvolvesthetransferofenergybetweenvibratingatoms.
Extending the analogy, consider each sphere (atom) to be connected to its neighbors by a
networkofsprings(bonds).Thevibrationofeachatomaffectsthemotionofneighboringatoms,
andtheresultiselasticwavesthatpropagatethroughthesolid.Atlowtemperatures(uptoabout
400C),energytravelsthroughthematerialpredominantlyviaphonons,elasticwavesthattravel
atthespeedofsound.Phononsaretheresultofparticlevibrationswhichincreaseinfrequency
andamplitudeastemperatureincreases.
Phonons travel through the material until they are scattered, either through phononphonon
interactions* or at lattice imperfections. Phonon conductivity generally decreases with
increasingtemperatureincrystallinematerialsastheamountofscatteringincreases.Amorphous
ceramicswhichlacktheorderedlatticeundergoevengreaterscattering,andthereforearepoor
conductors. Thoseceramicmaterialsthatarecomposedofparticlesofsimilarsizeandmass
withsimplestructures(suchasdiamondorBeO)undergothesmallestamountofscatteringand
thereforehavethegreatestconductivity.
Athighertemperatures,photonconductivity(radiation)becomesthepredominantmechanismof
energytransfer.Thisisarapidsequenceofabsorptionsandemissionsofphotonsthattravelat
the speed of light. This mode of conduction is especially important in glass, transparent
crystallineceramics,andporousceramics. Inthesematerials,thermalconductivityincreases
withincreasedtemperature.
Althoughthethermalconductivityisaffectedbyfaultsordefectsinthecrystalstructure,the
insulating properties of ceramics essentially depend on microscopic imperfections. The
transmissionofeithertypeofwave(phononorphoton)isinterruptedbygrainboundariesand
pores, so that more porous materials are better insulators. The use of ceramic insulating
materialstolinekilnsandindustrialfurnacesareoneapplicationoftheinsulatingpropertiesof
ceramicmaterials.
Theelectronmechanismofheattransportisrelativelyunimportantinceramicsbecausechargeis
localized.Thismechanismisveryimportant,however,inmetalswhichhavelargenumbersof
free(delocalized)electrons.

14

*Phononphonon interactions are another consequence of the asymmetry in the interaction

potentialbetweenatoms.Whendifferentphononsoverlapatthelocationofaparticularatom,
thevibrationalamplitudessuperimpose.Intheasymmetricalpotentialwell,thecurvaturevaries
asafunctionofthedisplacement. Thismeansthatthespringconstantbywhichtheatomis
retainedalsochanges.Hencetheatomhasthetendencytovibratewithadifferentfrequency,
whichproducesadifferentphonon.

Table2:

Comparisonofthermalpropertiesofdifferentceramicmaterials.

Material

Melting
Temp.(oC)

Heat
Capacity
(J/kg.K)

Aluminum
metal

660

Copper
metal

Thermal
Conductiv
ity(W/m.K)

900

Coefficient
ofLinear
Expansion
1/oCx106
23.6

1063

386

16.5

398

Alumina

2050

775

8.8

30.1

Fusedsilica

1650

740

0.5

2.0

Sodalime
glass

700

840

9.0

1.7

Polyethylene 120

2100

60220

0.38

Polystyrene

1360

5085

0.13

6575

247

Oneofthemostinterestinghightemperatureapplicationsofceramicmaterialsistheiruseonthe
spaceshuttle.Almosttheentireexterioroftheshuttleiscoveredwithceramictilesmadefrom

15

highpurityamorphoussilicafibers.Thoseexposedtothehighesttemperatureshaveanadded
layerofhighemittanceglass.Thesetilescantoleratetemperaturesupto1480Cforalimited
amountoftime. Someofthehightemperaturesexperiencedbytheshuttleduringentryand
ascentareshowninFigure3.
955
315
650

1465

Temperaturesarein
Celsiusdegrees.
Tempsmarkedwith
an*signifyascent
temperatures.

*1175
*425

980

* 420
*405
Figure3:Diagramofspaceshuttle'sascentanddescenttemperatures
*430

Themeltingpointofaluminumis660C.Thetileskeepthetemperatureofthealuminumshell
oftheshuttleatorbelow175Cwhiletheexteriortemperaturescanexceed1400C.Thetiles
cooloffrapidly,sothatafterexposuretosuchhightemperaturestheyarecoolenoughtobeheld
inthebarehandinabout10seconds.Surprisingly,thethicknessoftheseceramictilesvaries
fromonly0.5inchesto3.5inches.

maximum
exposure
temperature

1480

Temp
(C)
660
175

mp

(Aluminum)

0.0

3.5
TileThickness (in)

Figure4:

Graphofinnertemperatureoftileversustilethickness.

16

The shuttle also uses ceramic applications in fabrics for gap fillers and thermal barriers,
reinforced carboncarbon composites for the nose cone and wing leading edges, and high
temperatureglasswindows.

17

18

19

20

IncidentLight

Air
Wateror
Glass

RefractedLight

22

22
2

21

22

23

23

Tensile
Strength
Stress

Brittlefracture

Stress
Breaking
Elastic Strength

Strain
(a)

Strain
(b)

24

34
3

Compressive

25

26

27

ElectricalProperties:
Theelectricalpropertiesofceramicmaterialsvarygreatly,withcharacteristicmeasuresspanning
overmanyordersofmagnitude(seeTable3).Ceramicsareprobablybestknownaselectrical
insulators.Someceramicinsulators(suchasBaTiO 3)canbepolarizedandusedascapacitors.
Other ceramics conduct electrons when a threshold energy is reached, and are thus called
semiconductors.In1986,anewclassofceramicswasdiscovered,thehighTcsuperconductors.
Thesematerialsconductelectricitywithessentiallyzeroresistance.Finally,ceramicsknownas
piezoelectricscangenerateanelectricalresponsetoamechanicalforceorviceversa.

Table3:
ElectricalResistivityofdifferentmaterials.
Resistivity(cm)
1.7x106
3x105
10
40
108
>1014
1018
<1022(belowTc)

Type
Material
Metallicconductors: Copper
CuO2
Semiconductors:
SiC
Germanium
Insulators:
Fireclaybrick
Si3N4
Polystyrene
Superconductors:
YBa2Cu3O7x

Anyonewhohasusedaportablecassetteplayer,personalcomputer,orotherelectronicdeviceis
takingadvantageofceramicdielectricmaterials.Adielectricmaterialisaninsulatorthatcanbe
polarizedatthemolecularlevel.Suchmaterialsarewidelyusedincapacitors,deviceswhichare
usedtostoreelectricalcharge.Thestructureofacapacitorisshowninthediagram.

charge+q
+++++
+++++
capacitor
plates

chargeq

external
battery

Thechargeofthecapacitorisstoredbetweenitstwoplates.Theamountofcharge(q)thatitcan
holddependsonitsvoltage(V)anditscapacitance(C).
q=CV

28

Thedielectricisinsertedbetweentheplatesofacapacitor,raisingthecapacitanceofthesystem
byafactorequaltoitsdielectricconstant,k.
q=(kC)V
Usingmaterialsthathavelargedielectricconstantsallowslargeamountsofchargetobestored
on extremely small capacitors. This is a significant contribution to the continuing
miniaturizationofelectronics(e.g.,laptopcomputers,portableCDplayers,cellularphones,even
hearingaids!).
The dielectric strength ofamaterialis itsability tocontinuouslyholdelectrons at ahigh
voltage.Whenacapacitorisfullycharged,thereisvirtuallynocurrentpassingthroughit.But
sometimesverystrongelectricfields(highvoltages)excitelargenumbersofelectronsfromthe
valencebandintotheconductionband.Whenthishappenscurrentflowsthroughthedielectric
andsomeofthestoredchargeislost. Thismaybeaccompaniedbypartialbreakdownofthe
materialbymelting,burning,and/orvaporization. The magneticfieldstrength necessaryto
produce breakdown of a material is its dielectric strength. Some ceramic materials have
extremelyhighdielectricstrengths.Forexample,electricalporcelaincanhandleupto300volts
forevery.001inches(mil)ofthematerial!
Table4:

Electricalpropertyconstantsofdifferentceramicmaterials.

