Electronics - Electro-Mechanical

ELECTROMECHANICAL
SYSTEMS
VERSION 1
The Engineering Council

10 Maltravers Street
LONDON
WC2R 3ER
The Engineering Council
First published by The Engineering Council 1995
ISBN 1 898126 41 0
All rights reserved. This book is copyright material but permission

is granted to make photocopies of pages for classroom use
provided that the copies are used exclusively within a purchasing
institution. No other reproduction, storage in a retrieval system or
transmission in any form or by any means may be made without
prior permission from The Engineering Council.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Text by John Cave
Layout by Peter Stensel
Line illustrations by James Wilkinson
Series Editor
John Cave
Middlesex University
CONTENTS
Introduction
Section 1
Motors and gearboxes
Section 2
DC generator
14
Section 3
Shape memory alloy actuator
27
Section 4
Linear actuator
45
Study file 1
Bit by bit controller
49
Study file 2
Generator applications
60
Study file 3
Solenoids
63
Resources
67
ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
As the name suggests, electromechanical systems or devices
convert electrical energy into mechanical movement - and
sometimes vice versa. Most of the common electromechanical
components, such as electric motors and solenoids are used in
combination with mechanical parts to provide actuation or
movement.
Solenoid
Motor
Solenoids are used, for example, as actuators in vending

machines, cash registers and photocopiers. Electric motors, for
example, are used in linear actuators (providing straight line
movement), in electric window systems, operating tables, and
robotic arms.
ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1
A relatively new branch of engineering design called mechatronics

involves integrating the three areas of sensing, electronic control
and mechanical actuation . A modern camera is a good example of
a mechatronic product. One of the goals of mechatronics is to
reduce the number of mechanical components to an absolute
minimum; nevertheless in any system where movement is
needed, there remains a basic need for some kind of controlled
mechanical output.
This book examines four basic electromechanical systems and the

components needed to design and construct them. The examples
anticipate the general requirements of pupils and students for
practical prototyping work and focus on the use of basic
inexpensive components. Because some of these are unique to
TEP, additional product information is given on page 67.
SECTION 1
ELECTRIC MOTORS
AND
GEARBOXES
A combination of electric motor and gearbox providing rotary

actuation is one of the most common electromechanical
products. A gearbox is really a method of matching the primary
power input from a motor (high speed, low torque) to the
required output (normally low speed, high torque). (Torque can
be thought of as turning power.)
Very often a gearbox is built in as an integral part of a motor

unit, and this may also contains sensors to feed back positional
information to a control circuit. A good example is a type of DC
motor used in photocopiers. Because its rotor consists only of a
coil winding with very low inertia, it can be accelerated or
stopped very rapidly.
For most practical prototyping work you are likely to be using

cheaper motors with gearboxes that you can design and make to
give required output characteristics.
Electric motors
Many types and sizes of electric motor are available - with three
main categories operating in the lower voltage range (6-24volts).
These are:
DC brush motors
brushless motors
stepper motors
DC brush
motor
Stepper
motor
Brushless motor
A DC brush motor uses a commutator to cause the magnetic field

in the armature coils to change so that the coils will rotate
between permanent magnets.
Brushes
Case
Magnets
Commutator
Armature
End plate
A brushless DC motor has a permanent magnet rotor and fixed

stator coils - but no commutator. As the rotor turns, one or more
sensors close to its edge send a signal to a control circuit that
energises the stator coils in the correct sequence.
Rotor
Stator
A stepper motor - sometimes called a stepping motor - has a

permanent magnet rotor that revolves within fixed stator coils.
Unlike a brushless motor, however, there are no sensors. The
rotor is driven round by switching the coils on and off in a
special sequence using a driver circuit.
Stator
Rotor
Gearboxes
A gearbox is an assembly of gears inside
a frame or casing. A gearbox has a
rotary input and a rotary output. The
gears inside mesh together to give a
required output torque and speed. The
gearbox of a cordless electric drill is
often larger than the electric motor in the drill!
However, it enables the drills very small motor running
at very high speed to be turned into a very powerful drilling
action. A simple gearbox may contain just two gears meshing; a
more complex one might contain more than 100.
Small gearboxes are used in toys and many domestic appliances.

They are sometimes used in unusual applications - for example,
professional model makers use them to create the special effects
for programmes such as 'Spitting Image'. The illustrations show a
range of general purpose gearboxes that can be obtained ready
made, or as kits.
In one of these examples, the

gears are arranged within a
small plastic case. In the other
two, the gears are mounted
around the motor itself. All
these gearboxes can be
adapted to give different
output speeds and torque.
There are several methods for making gearboxes; this section

examines two of them.
1. TEP gearbox using pre-punched sideplates.
This gear box has two plates held together using bolts and
spacing pillars - e.g. plastic mouldings, small lengths of tubing or
a series of nuts. The driving motor is attached to the outside of
one plate, and a gear train set out between the two plates. The
motor can be either a solar motor or an MM28 type. The solar
motor is more expensive but is quieter in operation, will operate
from a smaller current (e.g. solar cells) and produces less
electrical noise.
Technical note:
MM28 and similar cheap
motors use graphite brushes on
the commutator; the solar
motor uses very fine precious
metal brushes which make
better contact. The difference
between the two shows up
clearly when their rapidly
changing current consumption,
due to the commutator action,
is shown on an oscilloscope.
For the solar motor, the
changing current is seen as a
relatively smooth signal; for
the cheaper motor, it is very
noisy.
Precious metal brushes
Gear ratios
The gearbox side plates are
pre-punched to give a choice
of three different gear ratios.
The gears supplied are a 16
tooth pinion for the motor,
two compound gears with 10
and 42 teeth and a larger
(output) gear with 60 teeth.
The illustrations show how
the gears are set out to obtain
the different ratios.
Graphite brushes
Constructing a gearbox
Step 1. Secure either an MM28 or a solar motor to the side plate
with screw-fastening holes. If a solar motor is selected, packing
washers must be used to prevent the screws touching the motors
armature. Push fit the pinion on the motor spindle.
Step 2. Push fit the selected gears on the 2mm diameter axles
and position these approximately between the plates to ascertain
what spacers need to be added to keep the gears floating
(moving) across the gearbox. You can use washers as spacers or
small lengths of plastic sleeving.
Step 3. Assemble the side plates by putting in the gears and the
fastening bolts and spacers. Any excess axle material can be
snipped off.
Step 4. OPTIONAL
Because the output shaft will be subjected to a load, the gear that
drives it might slip. Also, the shaft is running, effectively, in an
aluminium bearing. A better arrangement is to ream out the
punched holes that form the output bearing and insert nylon
bearing bushes.
The output gear is then drilled out to take a 3mm diameter shaft.
If the shaft is steel, it should be rolled against a file as shown to
produce a rough 'spline' to lock onto the gear. This is done by
placing the shaft on a hard wooden surface (not metal) and
rolling back and forth with the edge of a file - pressing down
hard.
An excellent alternative shaft material is 3mm diameter fibrereinforced pultruded rod. The gear should be drilled to 2.9mm
diameter to make a secure interference fit. The rod itself is cut
either with a hacksaw or the special TEP guillotine.
TEP guillotine
2. Gearbox using punch-tool method

A two-plate gearbox can be made using a combination of TEPs
larger compound gears. In order to mesh properly the gears need
to be positioned at a distance of 26mm between centres. (26mm
is also the distance between the motor pinion and the first driven
gear centres.)
40 teeth
12 teeth
26 mm
10
If correctly spaced bearing holes can be punched along a pair of

side plates, you can create gearboxes with different ratios just by
using the correct number of gears. Any two gears meshing give a
ratio of 3.3 to 1; three gears give approximately 10:1 - and so on.
The bearing holes for the gears can be accurately punched out of
aluminium plate up to 1mm thick using the special TEP punch
tool. After one hole is punched , the aluminium plate is simply
moved along the graduated straight edge by 23mm and another
hole punched.
11
A simple gearbox with a ratio of 3.3 to 1 can be constructed as

follows:
Step 1. Cut out the gearbox side plates - allowing for the
distances between gear centres and material at both ends for
spacing pillars. An example hole layout for the motor side of the
gearbox is shown. As well as bearing holes, two holes are
punched for the pillars and two for the motor fastening screws.
150
40
25
26
26
Step 2. Locate the motor side plate against a convenient point on

the punchs graduated scale and punch the first hole. Move the
plate along by the required distance and punch the second hole.
Do this for all the holes on the diagram. Repeat for the second
plate but leaving out the two holes for the motor screws.
12
40
Step 3. Using a hand reamer, open out the punched hole for the
motor boss (6.2mm) and secure either an MM28 or a solar motor
with the self-tapping screws. If a solar motor is selected, packing
washers must be used to prevent the screws touching the motors
armature. Push fit a pinion onto the motor spindle. Push fit
bearing bushes into all the remaining punched holes (see page 9).
Step 4. Push fit the selected gears on 3mm diameter axles and
position roughly between the plates to ascertain what spacers
need to be added to keep the gears floating (moving) across
between the two plates. You can use washers as spacers or small
lengths of plastic sleeving.
Step 5. Assemble the side plates by putting in the gears and the
chosen fastening bolts and spacing pillars. The spacers can be
mouldings, short lengths of tubing or a series of nuts. Any excess
shaft material is cut off prior to assembly.
Note: 3mm diameter fibre-reinforced pultruded rod is an ideal