Material
Air
Polystyrene
Glass(Pyrex)
Alumina
Porcelain
Titaniumdioxide

Dielectricconstant
at1MHz
1.00059
2.542.56
5.6
4.58.4
6.08.0
14110

Dielectricstrength
(kV/cm)
30
240
142
1663
16157
3983

Electrical current in solids is most often the result of the flow of electrons (electronic
conduction). In metals, mobile, conducting electrons are scattered by thermal vibrations
(phonons),andthisscatteringisobservedasresistance.Thus,inmetals,resistivityincreasesas
temperatureincreases.
Incontrast,valenceelectronsinceramicmaterialsareusuallynotintheconductionband,thus
mostceramicsareconsideredinsulators.However,conductivitycanbeincreasedbydopingthe
materialwithimpurities.Thermalenergywillalsopromoteelectronsintotheconductionband,
sothatinceramics,conductivityincreases(andresistivitydecreases)astemperatureincreases.
Althoughceramicswerehistoricallythoughtofasinsulatingmaterials,ceramicsuperconductors
werediscoveredin1986.Asuperconductorcantransmitelectricalcurrentwithnoresistanceor
power loss. For most materials, resistivity gradually decreases as temperature decreases.
Superconductors have a critical temperature, Tc, at which the resistivity drops sharply to
virtuallyzero.

29

nonsuperconductors
Electrical
Resistivity

superconductors
Tc

Temperature(K)

Puremetalsandmetalalloyswerethefirstknownsuperconductors.Allhadcriticaltemperatures
atorbelow30Kandrequiredcoolingwithliquidhelium. Thenewceramicsuperconductors
usuallycontain copperoxideplanessuchasYBa2Cu3O7 discoveredin1987withTc =93K.
Theyhavecriticaltemperaturesabovetheboilingpointofliquidnitrogen(77.4K),whichmakes
manypotentialapplicationsofsuperconductorsmuchmorepractical.Thisisduetothelower
costofliquidnitrogenandtheeasierdesignofcryogenicdevices.

Copper
Oxygen
Barium
Yttrium

Inadditiontotheircriticaltemperature,twootherparametersdefinetheregionwhereaceramic
materialissuperconducting:1)thecriticalcurrentand2)thecriticalmagneticfield.Aslongas
theconditionsarewithinthecriticalparametersoftemperature,current,andmagneticfield,the
materialbehavesasasuperconductor.Ifanyofthesevaluesisexceeded,superconductivityis
destroyed.
30

Applicationsofsuperconductorswhichrelyontheircurrentcarryingabilityincludeelectrical
powergeneration,storageanddistribution. SQUIDS(SuperconductingQuantumInterference
Devices) are electronic devices that use superconductors as sensitive detectors of
electromagnetic radiation. Possible applications in the field of medicine include the
developmentofadvancedMRI(MagneticResonanceImaging)unitsbasedonmagnetsmadeof
superconductingcoils.
Themagneticapplicationsofsuperconductorsarealsoofmajorimportance. Superconductors
areperfect diamagnets,meaningthattheywillrepelmagneticfields. Thisexclusionofan
appliedmagneticfieldiscalledtheMeissnereffectandisthebasisforthe proposeduseof
superconductorstomagneticallylevitatetrains.
Someceramicshavetheunusualpropertyofpiezoelectricity,orpressureelectricity.Theseare
partofaclassknownas"smart"materialswhichareoftenusedassensors.Inapiezoelectric
material,theapplicationofaforceorpressureonitssurfaceinducespolarizationandestablishes
anelectricfield,i.e.,itchangesamechanicalpressureintoanelectricalimpulse.Piezoelectric
materialsareusedtomaketransducers,whicharefoundinsuchcommondevicesasphonograph
pickups,depthfinders,microphones,andvarioustypesofsensors.
Inceramic materials,electric chargecanalsobetransportedbyions. This propertycanbe
tailored by means of the chemical composition, and is the basis for many commercial
applications.Theserangefromchemicalsensorstolargescaleelectricpowergenerators.One
ofthemostprominenttechnologiesisthatoffuelcells. Itisbasedontheabilityofcertain
ceramics to permit the passage of oxygen anions, while at the same time being electronic
insulators. Zirconia (ZrO2), stabilized with calcia (CaO), is an example of such a solid
electrolyte.
FuelcellswerefirstusedinspacecraftsuchastheApollocapsulesandthespaceshuttle. At
nightthefuelcellswereusedtogenerateelectricpower,bycombustinghydrogenandoxygen
fromgascylinders. Duringtheday,solarcellstookover,andtheexcesspowerwasusedto
purifyandreclaimoxygenfromexhaustgasandtheatmosphereexhaledbytheastronauts.The
lambdaprobeintheexhaustmanifoldofcarsworksonthesameprincipleandisusedtomonitor
engineefficiency.

31

CeramicProcessing:
Processingofceramicmaterialsdescribesthewayinwhichceramicobjects(e.g.,glasswindows,
turbochargerrotorblades,opticalfibers,capacitors)areproduced.
Processing begins with the raw materials needed to produce the finished components, and
includes many individual steps that differ significantly depending on the type of ceramic
material,crystallineversusglass.
ProcessingofCrystallineCeramics
RawMaterialSelection
Preparation
Consolidation
Sintering

GlassProcessing
RawMaterialSelection
Melting
Pouring
Annealing

Rawmaterialselectioninvolvesobtainingandpreparingtherightmaterialsforthefinalproduct.
Traditional ceramics use various forms of clay. Glass makers start with primarily silica.
Advanced ceramics use several different raw materials depending on the applications (i.e.,
propertiesneeded).
Material
Uses
Al2O3(aluminumoxide)
Sparkpluginsulatingbodies,substratesfor
microelectronicpackaging
MgO(magnesiumoxide)
electricalinsulators,refractorybrick
SiO2(Silicondioxide)cookware,opticalfibers
ZrO2(zirconiumoxide)
cubiczirconia,oxygensensors
SiC(siliconcarbide)
kilnparts,heatingelements,abrasives
Si3N4(siliconnitride)
turbochargerrotors,pistonvalves
Forcrystallineceramics,thecharacteristicsoftherawmaterials(powders)suchastheirparticle
sizeandpurityareveryimportantastheyaffectthestructure(e.g.,grainsize)andproperties
(e.g.,strength)ofthefinalcomponent.Sincestrengthincreaseswithdecreasinggrainsize,most
startingpowdersaremilled(orground)toproduceafinepowder(diameter<1m).Sincedry
powders are difficult to shape, processing additives like water, polymers, etc. are added to
improvetheirplasticity.
Consolidationinvolvesformingtheceramicmixtureintothespecifiedshape.Therearemany
techniquesavailableforthisstep:

32

injection
liquid

Rubbermoldpestle

powder

powder

powder

Extrusionmolding

Injectionmolding

P
slurry

powder

product
plaster
Slipcasting

Diepressing

Figure11:

Ceramicprocessingaides.