shaft material for this gearbox. It can be cut using a small
hacksaw or TEPs guillotine.
13
SECTION 2
DC GENERATOR
The TEP generator is an electromechanical system consisting of a
motorised reduction gearbox working in reverse; i.e. a low speed,
high torque input is converted through gearing into a high
speed, low torque drive for the generator. Most miniature
electric motors work as either motors or generators but some are
more efficient than others. The TEP generator is a solar motor.
The generator principle
When a conductor such as copper wire is moved within a
magnetic field and cuts across the lines of force, an electric
current flows. The direction of current flow can be determined
using Flemings right hand rule.
Flux
rr
Cu
en
Motion
Lines of force
Current
If the wire is made into a coil and moved in the field, a larger
current flows. A current can also be made to flow by moving the
magnet rather than the coil.
14
The TEP generator has coils rotating between fixed magnets. It

was in fact designed as an electric motor but like most miniature
motors it works as a generator when the spindle is turned
rapidly. The coils are wound around an armature and the current
generated in them passes to a pair of terminals by means of a
Case
commutator and brushes. The ends of the coils are
connected to commutator segments from which
a direct current (DC) is drawn by means of
brushes in contact with the segments. The
simplified diagram of a single coil rotating in
Magnets
a magnetic field shows how the commutator
works. The segments are mounted on the
shaft and rotate with the coil. The current in
the coil flows towards the top segment and
away from the bottom segment. Half a turn later
the current in the coil has reversed but it is still flowing
towards the top segment and away from the bottom segment. So
although the coil is generating an alternating current, the
Armature
commutator acts as a mechanical rectifier and supplies a direct
current from the brushes. The direct current from this generator
always flows the same way, unless you reverse the direction of
rotation of the shaft.
Brushes
Commutator
End plate
Ideally, the output of a DC generator should be smooth like that

supplied by a battery. This appears on a time graph simply as a
straight line.
Current
Flux
+
Brush
Brush
Commutator
Time
Current
The TEP generator, however, provides pulsating DC.

This is because the current flow rises to a maximum
when the coils cut directly across the lines of force and
then falls to a minimum when they move along the
lines of force.
Maximum
Minimum
0
N
Time
15
Improving the DC Output

If the TEP generator is connected to a loudspeaker, the pulsations
are heard as a loud sound. The pitch of this sound rises as the
generators speed is increased. If the generator is used to power a
radio, these pulsations may seriously interfere with the music or
speech from the radio itself. For this type of application, a way
has to be found to make the output as smooth as possible.
The most common method of smoothing a pulsating supply, is

to connect a capacitor in parallel with it. A capacitor is a device
that stores electrical charge and is sometimes thought of as a
rechargeable battery with very rapid charge and discharge times.
+
Generator
G
0
The unit of capacitance is the Farad which is a very large value. A

microfarad (F) is one millionth of a Farad. If you place a 1000F
capacitor across a 4.5 V battery, it charges up almost instantly. If
it is then connected - say - to an LED, this will light up, but only
for a short period.
16
If we need to convert the output from an AC

generator to DC, it can be done with diodes
which allow current to flow in one direction
only. This process is called rectification. The
simplest circuit uses just one diode and gives
half wave rectification. As the time graph shows,
the diode stops current flowing one way and
produces pulsations with a gap between each.
This output can be smoothed with a capacitor
to fill in the gaps.
Discharging
Smoothed output
Voltage
Charging
When a capacitor is connected in parallel with

the generator, it charges up during each
pulsation and discharges to 'fill in' the gaps
between pulsations as the diagram shows. A
capacitor by itself does not give perfect DC but
can turn a pulsating supply into one with only
a small ripple.
Generator
output
Time
Circuit symbol
Diode
(In order to produce a perfect DC supply, we

need also to add a device called a voltage
regulator which senses the ripples and corrects
them to give almost perfect DC. Voltage
regulators are available in a small compact
package and are now quite low in cost.)
Generator
Voltage
Time
A better form of rectification uses four diodes

often supplied as single component. This is
called full wave rectification.
Voltage regulator
Diode
bridge
+
Current
Time
17
The TEP Mini-Generator

The TEP generator was actually designed as a special motor to
operate from very small sources of current such as solar cells. It is
larger in diameter than other miniature motors because it has a
bigger armature and slightly larger permanent magnets. It also
has better spindle bearings and brushes that contact the
commutator with very little friction.
To generate useful current, the armature has to be turned rapidly.

For example, to generate the output needed to energise a
standard LED, the spindle has to be turned at a minimum speed
of 300 revolutions per minute (r.p.m.). You can do this for just a
moment by spinning it between finger and thumb. To generate a
continuous useful current, the generator spindle has to be rotated
at a speed of at least 1500 r.p.m.
18
A Practical Mini-Generator With Gearbox

The TEP generator cannot be driven directly by hand (or from
several other power sources) because the speed of rotation
provided is too low. A way has to be found to increase this speed
to at least 1500 r.p.m. Connecting a power source to a generator
to get the best performance is called matching. A pulley system
can be used but unless stepped belts and pulleys are used, the
belts are likely to slip. A step-up gearbox is the most common
method employed.
Stepped belt
A gearbox for a the TEP generator is assembled very quickly using

the two-plate method. The generator is supplied with two predrilled side plates and a selection of gears giving three different
ratios.
This gearbox is assembled by the following steps:

choose the gears to be used and position each of these on a
length of 2 mm shafting
(If you know the input speed and the required output speed of
a gearbox, a suitable combination of gears can be worked out.
The easiest method is to multiply input speed by the gear ratio.
For example, if a 60 tooth driver gear meshes with a 10 tooth
pinion, the gear ratio is 6:1. The driven gear will rotate 6 times
for each revolution of the driver. In other words, it will rotate
six times faster. If the driven gear is turned by hand at 50 r.p.m,
the driven gear will rotate at 6 x 50 r.p.m. = 300 r.p.m.
19
If the outside of the second gear has 50 teeth and meshes with
a pinion of 10 teeth, this ratio is 5:1 and the speed of 300 r.p.m.
now becomes 5 x 300 r.p.m = 1,500 r.p.m.)
fasten the generator to one side plate using self-tapping screws
and the packing washers (the washers are important to
prevent the screws touching the generator armature).
attach spacing bolts on the same plate and add enough nuts
to provide spacing between the two plates.
place the shafts through the bearing holes and fix the second
plate.
To test the gearbox and generator, a length of 2 mm shaft can be
bent as a crank. Where it passes through the driving gear, it
should be flattened slightly or upset to give a form of spline to
prevent the gear slipping round.
20
The TEP generator gearbox side plates are predrilled to allow several different combinations
of gears. If you want to drill holes for a different
gear train, use the following method:
Example: The measured distance is 32 mm and

the shaft diameter 3 mm.
Getting gears to mesh properly

The most important aspect of making a gear
box is making the gears mesh together properly.
If they press together too tightly, there is a lot
of friction and they may not turn at all. If they
are too far apart, the teeth may jump over one
another. You need to mark the bearing holes in
the side plates that support the shafts very
accurately to make sure the teeth mesh with
just enough clearance to turn freely. Calculate
it using the simple method below:
Adding allowance of 1 mm for free running

gives 29 mm + 1 mm = 30 mm.
32 mm - 3 mm = 29 mm between centres.
The positions of the bearing holes for the shaft

are marked out on just one plate since the two
plates are clamped together for drilling at the
same time.
Mark out the position for the first shaft and
make a small centre punch dot. (The position of
this first shaft is important because the gear
mounted on it has to mesh with one on the
motor.)
1. Place the two gears on a flat surface with a

short length of metal shaft forced into the
centre of each.
2. Push the two gears together between finger
and thumb and then measure the distance
between the two shafts.
Open a pair of metalworking compasses to the

correct distance between centres that you have
worked out for the meshing gear and scribe an
arc.
3. Subtract the diameter of one shaft to give the
distance between centres.
4. Add a small allowance to the distance to
enable the gears to run freely. As a rule of
thumb (a rough rule) add 1.0 mm to the
distance for large gears and 0.5 mm for small
gears.
21
You can make a centre punch dot anywhere along this arc for the
second gear shaft. Its position depends on how you have decided
to set out the gear train. If a bearing hole for a third shaft is
needed, the same procedure is repeated with the compass opened
to the correct distance. The centre punch dots can now be made
larger before drilling.
The two side plates are finally clamped together with toolmakers
clamps and carefully drilled. It is also a good idea at this stage to
drill holes for the spacers.
Driving the Mini-DC Generator

The generator can be driven directly only if the means of
rotation is very fast (e.g. a small CO2 motor used to power model
aircraft). If the step-up gearbox is used to increase speed - i.e.,
matching power source to generator - a variety of power sources
are available. These include:
coiled spring or elastic

falling mass
hand turning
air propeller or rotor
water wheel
connection to moving object (e.g. bicycle)
Kg
kg
22
Making an Input Crank

There are a number of methods for making
cranks. These include:
The first two of these power sources use stored

energy and may need some form of speed
regulation before attachment to the gearbox
input. A spring or elastic band will tend to have
high torque (turning power) when fully
wound up and less when it is run down. A
falling mass will accelerate as it falls, but
connection to the generator and gearbox
causes drag and the mass - providing it is not
too large - will fall at a more uniform rate.
Bending a long shaft.
Although the gearbox can be powered through

a 2 mm diameter input shaft, it is preferable to
use one of larger diameter if possible. This
provides more strength and makes it less likely
that the first gear will slip on the shaft as it is
turned. If a 3 mm diameter shaft is used, for
example, the two side plate bearing holes also
need to be drilled out to 3 mm. If the gear
centre is drilled out to 2.9 mm, this will provide
a tight interference fit. Nevertheless, it is an
advantage to roughen the shaft so that it locks
more tightly onto the gear. One way of doing
this is to press the edge of a file against the
shaft and slowly roll it back and forth over a
smooth surface.
Fitting the end of the shaft and a crank

handle to a third piece of material as shown.
The joints must be carefully considered.
There are many options. A very easy one is
to use metal studding for both the shaft and
the handle.
23
Performance of the TEP Mini-DC Generator

The technical term for something connected to and driven by a
generator is called the load. This could be a light bulb for
example, or a radio. The size of the load is measured by the amount
of current consumed or drawn and not the physical size. A small
torch bulb drawing a current of 0.5 A represents a larger load
than a radio drawing 0.3 A even though the radio itself is much
bigger.
To examine the performance of the TEP generator, a load has to

be connected. The current flowing through the circuit and the
voltage across it are both measured. For accurate measurements,
load resistors are used rather than bulbs etc. A low value resistor
represents a greater load than a high value one because more
current passes. If the load is increased by reducing the value of
the load resistor, the voltage will drop, because of the increased
voltage drop in the internal resistance of the generator.
Generator
Load
resistor
The load connected to a generator has to be correctly matched

to the generator output. A large or heavy load reduces the output
voltage and will also make the generator very difficult to turn.
Remember that the generator is converting mechanical energy
into electrical energy. If you power the generator without a load
connected, it will turn easily. If you then connect a load such as
a bulb, the generator becomes noticeably harder to turn. This
resistance to turning is the work you have to do to produce electrical
energy.
24
To give a feel for the effect of different loads,

try connecting the TEP generator to the
following:
The TEP generator can be used in the same way

because it is also an electric motor. It can also
be used simply as a brake for other devices. The
generator offers little resistance to turning with
no load. However, as soon as you close a switch
to connect - say -a load resistor, it offers
considerable resistance to turning. When the
generator is acting as a brake, the work it does is
eventually converted into heat in the load (and
in the coils of the generator).
LED
Small motor
Small buzzer
Connecting a load acts as a brake on the

generator. This effect is used by electric vehicles
to save wear on normal brakes and to conserve
batteries. An electric vehicle going up hill is
driven by a motor supplied from batteries.
When it is going down hill, the motor is
switched over so that it acts as a generator to recharge the batteries. In so doing, the motor
offers resistance to turning and has a braking
effect on the vehicle.
+
Generator
Smoothed output
Voltage
Discharging
0
Charging
Grain of wheat bulb
Improving the Mini-Generators Output

The pulsating DC output from the TEP
generator can be improved by connecting a
capacitor in parallel across the output terminals.
This should be as large as possible but for most
purposes a 2000 F capacitor will suffice.
Remember, though, to connect the capacitor to
the generator the correct way round in relation
to the polarity of the generator.
Generator
output
Time
You can test for positive and negative by

offering an LED to the generator terminals; it
will light up only when the cathode leg is
connected to the negative terminal.
25
For an even smoother DC output from the generator, you should

select a suitable voltage regulator from a supply catalogue and
make up the recommended circuit. This usually involves adding
just one or two external components; an example is shown. It is
important to note that the regulator always needs an input
voltage higher than the regulated output voltage.
Voltage
regulator
I/P
+7 to
25V
0.22F
O/P
7805
+5V
Com
4K7
0.47F
0V
0V
With an AC supply, a transformer can be used to step output

voltages either up or down. This is not possible with a DC
supply. However, there is now a range of electronic circuits called
DC to DC converters that will either increase or decrease the
voltage from a DC supply. You should consult a supply catalogue
under the heading of DC to DC converter to select a suitable
device.
Input
Output
DC to DC converter
26
SECTION 3
SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY (OR SMART WIRE) ACTUATORS
A relatively new type of electromechanical actuator uses shape
memory alloy (SMA).
Smart Materials
Most materials that we use in products have properties which
remain more or less constant in use. 'Smart' materials are
different; they respond to external factors such as differences in
light or temperature levels and change in some way. They are
described as 'smart' because they seem to be intelligent or have a
mind of their own.
Smart materials are now being applied in everyday products.
Examples include sunglass lenses (and spectacle lenses) which
darken as light intensity increases and stick-on thermometers
whose colour changes to indicate temperature. Smart materials
are now even used in clothing!
Reactolight
glasses
Stick-on
thermometer
Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)

SMA is a smart material which, as its name suggests, has a
memory. The most common SMA is an alloy (mixture of metals)
of nickel and titanium - called nitinol. By means of special heat
treatment, a piece of SMA can be made to 'remember' a shape.
For example, a length of wire can be made to remember that it
should be straight at temperatures above 70C. If you bend this
wire at normal room temperature into the shape of a paper clip,
it stays bent and will continue acting as a paper clip. However, if
you place it in a glass of water whose temperature is above 70C,
it immediately straightens out! When cool, it remains straight
until it is bent again.
27
This cycle of bending and then straightening when heated can be

continued millions of times. The temperature at which SMA
'remembers' its original form is called the transition temperature
and when this point is reached, it changes shape.
SMA has a relatively high electrical resistance and can be
heated to its transition temperature by passing an electrical
current through it.
Applications of SMA
SMA can be used to give a mechanical movement when a set
temperature is reached. For example, current applications
include:
seals for hydraulic tubing (which shrink into position)
electrical connectors
fire alarm systems - to trigger a sprinkler
waste bins - to trigger a falling lid if fire occurs
coffee machines - to open a valve so that hot water falls on
the coffee
air conditioning units - to move louvres or flaps to direct air

movement
shower units - to control hot water control valves
The advantage of SMA in these and many other applications is
the fact that it provides large forces and movement at a precise
temperature. It is also possible to pre-shape the SMA in different
ways - for example as a spring or a flat plate.
28
Smart wire has a relatively high electrical resistance and can be

heated to its transition temperature by passing an electrical
current through it. Before SMA was available, bi-metallic strips
were really the only simple way of causing mechanical
movement by change of temperature. A bi-metallic strip consists
of two metal ribbons bonded together. One metal has a high rate
of expansion when heated; the other has a low rate of expansion.
When the strip is heated, it curls because one side expands more
rapidly than the other.
Bi-metallic strip
Bi-metallic strips are

commonly used to control
thermostats in central heating
systems and electric kettles.
Unlike SMA, bi-metallic strips change shape gradually when

heated - not all at once. Also, in practice, they cannot be made to
change shape when current is passed through them.
Smart Wire
A common form of SMA is wire available in different diameters.
This ranges, for example, from 5 mm diameter down to 50
microns (1 micron = 1/1000 millimetre). The SMA wire sample
provided with this book is Nitol with a diameter of 100 microns.
It is heat treated to 'remember' that it has a shorter length when
heated above its transition temperature (70-80C) than below it.
If the sample length of wire is held between two points it has a
length of approximately 10 cm. When heated to between 70 and
80C, it shortens by about 5% or 1/20 and exerts a useful pulling
force. (The wire becomes shorter and it gets slightly fatter.) When
the wire cools down, it relaxes to its longer length of 10 cm.
29
Shortened
Relaxed
10
20
The 5% change in length is constant for any length or diameter

of SMA wire. This results in quite small movements for shorter
lengths of wire. However, the movement can be increased by
increasing the length of wire. To work out the amount of
movement for a given piece of wire, you simply multiply its
length by 5%.
For example, for a wire 150 mm in length, the shortening is:
150/1 1/20 = 150/20 = 7.5 mm
The 5% shortening of SMA can also be turned into a much larger
movement using simple lever systems.
30
SMA wire has to be stretched or biased to return to its longer

length. The force required to do this is much smaller than the
pulling force that the wire exerts when it shortens. There are two
main ways of biasing:
Using a weight
Using a spring
Using a weight
Using a spring
Because SMA has a relatively high electrical resistance, it can be

heated to its transition temperature simply by passing current
through it. This opens up many possibilities for providing
mechanical actuation (movement) without any moving parts
other than those the SMA is attached to! Also, for smaller
diameter wires, the currents needed are quite small and can be
provided from smaller batteries.
+V
Shape memory alloy

wire symbol used for
the purposes of this
book.
-V
In a practical design using SMA wire, you need to know what
force to use to bias it, and what force it will exert when it
shortens. If you are heating it with electric current, you also need
to know how much current to pass without overheating and
damaging it.
31
All these figures (for 100 micron wire) are provided in the table
below:
Bias force
Pulling force
0.3 N
1.5 N
Resistance
Max. current
Max. power
150 ohms per metre