Sinteringisthefinalstepintheprocess.Sinteringathightemperatures(800to1800C)causes
densification that gives the ceramic product its strength and other properties. During this
process,theindividualceramicparticlescoalescetoformacontinuoussolidnetworkandpores
areeliminated. Typically,the mictrostructure ofthesinteredproductcontainsdensegrains,
whereanindividualgrainiscomposedofmanystartingparticles.

sintering

forming
Rawpowder
Figure12:

Formedproduct

Sinteredproduct

Microstructureofraw,formed,andsinteredceramicproducts

Glassprocessingisdifferentfromcrystallineprocessing.Oneoftheconsiderationsthatmustbe
examinedisthesolidifyingbehaviorofglass. Glassesaremostcommonlymadebyrapidly
quenchingamelt.Thismeansthattheelementsmakinguptheglassmaterialareunabletomove

33

intopositionsthatallowthemtoformthecrystallineregularity. Theresult isthattheglass

structureisdisorderedoramorphous.
Oneofthemostnotablecharacteristicsofglassesisthewaytheychangebetweensolidand
liquid states. Unlike crystals, which transform abruptly at a precise temperature (i.e., their
meltingpoint)glassesundergoagradualtransition.Betweenthemeltingtemperature(T m)ofa
substanceandthesocalled glasstransitiontemperature(Tg),thesubstanceisconsidereda
supercooledliquid.WhenglassisworkedbetweenTgandTm,onecanachievevirtuallyany
shape.Theglassblowingtechniqueisafascinatingdemonstrationoftheincredibleabilityto
deformaglass.

specific
volume

Figure13:

Glass

Super
Cooled
liquid

Liquid

IntheareabetweenTg
andTm,thecrystalline
materialremainssolid.
Theamorphous(glass)
materialhowever,
shrinkage
passesthroughaphase
dueto
knownasa
freezing
supercooledliquid.
Thisiswhentheglass
crystalline canbeeasilydeformed
solid iftheappliedstresses
aresufficientlyhigh.
Tm

Tg
temperature
SpecificVolumevs.Temperaturegraphforatypicalceramicmaterial

Glassprocessingdoesnotrequireanoptimumsizeparticle(althoughsmallerpiecesmeltfaster).
Theselectionsofglassrawmaterialsandchemicaladditives(which,forexample,canalterthe
coloroftheglass)areheatedup(7001600C),meltedandfinallypouredontoorintoaquick
coolformorplate.Therearefourdifferentformingtechniquesusedtofabricateglass.
Technique
Pressing
Blowing
Drawing
Fiberforming

Application
Tableware
Jars
Windows
Fiberoptics

Duringtheglassformation,theremaybestressesthathavebeenintroducedbyrapidcoolingor
special treatments that the glass needs (such as layering or strengthening). Additional heat
treatmentisneededtohealtheglass.Annealing,inwhichtheglassisheatedtotheannealing
point (atemperaturejustbelowthe softeningpoint wheretheviscosityisapproximately108
Poise)andthenslowlycooledtoroomtemperature,isonesuchprocess. Temperingisalsoa
followupheattreatmentinglassprocessinginwhichtheglassisreheatedandcooledinoilora
34

jetofairsothattheinternalandexternalpartshavedifferentproperties.Thetemperingreduces
thetendencyofglasstofail.Temperedglasscanthenbeusedinconditionspronetostresseslike
carwindows.

35

36

37

References
Baker,W. et al., Synthetic Materials: Applications in Biology/Chemistry, Center for
OccupationalResearchandDevelopment,Waco,TX(1993).
Buchanan,R.(editor),"ElectronicCeramics,"CeramicBulletin,63:4(1984)pp.567594.
Callister,W.D.,MaterialsScienceandEngineering,anIntroduction,JohnWileyand
NY(1994).

Sons,

Chandler,M.,CeramicsintheModernWorld,DoubleDay&Co.Inc.,GardenCity,NY
(1967).
Ellis,A.B.etal.,TeachingGeneralChemistry:AMaterials ScienceCompanion,American
ChemicalSociety,Washington,D.C.(1993).
Evans, J. & DeJonghe, L.C,The Production of Inorganic Materials, Macmillan Publishing
Company,NY(1991).
Halliday,D.&Resnick,R.,Physics,JohnWileyandSons,NY(1978).
Hench,L.,"Bioceramics:fromConcepttoClinic,"AmericanCeramicSocietyBulletin, 72:4
(April1993)pp.9398.
Hlavac,J.,TechnologyofGlassandCeramics,ElsevierScientificPress,Oxford(1983).
Holscher,H.H.,"HollowandSpecialtyGlass:BackgroundandChallenge,"Owens
Illinois
Bulletin,reprintedfromTheGlassIndustry,Vol.46,GlassPublishing
Co.,NY(1965).
Hove,J.E.andRiley,W.C.,ModernCeramics,JohnWileyandSons,NY(1965).
Ichinose,Noboru,IntroductiontoFineCeramics,JohnWileyandSons,NY(1987).
Kendall,K.,"CeramicsinFuelCells,"CeramicBulletin,70:7(1991)pp.11591160.
Ketron,L.A.,"FiberOptics:TheUltimateCommunicationsMedia,"CeramicBulletin, 66:11
(1987)pp.15711578.
Kingery,W.D.,Bowen,H.K.,Uhlmann,D.R.,IntroductiontoCeramics,JohnWiley
Sons,NY(1976).

and

Kingery, W. D., The Changing Roles of Ceramics in Society, American Ceramic Society,
Westerville,OH(1990).
38

Korb, L. J., et al., "The Shuttle Orbiter Thermal Protection System," Bulletin American
CeramicSociety,60:11(1981)pp.11881193.
Lewis, J., "Superconductivity: Conventional vs. High Tc Superconductors," unpublished
UniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaign,MASTworkshop.
Mitchell,Lane,Ceramics:StoneAgetoSpaceAge,McGrawHill,Inc.,NY(1963).
Musicant, Solomon, What Every Engineer Should Know about Ceramics, Marcel Dekker,
Inc.,NY(1991).
Norton,F.H.,ElementsofCeramics,AddisonWesley,Cambridge,MA(1952).
Orna,M.V.,Schreck,J.O.,&Heikkinen,H.,ChemSource.Vol.2,ChemSource,Inc.
Rochelle,NY(1994).

New

Reed,James.,PrinciplesofCeramicProcessing,JohnWileyandSons,NY(1988).
Rhodes,D.,ClayandGlazesforthePotter,ClintonBookCo.,Radnor,PA(1974).
Richerson,D.W.,ModernCeramicEngineering,MarcelDekker,Inc.,NY(1982).
Scholes,S.R.,ModernGlassPractice,IndustrialPublications,NY(1952).
Schwartz,M.M.(editor),EngineeringApplicationsofCeramicMaterials,American
SocietyforMetals,MetalsPark,OH(1985).
Sheppard,L.M.,"AutomotivePerformanceAccelerateswithCeramics,"Ceramic
Bulletin,69:6(1990)pp.10111021.
Sheppard, L. M., "Automotive Sensors Improve Driving Performance," Ceramic Bulletin,
71:6(1992)pp.905912.
Smith,W.F.,FoundationsofMaterialScienceandEngineering,McGrawHill,Inc.
(1993).
Tipler,P.,Physics,WorthPublishers,Inc.(1982).
Viechnicki,D.J.,Slavin,M.J.,&Kliman,M.I.,"DevelopmentandCurrentStatusof
ArmorCeramics,"CeramicBulletin,70:6(1991)pp.10351039.
Vincenzini,P.,FundamentalsofCeramicEngineering,ElsevierAppliedScience,NY

(1991).

39

Weast,R.C.(editor),CRCHandbookofChemistryandPhysics,CRCPress,Inc.Boca Raton,
FL(1985).
WellockandDeckman,CeramicBulletin,Vol.71,No.1.(1992).

Resources
ALCOA:18006438771
AmericanCeramicSociety
735CeramicPlace
Westerville,OH430818720
6148904700

40

MaterialsandEquipmentGrid
Materials
PlasterofParis
ClaySlip
Clay
BeamForms
Massbalance
Grad.Cylinder
AcidSolution
BasicSolution
pHIndicator
Kiln
3Pt.apparatus
Candle
RoofingNails
Burner
Borax
Nichromewire
SoftGlassTubing
GlassCutter
Pyrexrodortubing
ohmmeter
2Alligatorclips
Ringstand
GlassRod
FlashLight
RubberStopper
LE=Lab
equipment