180 milliamps
5 Watts per metre
Shortening time
Relaxation time
0.1 second
1.0 second
Recommended extension
Minimum bend radius
5%
5 mm
Effective transition
temperature
70Centigrade
Pulling starts at
Pulling finishes at
Relaxation starts at
Relaxation finishes at
68C.
78C.
52C.
42C.
Explanation of the Table

The table tells us that at normal room temperature the wire
needs to be stretched with a bias force of 0.3 newtons - which is
roughly equivalent to hanging a weight of approximately 30
grams on the end. When heated to the transition temperature of
between 70 to 80C, the wire shortens about 5% in length and
will exert a pulling force of 1.5 newtons - roughly equivalent to
lifting a weight of 150 grams.
The speed at which the wire shortens when it reaches the
transition temperature is about 0.1 seconds. It takes longer to
relax or stretch back to its longer length - about 1 second. The
table also tells us that when heated, the wire actually starts
changing length at 68C and finishes at 78C. When it cools,
however, the stretching or relaxation does not take place until it
has reached 52C.
The figures given in the table are the recommended ones for 100
micron nitol; if they are exceeded, the useful life of the wire will
be reduced.
32
The supply needed to heat the wire can be determined using

Ohms Law. This states the relationship between voltage (V),
current (I) and resistance (R), as follows:
V=IR
I = V/R
R = V/I
The table gives us the resistance of the wire and also states the
maximum current. Using Ohms Law, we can therefore work out
the voltage needed.
For example, what is the voltage needed to pass the maximum
safe current through the 10 cm length of 100 micron sample wire
provided with this book?
Step 1
The resistance of the wire is 150 per metre.
Divide by 100 = 1.5 per cm.
The resistance of 10 cm of wire = 1.5 10 = 15.
Step 2
The maximum current is 180 mA or 0.18 A.
(1 milliamp = 1/1000 Amp.)
Step 3
V = I R. Substituting the figures above gives:
V = 0.18 A. 15 = 2.7 volts.
A 3 volt battery (two AA cells in series) can be used to power this
length of wire because as current is drawn, its voltage will reduce
slightly.
To check that the power rating (the rate of doing work) is not
exceeded, we can use the power equation W = I V.
If we substitute the above figures W = 0.18 2.7 = 0.49 Watts for
a 10 cm length of wire and 10 0.49 = 4.9 for a metre length.
This is the maximum figure given in the table.
What voltage would be needed to supply a 15 cm length of 100
micron SMA wire?
How many times per minute could a length of 100 micron
SMA wire go through a complete shortening and relaxation
cycle?
33
Using SMA Wire

It is important to make good electrical and mechanical
connections to the ends of SMA wire. The wire cannot be
soldered and must be joined to other conductors by mechanical
means. It is also important to remember that where the wire is in
contact with a metal component or surface, some heat will be
conducted away and that the whole length of wire may not
exhibit the memory effect.
The response times given in the table are for SMA in a normal
room environment. If the wire is enclosed in an insulated sleeve,
for example, it will take longer to cool down and relax to its
longer length. If air is blown over it, it will cool more rapidly.
Insulated
sleeve
Wire
Increasing Pulling Force

The pulling force of SMA wire cannot be increased by supplying
current beyond the recommended limit; this will damage it.
However, two or more wires can be run in parallel. Two wires will
give double the pulling force and so on. You must remember,
though, that if the wires are connected in parallel, you also
double the current needed to heat them up.
34
Power Supplies
Current supplied to the SMA wire must be within the
recommended limit to avoid any damage. There are several ways
of doing this including:
HITACHI
LONG LIFE
HP7
HITACHI
LONG LIFE
HP7
use of an appropriate
number of 1.5 V batteries
connected in series.
I
CH
A
T
LIFE
HI
LONG
HP7
use of an adjustable power

supply unit (PSU).
use of a series resistor to

regulate the supply. It may
not be possible to 'fine tune'
a number of batteries
accurately enough or you
may have an unsuitable
supply. In either case,
current can be regulated by
using a series resistor in the
circuit. Ohms law can be
used to work out the value
of this resistor.
[Note: the resistor should be
a higher wattage type. The
power in the circuit can be
worked out using W (watts)
= I (current) V (volts). If a
variable resistor is used, it
should be a wire-wound
higher wattage type.]
+V
High wattage
resistor
SMA
-V
35
LM317T
use of a voltage regulator

Case also Vout
Vin
Vout
Adj
Control Circuits
1. Open loop control
In open loop control, there is no feedback. The supply is simply
switched on or off - for example, using a press switch or a timer
circuit. Switches that can be used include: reed switches operated
by a magnet, micro switches, membrane panels.
Reed switch and magnet
Micro switch
Membrane panel
36
Supply current can be 'switched' by a thyristor, bipolar transistor

or FET (field effect transistor). The example circuits show how
sensors can control the supply switching.
+V
+V
Touch
pads
SMA
SMA
106
Piezo
transducer
IR530
100 K
1m
0V
0V
Thyristor triggered by shock
FET switched on by
placing finger across
touch pads
+V
SMA
Transistor switched on by
water bridging across
probes
2 k
BFY51
Probes
0V
Bipolar transistors and FETs can also be used as the output stage
of microelectronic control circuits - e.g. a 555 timer.
Set
input
Time
period
input
Process
timer
Output
FET
+V
SMA
4.7 k
VR1
8
6
7
2
Set
555
680
IR 530
1000 F
0V
37
2. Closed loop control

Closed loop control involves something feeding back (feedback)
from the output to the input of a system. A central heating
system turns on and off at a temperature set by a thermostat. A
bi-metallic strip in the thermostat heats up and moves to switch
off the heating boiler when an appropriate temperature has been
reached.
Contacts
Bimetallic strip
Temperature
setting
Thermostat
Because SMA wire changes length when it is heated, the

movement can be used as feedback - for example, to switch the
supply on and off. A very simple example involves connecting a
length of SMA to a microswitch. When the wire is relaxed the
switch is 'on' and current flows through the wire. The wire then
shortens, depresses the switch contact and turns off the supply.
The wire then relaxes and the whole cycle begins again.
Micro
switch
SMA
Power supply
38
[Note: Ingenious heat engines have been built from SMA

materials using a closed loop system. In one example, a wire
relaxes and dips into hot water. This causes it to change shape
and move out of the water to cool down and relax again. The
same cycle repeats over and over again and turns a small
flywheel.]
Experiments With SMA Wire
Lifting weights
This experiment simply
involves attaching a length of
SMA wire to a weight (e.g. ball
bearings in a bag) and
observing the contraction
when the wire is heated by
current. The bias force is
automatically supplied by the
weight.
Bearing balls
Amplifying movement with

levers
A simple two dimensional
lever system can be assembled
on a baseboard using
polystyrene or card strip for
the lever and a drawing pin
pivot. The 'load' on the lever
can be supplied by weights or
a spring (e.g. elastic band).
39
The distances from the pivot to (a) the wire attachment and (b)
the weights can be expressed as a ratio. In the example shown
the ratio is 5:1. For every millimetre moved by the wire end the
weighted end will move through 5 millimetres.
10 cm
2 cm
Ball bearings
Amplifying movement using geometry

A weight is attached to the centre of a length of SMA wire so that
it forms two sides of an inverted triangle. Over a range of angles
the vertical movement of the weight will be greater than the
linear movement of the wire. This effect increases as the angle at
x increases (i.e. as the wire becomes closer to horizontal).
However, the forces required also increase. Try experimenting
with SMA wire at an angle at x of 140 and plot the movements
of the weight on a piece of paper.
40
Practical Applications of SMA Wire