ClayLabs
AS
AS
AS
HIS
LE

GlassLabs

Demonstrations

LE
LE
LE
LE
LEandO
LEandO
LE
HIS
LE

O=Other
AS=Artsupply
store

LE
LE
LE
LE
LE
LEorE
LEorH
LE
LE
O
LE
H=Hardware
E=Electronicstore

41

Experiment1
ReadyBeamFire
ClayLabs
Objective:
Tocomparemechanicalandthermalpropertiesoffiredandunfiredbeamsmadefromartclay
andclaysuspensions(slip).
ReviewofScientificPrinciples:
Claywasthefirstceramicmaterialusedbyhumans,anditcontinuestobeusefulinmodern
times. Clays used for pottery are composed mainly of hydrated silica (SiO 2) and alumina
(Al2O3).Smallamountsofotherminerals(Fe2O3,MgO,etc.)aretypicallypresent.
Clay is somewhat unique in its ability to be plastically formed (shaped) when wet. This
plasticitydependsontheamountofwater,thesizeandshapeoftheparticles,ioniccontent,and
temperature.
Clayslipismadebymixingclaywithwatertomakeamixturethatcanbepouredintoamold.
Thismethod,called slipcasting,isusedtomakethin,detailedproducts. PlasterofParisis
commonlyusedtomakethemoldsbecauseitisinexpensive,easytoworkwith,andhighly
porous(easilyabsorbingwaterfromthecastslip).
Clayobjectsmustbeallowedtodrybeforefiringtoeliminatemostoftheporewater. The
remainingporewateriseliminatedduringtheinitialstageoffiringataround100C.
Firingandsinteringchangethepropertiesoftheobjectsignificantly.Atabout350Cthewater
ofhydrationisdrivenoff. Asthetemperatureincreasesintothesinteringstage,theporosity
changesfromanopentoclosednetwork;andtheobjectshrinksasporosityiseliminated.This
leadstoincreaseddensityandimprovedmechanicalstrength.Thefiredproductishard,dense,
moredurable,impermeabletoliquids,andbrittle. Thisactivityinvestigatestherelationships
betweenmechanicalstrength,density(porosity),andthermalconductivityofunfiredandfired
clayobjects.
Applications:
Theslipcastingmethodisusedtomakeavarietyofceramicobjects(e.g.,claybaseddishes,
kitchenandbathfixtures,aswellassiliconnitride(Si 3N4)turbochargerrotorblades). Itis
useful for threedimensional complex objects with uniform wall thicknesses less than two
centimeters.
42

Time:
Thislabtakesseveraldays(6)togofrompreparationtotesting.
PartA(makemolds):
1/2hourfirstday
PartB(makebeamsandfire):
1/2hourseconddaytomakeasetofbeamsofeach
type,3daysforclaysliptoairdrybeforefiring

Firingtimevaries
PartC(Testbeams):
Testingfourbeamsrequiresabout20minutesfor
eachtest

43

MaterialsandSupplies:
PartA
PlasterofParis
form(container)forplaster
blockformforbeam
spoon
wastebucket
spoon
knife
Allparts:safetyglasses
and
apron

PartB
softclay
clayslip
wastebucket
ruler
balance
kiln

PartC
3pointtestapparatus
2beams(greenandfired)
candle
ironring
nails(4)
ringstand
gasburner
weights

GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
PlasterofParis,clay,andclayslipareverysafetouse.
Donotwashanyofthesedownthesink!Theycansolidifyandclogthesink.Use
awash/wastebucketthatcanbedumpedoutside.
Beawareofthehightemperatureofthekilnandthepossibilityofburnsfrom
source.

that

Procedure:
PartA:Preparation
1.MixPlasterofParisandwaterinthespecifiedcontainer,makingenoughto
partiallyfilltheformtoadepthof35cmwithamixturethathastheconsistency
ofpuddingoryogurt.SmoothoutthetopsurfaceofthePlasterofParismixture
bytappingthemixtureonthetable.Workquickly.Youhavelessthanfive
minutesafteraddingthewaterbeforesolidificationsetsin.
2.Pushtheblockformdownintotheplastertoadepthofabout1cm.Holdthe
blockinplaceforafewminutesuntiltheplasterbeginstoharden.(Notethe
changeintemperatureastheplasterhardens.)
3.Aftertheplasterhasset,removetheblockformfromthemoldandletdry
overnight.

44

PartB:MakingBeams

MoldDiagram

4.Fromtheartclay,makeabeamidenticalinsizetotheonethatwillbemadein
theplasterofparismold.
5.Measurethebeamsmass,length,width,andthickness.Record.
6.Pourclayslipintothemoldtoadepthof1cm.Letstanduntilitishardenough
toremovefromthemold.
7.Removethebeamfromthemold.Measureitsmass,length,width,and
thickness.Record.Calculatethebeamsdensity.
8.Allowthebeamstodryforatleastthreedaysbeforefiring.Beforethefiringis
done,measurethemassanddimensionsofthebeam.Calculatethedensityof
thebeam.
willexplainhowthefiringwillbedone.
PartC.TestingOfBeams
10.Beforetesting,measurethemassanddimensionsofeachbeam.Calculatethe
10.Beforetesting,measurethemassanddimensionsofeachbeam.Calculatethe
densityofthebeam.
11. Totestforthethermalpropertiesofyourbeam, usealitcandletodripwaxon
thebeam.Attachfournailsequallydistributedalongthesideofthebeam.Set
thebeamonaringstand.Heatoneendofabeamwithagasburner.Time
howfasttheheattravelsdownthebeambywatchingtheobjectsfallwhenthe
heatreachesthem.Recordthetimes.
12.Totestmechanicalproperties,placethebeamtobetestedacrossthesupports.
Attachanyequipmentneededforthetestingapparatus.
13.Attachacontainerandaddmassuntilthebeamgivesway.
14.Measuretheaddedweight.Calculatetheforcethatbrokethebeam.

45

15.Cleanupasdirectedbyinstructor.

46

DataandAnalysis:
Measurement

Greenclay
beam

Firedclaybeam Greenslip
beam

Firedslipbeam

dateformed
datefired
mass1
mass2
mass3
dimension1
dimension2
dimension3
volume
density1
density2
density3
times
nail1
nail2
nail3
nail4
addedmass
forceapplied

Questions:
1.Whatisaccomplishedbyfiringthatisnotaccomplishedbysimpledrying?

2.Whatmighthappenifthebeamwerefiredbeforeitdried?
3.Howisstrengthdifferentfromhardness?

47

4.Summarizethedifferencesindensity,mechanicalandthermalpropertiesbetween
thefiredandunfiredbeamsasobservedinthislab.
5.Palette,theartteacher,firesanassortmentofceramics.Whatmighthappenifthe
firingtemperaturewastoolow?Whatifitwastoohigh?

48

Teacher'sGuidetoExperiment#1
ClayLabs
Consulttheartteacherorceramicscraftshopforfiringtimes.
MaterialsandSupplies:
PlasterofParismaybepurchasedat somehardwarestores. Softclay(suchasis
used on a potter's wheel) is available in art supply stores. Do not use the plastic,
nonbakingtypeofclay. Clayslipisavailablefromceramiccraftshops. Bothclay
andclayslipcanbepurchasedfromAmericanArtClayCo.,4717W.Sixteenth St.,
Indianapolis,IN462092292.
Itisrecommendedthatlabtablesbecoveredwithplasticornewspapertosimplify
cleanup.
A threepoint apparatus is designed to support the beams at the ends while
applyingaforceinthemiddle.Thisapparatuscanbeasimpleas2desksto
support
thebeamsandaropeloopinthemiddleonwhichtohangweightsora
buckettohold
weight.
Asecondclassleversystemcouldalsobesetup.
Procedure:
ThisprocedureiswrittenforeachstudentgrouptoproduceonePlasterofParis mold,
oneformedclaybeam,andonepouredclayslipbeam.Ifdonethisway, two groups
willhavetoworktogetherinPartCwithonesetofbeamshavingbeen
fired and the
othersetleftgreen.Itisimportantthatallbeamsbenearlythesame size.Ifvariationsare
desired,adjusttimeandquantitiesofmaterialsused.
A1 PlasterofParismaybemixedinmoldformorinaseparatecontainerandthen poured
intothemold.
A2 TheblockcouldberemovedshortlyafterthePlasterofParisbeginstoset,orit could
beleftintheformuntilthenextday.
Apieceof2"x2"or2"x4"lumberor1"x2"firingstripsoraplasticformcanbe
usedasablockform. Thesecouldbemarkedwithalineat1cmtogetconsistency
indepthamongthestudentgroups.Ifotherobjectsareusedtopressintothe
plaster,
theymayneedalightcoatingofoiltopreventthemfromstickingtothe
plaster.
B4: Thereareacoupleofwaysthatthiscanbedone.Oneistopressclayintothe mold,
smooth,andpulloutabeam.Youmayhavetorunaknifearoundtheedge tohelpremove
49