Linear actuation
SMA wire is most easily used to provide linear or straight line
movement. The example shown uses SMA wire to pull a bolt in a
simple lock. In this application very little linear movement is
needed. If its length can be accommodated, SMA wire can often
be used in place of a more expensive solenoid. A free-standing
actuator can be made by containing the wire in a plastic tube.
Door bolt
SMA wire used in an
electric door lock
Compression
spring keeps
SMA wire
stretched and
bolt in 'locked'
position
Angular actuation
In many practical applications of SMA wire, a mechanical system
is used to amplify movement. The barrier prototype model
illustrated uses the lever principle to move and lift up the arm.
The same principle can be used to provide the movements of a
robot arm.
SMA wire
41
Rotary actuation
SMA wire (or a cord extension from it) can be wound around a
shaft, drum, pulley, or cam to produce rotary movement. For a
given length of wire, the larger the diameter of the shaft etc., the
smaller the rotation - and vice versa. If the shaft etc., is very small
and expected to rotate through several revolutions, particular
attention has to be given to biasing - either with a weight or a
spring.
Rotating shaft
Anthropomorphic actuation
'Anthropomorphic' describes something which has human
characteristics. A lot of robotics research is currently directed at
making robotic movements - especially hand movements imitate human ones. This is because of their potential as artificial
arms and limbs for disabled people and as precision manipulators
for industrial robots. Many of these experimental devices use
SMA wire to provide mechanical movement.
Leads
It is surprisingly easy to make

an actuator that imitates - say
- a finger movement. One
method is to stretch the SMA
wire inside a 'springy' plastic
tube. This will cause the tube
to curl slightly. When the
SMA wire is heated by current,
it exerts a stronger pulling
force inside the tube and this
causes it to curl around even
further - closing the 'finger'.
When the wire relaxes, the
'finger' opens again.
SMA wire inside

'finger' segments
42
In many commercial prototype hands the robotic fingers are

made up from hinged segments with small springs to keep them
straight. When SMA wire running through the segments
contracts, the 'finger' curls just like the tube.
SMA wire fixed at end
Construction Notes
The most difficult aspect of using small diameter SMA wire is
holding it securely and making good electrical contact. These are
some of the methods employed:
Wire Crimps. These are small fastenings pressed flat around
wires to be joined; they are available commercially in many
different shapes and sizes. The most useful ones for SMA wire are
miniature tubes which are closed with special crimping pliers or
ordinary pliers. The crimps can be placed at the very end of an
SMA wire or somewhere along its length.
Note: The most common
miniature crimps available
are 'bootlace' types - a
small tube but with one
end closed. These will
work for all the
applications shown in this
book.
Edge and corner crimping. This is a technique for making

wire crimps on the corner or edge of a metal tab - e.g. copper. An
edge or corner is folded over using a pair of pliers. Because the
metal at the bend hardens as it deforms it does not close over
completely and leaves a small opening. The wires can be inserted
in this opening which is then finally closed by nipping with the
pliers. One or more holes punched in the tab can be used to
fasten it.
43
Screw, nut and washers. SMA wire and connecting wire can
be fastened to a small screw using two washers and a nut. The
free end of the screw can also be used to provide a mechanical
anchorage to something else.
Terminal block. Commercial terminal blocks contain twinscrew brass fastenings in a polythene strip. Individual fastenings
can be removed from the plastic strip as necessary. Note: It is an
advantage to attach a crimp to the SMA wire before securing it in
the terminal block.
SMA
Terminal block
connector
Further Reading
Bowyer, M.J.
Design and Applications of Ni-Ti Shape

Memory Alloy Springs, Engineering Design,
November 1988.
Gilbertson, R.G.
Muscle Wires, Mondo-tronics, 1992.
Cave, J.F. (Ed.)
TEP Electronics 14-16, The Engineering

Council, 1994
44
SECTION 4
LINEAR ACTUATORS
A linear actuator is a motorised
unit which often resembles a
hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder.
It contains a motor, gearbox and a
means of converting the rotary output
from the gearbox into a powerful push-pull
linear movement. This movement is
normally obtained by a nut moving along a
rotating screw thread - the same means used to move the carriage
on a manual lathe.
Most larger commercial linear actuators use a ball screw. This
works on the same principle as a basic nut and screw but the nut
is separated from the screw by ball bearings to minimise friction.
Linear actuators are normally used to provide intermittent rather
than continuous push-pull movements. They are self-contained
units, and very easy to build into systems such as window
opening mechanisms. However, because the motor is totally
enclosed, they have a limited duty cycle. This means that they can
be energised for only a certain percentage of the time. For
example, an actuator with a duty cycle of 50% means that it
should only be running for only - say - 2 minutes within a 4
minute period. Manufacturers state the precise duty cycle
conditions in their literature.
TEP linear actuator

The TEP linear actuator is an open-frame type that comes almost
completely assembled. It uses a 5mm diameter screw driven
directly by a miniature DC motor. The screw engages a brass nut
set into a plastic block which also accommodates a push rod. The
end of the screw is supported in a nylon bearing at one end of
the frame and above this an identical bearing providing support
for the push rod.
45
If the motor is connected to a 3v - 6v battery supply, the nut will

run rapidly to one end of the frame. Reversing the motor supply
will cause it to run in the opposite direction. If you do this
simple experiment, however, you will find that at the end of its
travel, the nut will lock onto the screw and simply reversing the
motor will not be enough to free it. To prevent the nut reaching
the extremity of the thread and to provide proper control, it is
necessary to add two limit switches to the frame. These switch off
the motor when the nut is almost at the end of its travel. They
also enable manual or automatic reversing of the nut.
Setting up the limit switches

The actuator is supplied with two limit switches and small selftapping screws for fixing. Two leads should be soldered to each
switch as shown, and the switches fastened to the frame. The
lever of each switch should be bent outwards so that the
supply is switched off well before the end of the nuts travel.
This needs to be done because the motor continues to spin after
the supply is switched off, and the nut travelling beyond its limit
will jam.
46
As a guide, use only a 3 volt supply either to trial the actuator or

run it with a light load. With a heavier load, you can use a 4.5v 6v supply.
For manual operation of the actuator, the limit switches are
connected to a DPDT (double pole, double throw) switch as
shown. When the slide switch, provided with the actuator, is in
the centre position, it is off. In either of the other two positions
it supplies current to the motor until one of the limit switches
breaks the circuit. The slide switch can then be thrown to the
other on position to reverse the nut. Manual switching might
be used, for example, to cause the actuator to throw a lock bolt.
Slide
switch
3 - 6V
L1
L2
L1 and L2 are the limit switches. Use connections marked 'con' and 'NC"
The actuator can be controlled electronically by using an

appropriate circuit and a DPDT relay (or two SPST relays). For
example, a Bit by bit controller can be programmed to switch a
pair of SPST relays on and off.
There are many variations on the control theme. For example, a
sensor might be used so that the actuator opens:
a vent when a set temperature is reached
a vent above a set light level
a valve when water (or moisture) falls below a fixed level
47
A very simple example circuit is given. When the water sensor is

wet, the relay is energised and the actuator's push rod is parked
in the withdrawn position. If the water level drops, the relay
switches and the rod moves to its extended position and parks
there until the water level rises again.
Relay coil
L1
L2
6V
1K
BFY 51
Probes
Shunt braking
It is possible to stop the travel of the nut very rapidly anywhere
along the screw by shunt braking. This involves using one or more
relays to short circuit or shunt across the motor terminals
immediately the current supply has been interrupted. When
shunted, the motor (with its spinning armature) is trying to act
as both generator and motor. This has the effect of stopping it
almost immediately. An example circuit is shown.
+
TEP
Generator/
motor
Note: the screw and the base of the actuator frame should be
lubricated with light oil. The 3mm diameter push rod is an
interference fit in the plastic nut and can be withdrawn
providing the nut is supported. A longer or specially shaped
push rod, for example, can be substituted.
48
STUDY FILE 1 - BIT BY BIT CONTROL

All of the electromechanical actuators described can be
controlled with the TEP Bit by Bit controller using either
transistor or relay outputs.
SWITCH
+
PROG ON
RUN
C2
6v IN
IMPORTANT
TECHNICAL NOTE:
Under some circumstances
the bit by bit controller can
be affected by electrical
noise, e.g. from electric
motors. This is discussed on
page 12.
ON
RUN
REMOTE
Introduction
The TEP bit by bit controller is a self-contained electronic
controller capable of switching on or off up to 8 different outputs
over a period of time. It is programmed by setting each of eight
small DIP switches to either 'on' or 'off' and then committing
these instructions to memory by pressing a push switch. The
memory can hold up to 64 such lines of program. The total
program can then be run at different speeds to control a variety
of devices such as lamps, buzzers and electric motors.
C3
1 2
PROG OFF
ON
.2
The noise immunity of the

controller can be improved
by adding an optional
capacitor at position C3.
This should be
approximately 0.1F.
STOP
RUN SPEED
1
5
20
.5
2
10
DIP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
MEMORY
SPEED
ADJUST
RP1
.1
ON
OFF
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
PROGRAM DATA
PAUSE INPUT
RP2
RESET INPUT
TEP
BIT-BY-BIT
CONTROLLER
C2
GROUND
LED 1-8
(c) 1994 TEP
C3
Setting Up
The controller is supplied complete to run and program; output
components are added if and as required. The controller requires
either a 6V battery power supply or a supply from a PSU (power
supply unit) which is regulated. THE MAXIMUM SUPPLY
VOLTAGE IS 6 VOLTS. IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT A
BATTERY SNAP CAN INADVERTENTLY BE CONNECTED TO
A 9V SOURCE.
A 4 battery box and battery connecting snap is supplied
with the board. If used, the snap should be soldered to the points
marked + and - at the top of the board, if necessary using the two
spare holes as mechanical anchorage for the two leads.
Any program will be lost if the battery is disconnected for
more than 20 seconds. Because the standby current
consumption of the board is so small, it is preferable to leave
the battery connected all the time.
49
SPEED
ADJUST
Basic Principles
The TEP controller uses a single IC (integrated circuit) containing
a memory where information can be stored in electronic form. It
is useful to think of this memory as a book having a stack of
pages. Every page represents a line of control programming and
has 8 blank spaces - each one waiting to be filled with a bit of
information. Each vertical column of blanks will contain the
remembered instructions for a control output. Each control
output is connected to an LED 'flag'.
ON
DIP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Page
(line of
program)
1
2
3
4
64
LED flags
(Outputs)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
The memory locations are filled with individual bits of