thebeam.Ortheblockformcouldbeusedasatemplatetocuta
beamfromaslabcut
offthestockclay(trytocutoffslabstojusttheright thickness) or rolled to the right
thickness.Testtubesorgraduatedcylindersmake nicerollingpins.
B6: Thismightbeabout30minutesormore.Thepouredbeamcouldalsobeleftin the
molduntilthenextday.
B7: Studentsareinstructedtofindthedensity throughmassandlinear measurements
ofthebeamswhentheyarefirstmade,afterairdrying,andafterfiring. Additional
measurementscouldbeaddedtogetamoredetailedpictureofthechangesthat occur
duringtheseprocesses.
B9: Ifalargeceramickilnisused,itmaytake20minutestoloadtheclassitemsinto
thekilnandseveralhourstobringthekilnuptotemperatureandthenovernightfor
ittocoolbackdown.Ifasmallenamelingkilnisused,theprocessmaytakeonly
anhourorso.
Ithelpsifthebeamsareprewarmedanddriedatabout200 oFinaregularovenfor
2to4hoursbeforefiring.
Thebeamstobefiredaretobedried,eitherforseveraldaysinawarmdryplaceor
severalhoursinadryingovenat100oC.
Puttheobjectinakilnandtheraisethetemperatureslowlyuntilthemaximum
temperaturecalledforisreachedandheldforseveralhours.
Turn the kiln off and allow it to cool before opening. If a ceramic kiln is not
available,itispossibletouseanelectrichotplatewithan8inchclayflowerpot lined
withaluminumfoilandinvertedontheplate.Thissmallkilnwillgivea temperature
around1300oF.Thisreallyworks!
C12: Ifthe2ndclassleversystemisbeingused,thenmeasurethebasicdownforceby
hookingaspringbalancetotheendoftheleverarm. Ifabucketonaropeisbeing
used, make sure they are the same for each test group or record the different
masses.
C14:Ifasecondclassleverwasused,addthebasicforceoftheleverarmandthisis your
effortforce.MultiplethisforcebytheIMA(IdealMechanicalAdvantage)of
the machine.
Youwillhavetheforcethatwasneededtobreakthebeam.

You may want to do a 3point test or thermal lab on other materials like glass
(Pyrex),plastic,andmetalsforamaterialscomparison.

AnswerstoQuestions:
50

1.Firingfusestheparticlestogether.
2.Thewaterthatwasstillintheporesmightcausethebeamtobreak.
3.Strengthistheabilitytoresistdeformation,hardnessistheabilitytoresist
abrasion.
4.Answerswillvary.Basicallyunfiredbeamsaremoredense,lessthermally
conductive,andweakerthanfiredbeams.
5.TooLowobjectswouldcrumble.Toohighobjectswouldbemelteddown
likeglass.

51

SampleDataandAnalysis:
Measurement

Greenclay
beam

Firedclaybeam Greenslip
beam

Firedslipbeam

dateformed
datefired
mass1
mass2
mass3

85.7g
57.2g
51.1g

dimension1
dimension2
dimension3
volume

9.5cm
3.5cm
1cm
33.25cm3

density1
density2
density3

2.58g/cm3
1.72g/cm3
1.54g/cm3

42.8g

78.7g
63.4g
51.3g

44.7g

9.5cm
3.5cm
1cm
33.25cm3

9.5cm
3.5cm
1cm
33.25cm3

9.5cm
3.5cm
1cm
33.25cm3

1.29g/cm3

2.37g/cm3
1.91g/cm3
1.54g/cm3

1.34g/cm3

times
nail1
nail2
nail3
nail4
addedmass
forceapplied

2min.
3.5min.
5min.
9min.
3.8kg
37.24N

5.5kg
53.9N

1min.
2min.
3min.
5.5min.
3.2kg
31.6N

5.7kg
55.86N

52

Experiment2(Demonstration)Flocculation
InSchoolSuspensions
Flocculationinceramics
Objective:
The objective of this demonstration is to show the effect the pH on the flocculation of
suspensions.
ReviewofScientificPrinciples:
Theprocessofformingaceramicobjectusuallyinvolvesfillingaform(mold)withaceramic
suspension (such as clay). The suspension will gradually settle out due to gravity. It is
importantinceramicprocessingtohavetheparticlessettleoutindividuallytoachievetheclosest
packingoftheparticlesbecausethestrengthofaceramicispartiallydeterminedbyitsdensity.

Therateofsettlingdependsonthesizeoftheparticle(bigparticlesorparticleclusterssettle
faster)andthechargethatmaybeontheparticlesinsolution.Thechargeoneachparticlemay
repeltheotherparticlesandkeepthematerialinsuspension,oritmaycausetheparticlestobe
attractedtoeachotherandformclusters(orFlocs)whichsettlefaster.

ByadjustingthepHofthesolution,ceramicprocessorscancontrolthedegreeofflocculation
(settling out) of the ceramic particles and thus control the properties of the product. The
chemicalsthatcontrolflocculationarecalleddeflocculatingagents.
ThisdemonstrationshowstheeffectofpHontheflocculationofaclaysuspension.
Applications:
Understandinghowchemistryinfluencessuspensionstructureisimportantinnumerousfields,
suchasceramics,paintindustry,evenfoodproducts.

Time:
Fifteenminutestosetupandrun.
MaterialsandSupplies:
Slip
distilledwater
53

acidic,neutralandbasicsolutions
100ml.graduatedcylinders(3)
GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
Theacidicandbasicsolutionsarecorrosiveandshouldbehandledwithcare. Use
adumpbucketforceramicmaterials.

54

Procedure:

1.Measureoutthesliptoequala10%volumeofthegraduatedcylinder.
2.FilleachgraduatedcylinderwithadifferentpHsolution.
3. Shakewell. Takemeasurements ofvolumeofsettled material overaperiodof

time.

55

Experiment3
Wowyoucanseerightthroughme!!!
GlassLabs
Objectives:
Theobjectivesofthislabaretoformalowtemperatureglass,workwithglassblowingand
exploretheconductivenatureofglass.
ReviewofScientificPrinciples:
Glassesareamorphous ceramic materials. Theamorphous (orglassy)state ofmatter occurs
whenasubstancehasnotbeengivensufficienttimetocrystallize.Glassesaremostcommonly
madebyrapidlyquenchingamelt.Thismeansthattheatomsmakinguptheglassmaterialare
unabletomoveintopositionswhichallowthemtoformthecrystallineregularity.Thismaybe
attributedtothefactthat eachatomisstronglybondedtoadjacentatomswhileintheliquid
state,andthatthecrystallinestructuresareverycomplex.Theendresultofallthesefactorsis
thattheglassstructureisdisorderedandthereforeamorphous.
Oneofthemostnotablecharacteristicsofglassesisthewaytheychangebetweensolidand
liquid states. Unlike crystals, which transform abruptly at a precise temperature (i.e., their
meltingpoint)glassesundergoagradualtransition.Betweenthemeltingtemperature(T m)ofa
substance and the socalled glass transition temperature (T g), the substance is considered a
supercooledliquid. WhenglassisworkedbetweenT g andTm,onecanachievevirtuallyany
shape.Theglassblowingtechniqueisafascinatingdemonstrationoftheincredibleabilityof
glasstodeform.

specific
volume

Glass

Super
Cooled
liquid

Liquid

IntheareabetweenTg
andTm,thecrystalline
materialremainssolid.
Theamorphous(glass)
materialhowever,
shrinkage
passesthroughaphase
dueto
knownasa
freezing
supercooledliquid.
Thisiswhentheglass
crystalline canbeeasilydeformed
solid iftheappliedstresses
aresufficientlyhigh.
Tm

Tg
temperature
Achiefadvantageoftheglassformingprocessisthattheitemremainsonesinglepiecewith
continuousmolecularstructureandwithoutinternalsurfaces. Thatiswhyopticalfibersare
drawnfromglass.Noscatteringoflightatgrainboundariesoccurs.Certainglasseshavenon
56

linearopticalpropertiesthatcanbeusedforopticalswitchesmakingthedevelopmentofoptical
computersmorelikely.
Properlydopedwithpolyvalenttransitionmetals,glassesbecomesemiconducting. But,their
semiconductingpropertiescanbealteredbyelectricalfields,makingtheseglassessuitablefor
informationstoragedevices.Glassesofthiskindareusedforthecoatingsontheprintingdrums
inlaserprintersorXeroxcopiers.
Someglassesexhibitveryhighionicconductivity,whichmakesthemusefulaselectrolytesin
batteriesorsensors.Onecommercialexamplecanbefoundineverychemistrylaboratory,the
pH meter. While crystalline ceramics, for the most part, have well defined chemical
compositions, thecompositionsofglassescanbewidelyvaried.Glassismadeoutofsilica
whichhasaveryhighmeltingpoint.Intheattempttolowerthemeltingtemperature,sodaash(a
mixtureofNa2O,sodiumoxide,andNa2CO3, sodiumcarbonate),andlimestone(CaCO3)are
addedasfluxes.Otherglassfluxesmightincludeleadoxidesorleadcarbonates(leadedglassor
flintglass)orborax/boraxoxides(borosilicateglass).
BoraxisanaturallyoccurringmineralthatischemicallyhydratedsodiumborateorNa2B4O7.
10H2O.Thematerialisawhitepowderthatissoldinsupermarketsasalaundryaid.Boraxis
alsousedasafluxinworkingsomemetalsbecauseitcoatsandcleansthemetalandallows
solderingtotakeplace. WhenBoraxisheated,thewaterofhydrationisdrivenoffandthe
sodium,boronandoxygenformanoncrystallineglass.Thisglassisclearbutwilltakeacolor
fromthevariousmetaloxidessuchascobaltornickel. ThustheBoraxbeadscanbeusedto
identifysomemetalionsaswellasdemonstratematerialsusedtomakecoloredglass. Borax
Glassisalsounstableinthatittendstoabsorbmoisturefromtheairandrevertbacktoacloudy
hydratedmaterial.
Thisactivitydemonstratestheformationofaboraxbasedglass,thetechniqueofglassblowing,
andtheelectricalconductionpropertiesofglass.
Time:
PartA:2050minutes
PartB:40minutes
PartC:30minutes
MaterialsandSupplies:

PartA:
3inchpieceofnichromewire

asmallquantityofborax(0.5g){sodiumtetraborate}

Gasburner
PartB:
limeorleadglasstubing(7to10mmindiameterabout20to25cmlong)

23cmrubbertubetofitglasstubing

gasburner
57

PartC:

glassfile
pieceoflimeglassrodortubing(5to10mmdiameter)
pieceofPyrex(510mmdiameter)
ohmmeter
2alligatorclips
hookupwire
candle
ringstand
ironring
gasburner

GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
Nichromeisnotagoodconductorsoyoucanholdoneendofa3inchwirebut
remember,theotherendisat500700C.
Remember,youwillbeusingagasburner.Performthislabusingallfire
cautions.

Hotglassandcoldglasslookthesame.Becarefultocheckforhotglass.
Theglassbeadwilldripoffiftoolargeanditwillbehot.
Thecoolglasscouldbreakfromthewirewithverysharpedges.
Procedure:
PartA:BoraxGlass
1.Obtainthenichromewireandmakealoopwithadiameterofabout0.5cmat
oneend.
2.HeattheloopovertheBunsenburneruntilthewireisredhot.
3.DipthehotloopintotheBoraxpowder.
4.HoldtheloopwiththepowderstucktoitintheflameuntiltheBoraxbecomesa
clear,glassydrop.(Approximatetimewillvarydependingonthetemperature
oftheflameandtheamountofBoraxonthewire.).AddextraBoraxif

necessarybyredippingthewireintotheBorax.
5.WiththeBoraxglassstillinthewire,allowittocool.Afterithascooled,
examineit.

58

6.Checkthesolubilityofyourglassbyleavingit,stillinthewire,insomewater
overnight.
PartB:GlassBlowing
BudVaseProcedure:
1.Preheattheglasstubingendbypassingitbackandforthintheflame.
2.Heattheenduntilitmeltsclosed.Keeprotatingthetubeforevenheatingandto

keeptheglassfromdrooping.
3.Whentheendisveryhotandcompletelyclosed,blowgentlyintothetube,

watchingtheendatalltimes.Whenthebubbleisaboutthreetimesthediameter
ofthetubing,stopblowing.Coolthetubewiththebubble.
4.Whencool,cutthetubingabout2inchesfromthebubbleandfirepolishthe
openend.Donotmeltclose.Allowtheobjecttocool.*

*Younowhaveabudvasethatwillholdonerosebudorsomeotherspecialflowerfroma
specialdate.Someribbonandahotgluegunwilldressitup.HaveFunbutPlaySafe.
PartC:ElectricalConductivity
1.Usingthesmokingflamefromacandle,deposittworingsofcarbonarounda
coolglassrodTheringsshouldbeaboutthreecentimetersapart.
2.Clampanalligatorcliptoeachofthecarbonrings.
3.Attachtheotherendoftheleadsfromthealligatorcliptotheohmmeter
4.Clamptheglassrodsothatitcanbeheated.
5.Heattheglassrodandrecordtheelectricalresistanceeverytenseconds.
6.Continuetoheatuntiltheglasssoftens,continuetorecordresistance
7.Onasheetofgraphpaper,plotresistanceontheverticalaxisandtimeonthe
horizontalaxis.
DataandAnalysis:
TIME
59

Start
10Seconds
20Seconds
30Seconds
40Seconds
50Seconds
60Seconds
70Seconds
80Seconds
90Seconds

Questions:
PartA:
1.Howisthisglasslikewindowglass?Howisitdifferent?

2.Youarecommissionedtomakeamosaicpictureofarainbowusingboraxglass.
Whatmetalionswouldyouuseforthecolors?

PartB:
1.WhydoprofessionalglassblowerslikePyrexglass?
2.Whydoesglassjustgetsoftandnotmeltsuddenlyandbecomealiquid?
PartC:
1.Whydodifferenttypesofglassshowdifferentdegreesofelectricalconductivity?
2.Ifglasswillconductelectricityundercertainconditions,doyouthinkitmight
conductatroomtemperatureifthevoltageishighenough?
3.Doyouthinkthedistancebetweenthealligatorclipsontheglassrodhasany
effectontheresistance?Whyorwhynot?
4.Whatdoesthisexperimenttellyouabouttheneedtocontroltemperaturesin
electronicdeviceslikecomputers?

60

Teacher'sGuidetoExperiment#3
GlassLabs
Materials:
Boraxobtainedfromgrocerystoresmaynotworkforthislabassomecontain
detergentsorsoaps).
GeneralSafetyGuidelines:

Useawirethatisapoorconductorofheatandnonreactiveatelevated
Handlescouldbeaddedtothenichromewire.

temperatures.

Procedure:
A6: Iftheglasscomesoutclearenough,youmaysuggestthattheytrytousethem likea
magnifyingglass.
Ifyouwantto,havethemtryaBoraxBeadTest,eithernewwireswillhavetobe
handedoutorhavethemmakeanewloopontheotherendofthewire.}
ExtensiontoPartB:
Thisisaprocedureformakingaglassswan.Withlotsofpatienceandpractice,youoryour
studentsmightwanttotrythis.
SwanProcedure:
1.Placerubbertubingononeendoftheglasstubing.
2.Lightandadjustburnerforahotflame.
3.Preheatthecenteroftheglasstubeandthenheatstronglywhilerotatingthe
tube.

4.Astheglasssoftens,gentlypushthetubingtogetherjustalittle.(Thisallows
extraglassforastrongbubble.)
5.Pinchtherubbertubeandblowintotheglassenduntilthereisabubble
abouttwicethesizeofthetubingdiameter.

6.Whiletheglassisstillhot,makethebubbleshapenotroundbypushingboth
endsofthetubingatanangle,about140degreesrelativetoeachother.
61

7.Heateithertubenearthebubble(body),whensoftpushthetubebackoverthe
bubble(body)tomaketheneckoftheswan.DONOTHEATTHEBUBBLE
(BODY).
8.Leaveasectionofthetube,acentimeterorso,attheendofthenecktoformthe
headandheatthetubeatthispoint.(Thiswillmakethebeak.)
9.Whentheglassissoftpullitandmeltitoff.
10.Gentlyheatthebottomofthebubble(body)withthesideoftheflame.(This
partofthebubblewillthenbecomeflat.)
11.Holdingtheglassbythebeakandtheotherendofthetube,preheatthetail
area.(Thetubeoppositefromthebeak.)DONOTHEATTHEBUBBLE
(BODY).