information - of which there are only two types: logic 1 or logic
0. In the controllers memory these are really instructions which
mean either turn ON an output (logic 1) or turn OFF an output
(logic 0).
ON
DIP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Page
(line of
program)
on
off
off
on
off
on
off
off
2
3
4
64
LED flags
(Outputs)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
50
The information is written on each 'page' of memory by setting

the 8 DIP switches to either 'ON' or 'OFF' and then pressing the
'MEMORY' press-button switch . Pressing this button 'writes' the
PROGRAM DATA switch settings into memory and automatically
turns over to the next 'page'. This procedure can be repeated up
to 64 times - the maximum number of pages or locations in the
controllers memory.
Outputs
on
on
off
on
on
off
off
off
on
on
off
on
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
The illustration shows a sample 6-line program for the two left
hand outputs. When the controller is instructed to read this
program, it turns over the 'pages' at a set speed. An 'ON' bit of
information lights up an output LED and an 'OFF' bit turns it off.
If, for example, the controller is set to read each page for a
second at a time, the LED on the far left hand side will turn on
for one second off for the next and so on. LED number 2 will
turn on for two seconds and then stay off for two seconds. When
the program has been run - i.e., all the 'pages' turned over - the
controller will automatically start again at the first line of the
program. Unless it is stopped, the program will run over and over
again.
Please note: the remainder of this text will refer to lines of
program and not pages.
51
SWITCH
+
PROG ON
RUN
C2
6v IN
ON
RUN
REMOTE
Programming the Bit by Bit Controller

Using the whole-board diagram as a guide, you should now be
able follow these instructions for programming the controller.
C3
1 2
PROG OFF
SPEED
ADJUST
STOP
RUN SPEED
1
5
20
.5
2
10
ON
DIP
RP1
.2
.1
ON
OFF
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
PROGRAM DATA
MEMORY
TEP
PAUSE INPUT
RP2
BIT-BY-BIT
CONTROLLER
RESET INPUT
GROUND
LED 1-8
3
4
5
6
PROGRAMMING/OUTPUT INDICATORS
+6v
GND
LOGIC OUTPUTS
TR1
TR2
TR3
TR4
TR5
+6v
TR6
3
4
5
6
GND
OPEN COLLECTOR TRANSISTOR OUTPUTS - 800 mA MAX
R15
+6v
R14
+6v
R13
+6v
R12
+6v
R11
+6v
R10
R9
R8
CUT LINE
+6v
TR7
TR8
CUT LINE
D7
RL 1
C4
C5
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 1
D8
D9
D10
RL 2
RL 3
RL 4
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 2
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 3
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 4
1. Make sure the RUN and PROGRAM switches at the top of the
board are set at the 'PROG OFF' and 'STOP' positions.
2. Connect the battery or power supply.
3. Set the program switch to 'PROG ON'.
4. Write a line of program by setting
each 'PROGRAM DATA' switch to
either 'ON' or 'OFF'. This will turn the
LED outputs on of off. Because the
program switches are small, it is more
convenient to operate them with a stylus e.g., the tip of an empty pen.
5. Press the 'MEMORY' switch to write this line of program into
memory. When you do so, all the LEDs will flash on briefly to
confirm this has happened.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 above up to 64 times - once for each line
of memory. If you try to go beyond 64 lines of programming,
the extreme left hand LED will flash continuously.
There is no problem if you write a program less than 64 lines.
When the program is run, it will loop back to the beginning
after the final line.
52
Running the Program

1. Switch the programming switch to 'PROG OFF'.
2. Set all the 'PROGRAM DATA' switches to the 'OFF' position.
3. The 'PROGRAM DATA' switches will now control the program
run speed. As an example, set the fourth switch from the left to
'ON'.
4. Set the program run switch to 'RUN'. The program will now
run at approximately 1 line per second. (Setting one of the
other 'PROGRAM DATA' switches will run the program at a
different speed - see below.) The LEDs will turn on and off
according to the stored program in memory.
SWITCH
+
PROG ON
RUN
C2
6v IN
ON
RUN
REMOTE
The speed of execution of the program depends on which

'PROGRAM DATA' switch is set to the 'ON' position and also on
the setting of the 'SPEED ADJUST' resistor at the top of the board.
The 'PROGRAM DATA' switches provide speed adjustment in
fixed steps or ratios. The 'SPEED ADJUST' resistor provides overall
continuous adjustment - faster or slower. To calibrate the
controller to run at the speeds printed above the 'PROGRAM
DATA' switches, create a simple program that turns LED 4 on for
one program line, off for the next - and so on (keeping all the
other LEDs off). Run this program, and time the result against a
watch - altering the 'SPEED ADJUST' so that eventually the LED
turns on and off at one second intervals.
C3
PROG OFF
.1
ON
.2
STOP
Overall
speed
adjustment
RUN SPEED
1
5
20
.5
2
10
DIP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
MEMORY
SPEED
ADJUST
RP1
Speed in
seconds
1 2
ON
OFF
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
PROGRAM DATA
PAUSE INPUT
RP2
RESET INPUT
TEP
BIT-BY-BIT
If setting switch 4 provides a run speed of one program line per

second, the switch on the far right will give program steps of 20
seconds duration. This adds up to a maximum 64 line program
run time of 20 seconds 64 lines = 1,280 seconds OR
approximately 21 minutes. This run time can be extended
further by adjusting the resistor. Remember, though, this also
affects timings provided by the other 'PROGRAM DATA' switches.
Important note: The TEP controller has a volatile memory. This
means that a program is lost when the power supply is
disconnected although the larger capacitor at the top centre of
the board will keep it energised for about 20 seconds. However,
the Standby Current Consumption of the controller's chip is so
low it can be left connected for most practical purposes.
53
Technical note: capacitor

C2, together with the two
resistors at the top right hand
corner of the board, controls
the chip's clock speed. This
is 390 pF. If it is replaced
with a lower value (no lower
than 50 pF) the top run speed
can be considerably
increased. However, it will
also have the effect of
flashing the LEDs more
rapidly when the memory
button is pressed and the
standby current consumption
will increase slightly.
Using the Controllers Outputs

The bit by bit controller has 8 LED flags to show the status of
each output. This enables you to create programs and run them
but not to actually control anything! To switch a load such as a
motor on or off a buffer stage has to be added to each output in
use. For convenience, the controller board has additional printed
tracks and locations for transistor buffers on all the outputs and
transistor-plus-relay buffers on four of them. (Note: the board
has only enough room physically for relays on the four left hand
outputs.)
LED 1-8
3
4
5
6
+6v
Logic
output
stage
GND
LOGIC OUTPUTS
TR1
TR2
TR3
TR4
TR5
+6v
TR6
+6v
TR7
GND
3
4
5
6
R15
+6v
R14
+6v
R13
+6v
R12
+6v
R11
+6v
R10
R9
R8
CUT LINE
TR8
Transistor
output
stage
CUT LINE
D7
RL 1
C4
C5
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 1
D8
D9
D10
RL 2
RL 3
RL 4
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 2
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 3
Relay
output
stage
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 4
Using the Transistor Outputs