12.Whentheglassissoft,pullupwardandgentlytwisttoformthetail.
13.Meltoffexcessglasstubeandallowtocool.
14.HOWDOYOUMAKEAGOODONE?THESAMEWAYYOUGETTO

CARNEGIEHALL....PRACTICE,PRACTICE,PRACTICE.
PartCSuggestions:

YoumighthavetosealapieceofNichromewireintoeachendofa3cmpieceof
glasstubingandusethis.

YoumaywantdifferentteamstotrydifferentmaterialssuchasPyrexglass,lime
glass,leadedglassandordifferentdiametersofthesamematerial.Howabout other
ceramicmaterials?
Youmayalsowantthemtocontinuerecordingevery10secondswhiletheglass cools
andincludethatdataintheirgraph.
Electricalresistanceshouldgofrommorethan20megaohmsatroomtemperature
downtolessthanonemegaohmat700C.
SampleDataandAnalysis:PyrexTube
Time
Start
10seconds

ElectricalResistance
20M
15.72M
62

20seconds
30seconds
40seconds
50seconds
60seconds
70seconds
heatremoved
80seconds
90seconds
100seconds
110seconds
120seconds
130seconds
140seconds

7.23M
4.05M
2.30M
1.07M
0.54M
0.073M
0.23M
0.95M
1.85M
3.17M
8.22M
14.78M
20+M

SampleGraph:

22
20
18
16
Meg
14
12
10
8
6
4
2

Resistance
(megaohms)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

Time (s)

Answers:
PartA:
1.Theglassistransparentandhardbutnotstable.
2.Answerswillvary.ConsultCRCBoraxBeadTestsTable.

63

PartB:
1.Pyrexistoughandisheatresistant.
2.Glassisamixtureanddoesnotexhibitlongrangcrystalstructure.
PartC:
1.Differentamountsandtypesofionicandcovalentbondseffectthedegreeof
electricalconductivity.
2.Yes,athighvoltagesglasswillconduct.ATeslacoilwillshowthisorsome
adulttoyliketheplasmastormballsoldbystores.
3.Yes.Itisanalogoustoresistanceinwire.Resistanceisdirectlyproportionalto
thelengthandinverselyproportionaltothediameter.
4.Electronicdevicesneedtobekeptwithintheirdesignatedtemperaturerangeto
operateasexpected.

64

Experiment4(Demonstration)ElectricalResistance
Howmanyteachersdoesittaketobreakalightbulb?
ElectricalResistanceinaGlassBulb
MaterialsandSupplies:
sixvoltflashlightbulb
ceramicbaseforlight
ohmmeter
2alligatorclipswithwires
gasburner
Procedure:

1.Screwthe6voltlightbulbintoaminiatureceramiclightsocket.
2.Breakawaytheglasssurroundingthefilament.
3.Cutthefilamentthatconnectsthetwoelectrodesinthebulb.
4.Carefullyremovethefilamentanddonotdamagethesmallglassbeadthat
connectsbothelectrodesjustbelowthefilament.
5.Hooktheohmmetertothecontactsonthebaseoftheceramiclightsocket.
6.Gentlyheattheglassbeadwhilerecordingtheresistance.
7.Recordtheresistanceandtimeat10secondintervals(ifpossible).

65

Experiment5
LightattheEndoftheTunnel
AnIntroductiontotheStudyofFiberOptics
Objective:
Theobjectiveofthisexperimentistoshowthat,becauseofinternalreflection,lightwilltravel
downaglasstube.
ReviewofScientificPrinciples:
Being a noncrystalline material, glass does not have grain boundaries to interfere with the
passageofphotons(lightbundles).Aslongasthelightwaveshittheinsidewallsatlessthatthe
criticalangle(theminimumanglethatwillallowlighttobetransmittedintotheglass),mostof
thelightwillreflectoffthesidewallsandcontinuethroughthetube.

Angleof
refraction

Air
Glass

Critical
angle

Partial Astheangleof
refraction incidence
increases,theangle
ofrefraction
90 increases,untilthe
criticalangleis
reached.Atthis
pointtheangleof
refractionisequal
to90degrees,and
totalreflection
occurs.
Total
reflection

Angleof
Incidence
Partialreflection
Therodsinafiberopticsystemuseacoreinsideacladdesign. Thecoreismadeofahigh
purityglasswithalargerrefractiveindexthantheouterlayer.(Arefractiveindexisameasure

66

oftheamountthatlightbendsgoingintooroutofamaterial.)Thegreaterthedifferenceinthe
refractiveindices,themorelightisreflectedwithintheinnertube.
LightWave
core
FiberOpticTube

clad

Mostfiberopticsystemsusealaserasthelightsourceduetoitscoherencyandthefactthatit
canbecontrolledwithhighfrequencypulses.Thelightpulsessentfromoneendofthefiber
opticcable,arereceivedanddecodedattheotherendtoobtaintheoriginalinformation.
Applications:
Muchofthedatasentovertodayscommunicationnetworksisbeingcarriedbylightpulses
movingthroughfiberoptics.
Time:20minutes
MaterialsandSupplies:
glassrod(5mm+/diameter;1520cmlong)
gasburner
smallpenlightflashlight
oneholerubberstoppertofitflashlight
GeneralSafetyGuidelines:
Beawareofthefireandhotglass.
Beextracarefulwhenpreformingtheglassinsertion.
Procedure:
1.Lightburnerandpreheatthecenteroftheglassroduntilitgetssoft.
2.Slowlybendtherodsothatnobendhasaradiusoflessthan2cm.Makea
continuousglassbendofyourchoosing.Avoidmakingsharpcornersduring
bending.

67

2cm
max
radius
RubberStopper

3. Cool. Carefullyinsertoneendofyourrodintoaoneholedrubberstopper. Put

thestopperontheendoftheflashlight.
4.Turnontheflashlightandobservetheamountoflightcomingthroughtherod
andtheamountoflightleakingoutalongtherod.

5.Iftimepermits,trydifferentradiiinthecurves.Ifyouhaveaccesstoalaser,
tryitinthetubeaswell.
Questions:
1.Whatdidyouobservefromshiningtheflashlightthroughthetubing?

2.Whatadvantagedoesalaserhaveinthisexperimentoveraflashlight?

3.Whywasitnecessarytoformbendswithatleasta2cmradius?

68

Teacher'sGuidetoExperiment#5
LightLab
Suggestion:
Youmightwanttoconductthetestsinadarkenedroom.
AnswerstoQuestions:
1.Studentsshouldreportmostofthelightexitingtheotherendofthetube.Onlya
smallfractionofthelightwillcomeoutthesidesofthetube.
2.Thelaserlightcanbeaimedalongastraightlinedownthetube.Thelightfrom
theflashlightwillspreadoutandsomewillexceedthecriticalangleandescape
outthesideofthetube.
3.Atsmallerradii,thelightwillstrikethewallsofthetubeatanglesgreaterthan
thecriticalangle.

69

CeramicsModuleQuiz
Shortanswer.
1.Whatmadeceramicsthefirsttechnology?

2.Whatarethetwogeneralclassesofceramicsandhowaretheydifferent?

3.Whatadvantagesanddisadvantagesdoceramicshaveoverothermaterials?

4.Whatgeneralpropertiesdoionicmaterialshave?

5.Whatgeneralpropertiesdocovalentmaterialshave?

6.Whatgeneralpropertiesdoceramicmaterialshave?

7.Whyareceramicsbrittleandmostmetalsnot?

8.Whyisglasstransparentbutabrickisnot?

9.Whatcausesthermalexpansioninmaterials,andwhydoceramicmaterialshavesmall
70

coefficientsofexpansion?

10.Listthepartsofyourbodythatareceramicmaterials.Howdoyouknowthatthey
are?