The recommended output
transistor for which the board
has been designed is the
inexpensive BCX38B. This is a
Darlington pair device and
will switch on a load of nearly
1 amp (800 milliamps
maximum). This is quite
sufficient for most filament
bulbs, buzzers and a solar
motor.
OR
E
C
BC X38B
54
To add a transistor to any required output, fix and solder in

position a 10 K resistor and BCX38B transistor - for example, at
the positions marked R8 and TR1. Make sure the transistor is the
correct way around by matching the case outline with the
outline on the board. Flying leads to the load are soldered to the
+6 V point and open collector output for each transistor. The
diagram shows a lightbulb connected to output 1. A circuit
diagram for this output is also shown.
1
3
4
5
6
+6v
GND
LOGIC OUTPUTS
TR1
TR2
TR3
TR4
TR5
+6v
TR6
3
4
5
6
GND
R15
+6v
R14
+6v
R13
+6v
R12
+6v
R11
+6v
R10
R9
R8
CUT LINE
+6v
TR7
TR8
CUT LINE
D7
D8
RL 1
C4
C5
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 1
D9
D10
RL 2
RL 3
RL 4
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 2
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 3
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 4
+6 V
6 Volt lamp
10K
To chip
BCX38B
0V
REMEMBER that when several transistors are used, the total load
current - which can be quite high if all outputs are used - comes
from the battery powering the controller. This could be depleted
very quickly. Always work out the total load current (or an
average for outputs switching on and off) and think carefully
about the type of battery needed.
It is possible, for example, to run the following devices directly
from the transistor outputs:
filament bulb
miniature solenoid
buzzer
stepper motor
solar motor
Any motors other than the more expensive solar motor

should be run from a relay. This is because they produce a
high degree of electrical noise which may interfere with the
operation of the chip.
55
A motor, solenoid or any other device with a coil is an inductive

load and can produce a high voltage momentarily when
switched off (back EMF).
Solar motor
Miniature solenoid
To prevent this damaging the transistor, a clamping diode should

be added as shown in the diagram. This can be a general purpose
type such as IN4001.
+6 V
Clamping
diode
Motor
(inductive
load)
10K
0V
The most convenient way of connecting a clamping diode to an

inductive load is to use one of the first four left hand outputs and
simply solder in a diode as if you were using a relay. It is
IMPORTANT to ensure that the diode is soldered in the correct
way round - with the marked end facing towards the right.
2
3
4
5
6
+6v
GND
LOGIC OUTPUTS
TR1
TR2
TR3
TR4
TR5
+6v
TR6
3
4
5
6
GND
R15
+6v
R14
+6v
R13
+6v
R12
R11
+6v
R10
R9
R8
CUT LINE
+6v
+6v
TR7
TR8
CUT LINE
D7
D8
RL 1
C4
C5
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 1
IMPORTANT
To avoid electrical
interference any small
electric motor must be
suppressed using two
capacitors as shown - 0.22F
ceramic, 10F electrolytic.
It is important to ensure
that the electrolytic
capacitor is correctly
connected to the power
source. The side marked
should be connected to ve.
To chip
MM28
D10
RL 2
RL 3
RL 4
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 2
D9
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 3
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 4
56
Using a transistor output with an external power supply

To avoid draining the battery powering the board itself, a load can
be connected to a separate power supply, ideally a battery, up to
24V. The diagram shows a lightbulb thus connected to output 1.
A circuit diagram for this output is also shown.
OFF
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
PROGRAM DATA
MEMORY
TEP
PAUSE INPUT
RP2
BIT-BY-BIT
CONTROLLER
RESET INPUT
GROUND
LED 1-8
ve
3
4
5
6
+6v
GND
LOGIC OUTPUTS
+ ve
TR1
TR2
TR3
TR4
TR5
+6v
TR6
GND
3
4
5
6
R15
+6v
R14
+6v
R13
+6v
R12
+6v
R11
+6v
R10
R9
R8
CUT LINE
+6v
TR7
TR8
CUT LINE
D7
D8
D9
D10
Max 24V
10K
To chip
0V
Remember that if a separate battery is used, the total load current

should not exceed 800 mA otherwise the transistor will be
damaged.
Please remember that if an inductive load, such as a motor, is
connected, a clamping diode should be added as shown in the
diagram below.
LOAD
Max 24V
10K
To chip
BCX38B
0V
The easiest way to add this might be to connect it directly across

the load itself; i.e. across the connecting legs of a motor in
parallel with the suppression capacitors.
57
BCX38B
Using a Relay Output

The first four left hand outputs are extended at the bottom of the
PCB to accommodate relays. To add a relay to any of these
outputs, first fix and solder in position a 10 K resistor and
BCX38B transistor - for example R8 and TR1. Then fix and solder
in position a miniature SPDT relay (e.g. Kam Ling KS1P) together
with a clamping diode. Also, solder in a 0.22F suppression
capacitor across 'com' and 'no' (C5). This is essential. To test the
relay, write in a simple on/off program for this output. When the
program is run, the relay will simply click on and off.
1
3
4
5
6
+6v
GND
LOGIC OUTPUTS
TR1
TR2
TR3
TR4
TR5
+6v
TR6
D8
RL 1
CUT LINE
D9
+6v
TR7
TR8
D10
RL 2
RL 3
RL 4
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
C4
C5
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 1
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 2
R15
+6v
R14
R13
+6v
GND
3
4
5
6
D7
+6v
R12
+6v
R11
+6v
R10
R9
R8
CUT LINE
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 3
Technical note: a very

significant problem in
designing industrial control
equipment is the suppression
of 'electrical noise' or
electromagnetic interference.
Electromechanical devices
invariably produce
interference. (Remember that
early radio transmitters used
an electrical arc to produce
radio frequency energy.) The
suppression capacitor on the
relay is very important to
prevent any interference to the
chip. European Countries
have a convention - EMC which sets a standard for
protection from
electromagnetic interference.
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 4
0.22F capacitor
The load is connected to the relay switch outputs at the bottom

of the controller board. 'COM' is the pole of the switch, 'NO' is
the normally open contact and 'NC' is the normally closed
contact. The load leads are either soldered to the capacitor
legs on the top of the board or the solder points below it.
+6 V
no
Clamping
diode
com
nc
10K
To chip
0.22 F
0V
58
Curious fact: the

detonation of a nuclear
weapon produces a massive
electromagnetic 'spike'
capable of immobilising chip
based equipment. Designers
of military communications
equipment have actually
considered going back to
using valves to avoid this
problem.
When connecting the load, treat the relay as an ordinary switch. Its
switches are NOT connected electrically to the controllers power
supply and you will need to add an external power supply. You
should avoid exceeding the stated values on the relay.
1
3
4
5
6
+6v
GND
LOGIC OUTPUTS
TR1
TR2
TR3
D7
TR4
TR5
+6v
TR6
D8
C4
C5
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 1
CUT LINE
D9
+6v
TR7
D10
RL 3
RL 4
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 3
It is important to ensure
that the electrolytic
capacitor is correctly
connected to the power
source. The side marked
should be connected to ve.
TR8
RL 2
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 2
R15
R14
+6v
3
4
5
6
GND
RL 1
External
supply
+6v
R13
+6v
R12
+6v
R11
+6v
R10
R9
R8
CUT LINE
COM
NO NC
RELAY OUTPUT 4
The output stages of the controller board may be cut off as

indicated either if they are not wanted or because the output
stages are to be placed elsewhere in use. For example, the controller
might need to be built into a very tight space. If the output part
of the board is separated, the +ve and -ve rails must be connected
between the two board halves together with a single wire link for
each output used. Multi-coloured ribbon cable is a useful option
for making a number of connections between boards.
RP
ON
OFF
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
PROGRAM DATA
MEMORY
TEP
PAUSE INPUT
RP2
BIT-BY-BIT
CONTROLLER
RESET INPUT
GROUND
LED 1-8
3
4
5
6
+6v
GND
LOGIC OUTPUTS
TR1
TR2
TR3
TR4
TR5
+6v
TR6
GND
3
4
5
6
R15
+6v
R14
+6v
R13
+6v
R12
+6v
R11
+6v
R10
R9
R8
CUT LINE
Solder +6 V
to track on
underside of
board
+6v
TR7
TR8
CUT LINE
D7
RL 1
D8
RL 2
D9
RL 3
D10
RL 4
59
Technical note
To avoid electrical
interference any small
electric motor other than a
solar motor must be
suppressed using two
capacitors as shown - 0.22F
ceramic, 10F electrolytic.
Solder GND
to track on
underside of
board
STUDY FILE 2 - USES FOR TEP GENERATOR

Possible Uses For the Mini-DC Generator
Emergency generator for lighting
Many people keep a torch in the home or other
places where an emergency light might be
needed in the event of a power failure.
Sometimes, the torch is used rarely and, when it
is needed, the batteries are found to have gone
past their shelf life. Inexpensive batteries will
probably last for only two to three years if
unused because of the internal chemical
changes that take place.
Battery alternative
In many developing countries, it is possible to
obtain small radios but not a reliable supply of
batteries - which can be both expensive and
environmentally damaging. The mini-DC
generator could be used as an alternative by
continuous turning of a handle or preferably by
storing and slowly releasing energy. Probably the
easiest way of doing this is to wind up or raise
a mass and then let it fall so that it rotates a
shaft. A relatively small mass suitably raised and
matched to the generator with a gearbox can
give several minutes operating time for a
transistor radio.
60
Cell charger
The generator can be used for charging
rechargeable batteries - for example those used
in a cycle lamp. A generator driven by the chain
or tyre of the cycle will produce current
whenever the cycle is used. However,
depending upon what batteries are used, the
generators output will almost certainly require
(a) a circuit to ensure a smooth charging output
at the correct voltage and (b) a means to ensure
that the batteries do not discharge into the
generator.
You should take advice from your teacher
before embarking on a project involving
rechargeable batteries.
Power transmission
The TEP generator is a reversible device. This
means that one generator can be used to drive
another and vice versa. There is some loss of
energy in such a system, but two generators
connected together can be used to replace
mechanical linkages and drives in some
applications. The illustration shows a simple
toy. Experimenting with pairs of generator/
motor units connected together convinced
pioneer electrical engineers that power could be
transmitted over distances by means of
electrical current.
61
Using the TEP Generator as a Motor