CeramicsModuleQuizAnswers
1.Naturalmaterialswereavailableandsowasfire.
2.CrystallineregularstructureandNoncrystalline(amorphous)irregularstructure.
orTraditionalclay,cement&glassandAdvancednewerhighstrength,high
temperaturematerials.
3.Advantages:hard,temperatureresistance,corrosionresistance,inexpensive.
Disadvantages:brittleandhardtomachine.
4.Ionictendtohavehighmeltingpoints&nondirectionalstrongbonds.
5.Covalenttendtohavelowermeltingpointsandweakbonds.
6.Ceramicshavehighmeltingpoints,tendtobebrittleandhavebothionicandcovalent
bonds.
7.Inceramicmaterials,theatomsarenotfreetomoveunderstressastheyareinmetals.
8.Inglass,thelowerenergybondingorbitals(valenceband)andthehigherenergy
antibondingorbitals(conductionband)aredifferentenoughsothatvisiblelightisnot
absorbed.
9.Asthetemperatureincreases,thevibrationalamplitudeincreasesforatomsinamaterial
whichdrivesthatatomsapart.Inceramicsthebondsarestrongerbetweenatomswhich
counteractsthetendencytoexpand.
10.Bonesandteethhard,brittleandtemperatureresistant.

71

GLOSSARY
Abrasive:Ahardmaterialusedtogrind,cutorwear.
Absorption:Theinclusionoftheenergyofaphotonwithinasubstance.
Amorphous:Anoncrystallinesubstance,atomslacklongrangeorder.
Annealing:Heattreatmenttoalterproperties.
Annealingpoint(glass):Temperatureatwhichstressesareremoved.
Atomicvibration:Movementofanatomwithinasubstance.
Bandgapenergy:Energydifferencebetweenthevalenceandconductionbands.
Brittlefracture:Abreakthatoccursbyrapidcrackpropagation.
Capacitance(C):Chargestoringcapability.
Cement:Amaterialthatbindsparticlestogetherinamixture.
Ceramic:Acompoundofmetallicandnonmetallicelements.
Color:Wavelengthsoflightperceivedbytheeye.
Component:Apart,ordevice.
Conductionband:Carriestheexcitedconductionelectrons.
Conductivity:Theabilitytocarryanelectriccurrent(electricity)orthermalenergy
(heat).
Covalentbond:Bondingbysharingelectrons.
Crystalline:Asolidwitharepeatingthreedimensionalunitcell.
Crystalstructure:Theorderlyarrangementoftheatomsorionswithinacrystal.
Diamagnetism:Weaklyrepelledfromamagneticfield.
Dielectric:Aninsulator.
Dielectric constant: Relativeelectricalpermittivityofamaterialascomparedtoaperfect
vacuum.
Dielectric(breakdown)strength:Theamountofelectricityneededtostartanelectric current
flowinadielectricmaterial.
Ductilefracture:Breakaccompaniedbylargeplasticdeformation.
Elasticdeformation:Changeinshapethatreturnswhenastressisremoved.
ElasticModulus:Ratioofstresstostraininelasticdeformation,measureofelasticity.
Electricfield:Thegradientofvoltage.
Electronegativity:Theattractionofanatomforsharedelectrons.
Electronvolt(eV):Unitofenergyequivalenttotheenergygainedbyanelectronwhen it falls
throughanelectricpotentialofonevolt.
Excitedstate:Anenergystatetowhichanelectronmaymovebytheabsorptionof
energy.
FiberOptics:Thetechnologyoftransferringinformationaslightpulsesthroughlong thin
fibers,usuallymadeofglass.
Firing:Hightemperatureprocessingtoincreasedensificationinaproduct.
Fluorescence: Light that is emitted a short period of time after an electron has been
excited.
Fracturetoughness(Kc):Measureofamaterial'sresistancetocrackpropagation.
72

Glass:Anamorphoussolidshowingcharacteristicspecificvolumebehaviorovera
certain
temperaturerange.
Glassceramic:Crystallineceramicmaterialthatwasformedbyheattreatingglass.
Glasstransitiontemperature(Tg):Temperatureatwhichaglasschangesfroma
supercooledliquidintoasolid.
Grain:Individualcrystalinapolycrystallinematerial.
Grainboundary:Theboundarybetweengrains(orcrystals)thataremisorientedwith respect
tooneanother.
Greenceramicbody:Ceramicobjectthatisdriedbutnotfired.
Groundstate:Lowestelectronenergystate.
Hardness:Resistancetodeformation.
Heat capacity: Heat required to produce a unit increase in temperature per quantity of
material.
Imperfection:Flaw,anydeviationfromperfection,asinacrystal.
Index of refraction: Ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a
medium.
Insulator:Materialthatdoesnotconductelectricity(electrical)orheat(thermal).
Ionicbond:Electrostaticforcebetweenoppositelychargedions.
Laser:Sourceofcoherentlight(LightAmplificationbyStimulatedEmissionof Radiation).
Lattice:Theregulararrangementofpointsinacrystal.
Luminescence:Emissionofvisiblelightwhenanelectronreturnstothegroundstate from
anexcitedstate.
Magneticfieldstrength:Intensityofanappliedmagneticfield.
Microstructure:Structuralfeaturesthatcanbeobservedwithamicroscope.
Noncrystalline:Amorphous,withnolongrangeatomicorder.
Opaque:Materialthatdoesnottransmitlight.
Phonon:Quantumofvibrationalenergy.
Phosphorescence:Luminescencethatlastsformorethanonesecond.
Photovoltaiccells:Adevicecapableofconvertinglightenergytoelectricity.
Photoconductivity:Electricalconductivityinducedbylight.
Photon:Quantumofelectromagneticenergy.
Piezoelectric:Materialthatproducesanelectricalresponsetoamechanicalforce.
Plasticdeformation:Permanentdeformation,changeofshape.
Polycrystalline:Composedofmorethanonecrystalorgrain.
Porcelain: A durable ceramic composite made by firing clay, feldspar and quartz
together.
Reflection:Deflectionoflightattheinterfacebetweentwomaterials.
Refraction:Bendingoflightasitpassesfromonemediumintoanother.
Refractory:Materialthatcanbeexposedtohightemperaturewithoutdeterioration.
Resistivity:Measureofresistancetopassageofelectricalcurrent(reciprocalof conductivity).
Semiconductor:Nonmetallicmaterialthathasarelativelynarrowenergybandgap.

73

Sintering:Coalescenceofindividualceramicparticlesintoacontinuoussolidphaseatahigh
temperature.
Slip:Mixtureofclaywithwaterthatcanbepouredintoamold.
Slipcasting:Methodofmakingceramicobjectsbypouringslipintoamold.
Softeningpoint(glass):Maximumtemperatureaglasscanbeheatedbeforeit permanently
deforms.
Smartmaterials:Materialsabletodetectachangeintheenvironmentandreacttoit.
Specificvolume:Volumeperunitmass,reciprocalofdensity.
Strain:Changeinlengthofasampleinthedirectionofanappliedstress.
Stress:Forceappliedtoasampledividedbyitscrosssectionalarea.
Structuralclayproducts:Ceramicobjectsmademainlyofclayandusedin
structural
applications.
Structure:Arrangementofinternalcomponents.
Superconductivity:Disappearanceofelectricalresistivityatlowtemperatures.
Supercooling:Coolingbelowthenormaltemperatureforaphasechange,withoutthe change
occurring.
Tensilestrength:Maximumstresswithoutfracture.
Thermalexpansioncoefficient,linear:Fractionalchangeinlengthdividedby change in
temperature,ameasureofamaterialstendencytoexpandwhenheated.
Thermalstress:Residualstresscausedbyachangeintemperature.
Thermal tempering: The introduction of residual compressive stresses to increase the
strengthofglass.
Toughness: Energy absorbed by a material as it fractures, a measure of its resistance to
fracture.
Transgranularfracture:Fracturebycrackpropagationthroughthegrains.
Translucent:Transmitslightdiffusely.
Transparent:Transmitslightclearly.
Unitcell:Thebasicrepeatingunitinacrystal.
Whiteware:Claybasedceramicthatturnswhiteafterfiring.

74