The TEP generator can be used with or without its gearbox as an
electric motor. It has the following specification:
NOMINAL
NO LOAD
AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
Constant
Volts
Speed
rpm
Current
A
Speed
rpm
Current
A
Torque
g-cm
Output
W
3.0
1800
0.022
1430
0.085
8.4
0.123
48.3
41
6.0
3700
0.028
3060
0.134
14.5
0.455
56.4
84
The motor can be driven by a battery, power supply unit (PSU),

or by a second TEP generator. Its current consumption increases
in proportion to the amount of work it does. If you try to make a
motor do too much work, it slows down and eventually stalls or
stops. Because current continues to flow, the armature windings
heat up and may eventually burn out. The small motor in a
cordless drill is only about two to three times larger than the TEP
generator/motor and will burn out very quickly if the drill is
stalled. A fuse, which melts when a certain current is exceeded,
offers some protection.
62
Efficiency Stall Torque

%
g-cm
STUDY FILE 3 - SOLENOIDS

A linear solenoid (the most common type) consists of a soft iron
plunger within a coil wound on a plastic bobbin. When current
is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field pulls the
plunger into the coil with a considerable pulling force.
Plunger
Input
These devices are relatively cheap and very simple; however, the
usable stroke of a linear solenoid is quite limited and the force
exerted varies according to the position of the plunger within the
coil. When the plunger is at its extreme outside the solenoid, the
pulling force is relatively weak; as it moves towards the centre it
increases. This is shown clearly in a graph of force against stroke
distance.
30
Force (N)
25
20
15
10
5
12
15
18
21
Stroke (mm)
63
24
27
Various mechanisms are used to increase the stroke length of a

solenoid; the simplest of these is a lever.
In a rotary solenoid, a spindle turns through a specific angle - e.g.
45 - when the solenoid is energised. This type of solenoid has a
plunger and armature plate. The plate is separated from the
solenoid case by three ball bearings each of which runs in a small
inclined plane. When the plunger is pulled into the solenoid coil,
it also turns as the ball bearings run down the inclined planes.
Applications of solenoids
Solenoids are used in so many different products, it would take a
large book to list the main applications ! A few examples are
given below:
Vending machine
Coin operated ticket machine
Cash register
Toaster
Car
Photocopier
Door lock
Automatic soap dispenser
Photo kiosk
Juke box
64
Constructing a solenoid
It is very straightforward to construct a solenoid providing that
care is taken not to break the fine copper wire needed for the
coil. A suitable bobbin can be made from a plastic, such as nylon,
turned on the lathe or even from paper - using the TEP rolltube technique. If a paper tube is made, end caps have to be
fitted to keep the wire in position. The most important feature of
the bobbin is the wall thickness of the tube; this must be as thin
as possible. Mild steel can be used for the plunger and is easily
machined for mechanical connection.
For a typical miniature solenoid, the bobbin can be wound with

00 gauge lacquer-insulated copper wire. The overall length used
will determine the pulling force of the solenoid and the electrical
resistance of the coil. The resistance should be as high as possible
if a battery is used to energise the solenoid. The following steps
are a guide to construction:
Step 1
Solder a flying lead to the end of the copper winding and pass
this through a drilled hole at the end of the bobbin - leaving
sufficient inside the bobbin for mechanical anchorage.
65
Step 2
Wind the coil neatly backwards and forwards on the bobbin. A
hand drill offers a very convenient method of doing this.
Step 3
Solder the end of the winding to a second flying lead and pass
this through a drilled hole in the end of the bobbin. Test for coil
continuity before finally covering the whole winding with
adhesive tape.
66
RESOURCES
The main components referred to in this book are listed below.
For complete information on the TEP range, a comprehensive
catalogue is available from:
Teaching Resources,
Middlesex University,
Trent Park,
Bramley Road,
Oakwood,
London N14 4XS
Tel 0181 447 0342
Linear actuator
A powerful motorised miniature actuator capable of a 40mm
stroke. The ram rod can be built up in a variety of ways around a
plastic block whose movement is controlled at each stroke
extremity by limit switches. The actuator comes complete with
motor, unfitted limit switches, instruction sheet - and a
miniature slide switch for manual control.
Price: 3.50
Code: PAC 1402
Punch tool
This unique self-contained punch tool has been designed and
made in response to the demand for making holes in paper rolltubes AND for punching aluminium or plastic sheet to
accommodate the nylon bush (stock number CW4 001). The
brightly plated punch tool comes with an instruction sheet
which shows how it can be used, for example, to punch
accurately spaced holes in either plastic or aluminium sheet to
make complete gearboxes etc.
Price: 17.80
Code: IT5 007
TEP Bit by Bit Programmable Controller

This is a free standing working control board with 8 LED
'flag' outputs. The printed circuit board can be further
populated to add:
1. transistor switched outputs,
2. relay switched outputs.
The controller enables sequential control of up to eight outputs
turning motors etc. on and off. A programme is entered literally
bit by bit using small switches on the board itself - and can be
run or modified any number of times. This pack is an ideal
introduction to digital control and programming. A TEP
handbook explaining how to use the controller is available
67
These additional components (not supplied) can be soldered to

the board as and when needed. Details of these are contained in
the handbook and can be purchased from Teaching Resources
and other electronics suppliers. If the basic controller is not
extended, the 'spare' part of the board can simply be cut off!
NOTE: TEPs Bit by Bit controller is complementary to the PLC
chip kit. It offers a more basic introduction to digital control and
does not require a computer for programming.
Price: 16.00
Code: PAC BIT
Bit by Bit controller self-assembly kit

This kit provides all the components, including PCB, needed to
make the programmable controller from scratch. Assembly, to
the point of being able to program the device, takes
approximately half an hour.
Comprehensive assembly instructions are provided but a more
comprehensive programming and applications handbook is
available separately.
Price: 12.00
Code: PAC BIT1
Bit by Bit controller - output components pack

This pack contains all the parts needed to populate the lower half
of the Bit by Bit controller board with 4 relays. It contains 4
transistors (and resistors), 4 relays (and suppression capacitors), 4
diodes.
Price: 6.00
Code: PAC BIT2
Smart wire
Shape memory alloy wire - 100 micron diameter.
'Smart wire' is a shape memory alloy (SMA) that changes its
length with a useful pulling force when a small current is passed
through it. A TEP special publication describing SMA and giving
applications for use in design and technology is also available.
(Minimum order = 1 metre. This is enough for 10 useable
lengths.)
6.00 per metre Code: PAC SW1
Pultruded rod (3mm diam. 910mm long)

This material provides an inexpensive opportunity for pupils to
use an advanced composite material. The rod is glass reinforced
polyester resin with an incredibly high stength to weight ratio. It
can be used for axles or in structures and is cut either with a
junior hacksaw or TEPs special guillotine. The guillotine
provides a perfect shearing action without distortion or
fracturing of the end of the rod.
Price: 0.55
Code: CP9 005
Top hat bushes CW4 001
Compound gears TG1 000
68

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ELECTROMECHANICAL

The Engineering Council

The Engineering Council

First published by The Engineering Council 1995

All rights reserved. This book is copyright material but permission

Solenoids are used, for example, as actuators in vending

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

A relatively new branch of engineering design called mechatronics

This book examines four basic electromechanical systems and the

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

A combination of electric motor and gearbox providing rotary

Very often a gearbox is built in as an integral part of a motor

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

For most practical prototyping work you are likely to be using

A DC brush motor uses a commutator to cause the magnetic field

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

A brushless DC motor has a permanent magnet rotor and fixed

A stepper motor - sometimes called a stepping motor - has a

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

Small gearboxes are used in toys and many domestic appliances.

In one of these examples, the

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

There are several methods for making gearboxes; this section

Precious metal brushes

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

2. Gearbox using punch-tool method

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

If correctly spaced bearing holes can be punched along a pair of

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

A simple gearbox with a ratio of 3.3 to 1 can be constructed as

Step 2. Locate the motor side plate against a convenient point on

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

Note: 3mm diameter fibre-reinforced pultruded rod is an ideal

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

The TEP generator has coils rotating between fixed magnets. It

Ideally, the output of a DC generator should be smooth like that

The TEP generator, however, provides pulsating DC.

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

Improving the DC Output

The most common method of smoothing a pulsating supply, is

The unit of capacitance is the Farad which is a very large value. A

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

If we need to convert the output from an AC

When a capacitor is connected in parallel with

(In order to produce a perfect DC supply, we

A better form of rectification uses four diodes

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

The TEP Mini-Generator

To generate useful current, the armature has to be turned rapidly.

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

A Practical Mini-Generator With Gearbox

A gearbox for a the TEP generator is assembled very quickly using

This gearbox is assembled by the following steps:

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS - VERSION 1

Example: The measured distance is 32 mm and

Getting gears to mesh properly

Adding allowance of 1 mm for free running

The positions of the bearing holes for the shaft

1. Place the two gears on a flat surface with a