Forced Convection

Fluid motion past a surface increases the rate of heat transfer

between the surface and the fluid.
For example, a brisk wind increases our discomfort on a cold
day.
A flowing fluid transports thermal energy by virtue of motion.
Flow over a Flat plate

Fluid velocity at the surface of the plate is zero (no slip

boundary condition).
Velocity gradually increases with distance from the plate.
At sufficiently large distance from the plate, the fluid
velocity is equal to the free-stream velocity, V.
The region above the plate surface within which this change
of velocity from zero to the free stream value occurs is called
boundary layer, more precisely velocity boundary layer (or
momentum boundary layer or hydrodynamic boundary layer).

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Forced Convection

 The thickness of this region is called the boundary layer

thickness, .
Boundary layer thickness increases with the distance x from
the leading edge of the plate, i.e., = (x).
Thickness of the boundary layer is defined arbitrarily a
distance from the plate at which about 99% of the free stream
velocity is attained.
Local Reynolds number: Rex = Vx/, where x is the
distance from the leading edge.
Fluid motion in the boundary layer is laminar up to the point
where Rex < 15 105 ( critical Reynolds number) depends
on the roughness of the plate.
Rex > 106, boundary layer becomes fully turbulent and in
between laminar and turbulent, it is called transition zone.
Above values are not rigid as surface roughness is an
important factor.
Thermal Boundary Layer

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Forced Convection

 When heat transfer from a hot plate to a flowing fluid occurs,

a thermal boundary layer (similar to velocity boundary
layer) in the liquid is formed.
Depending on the Reynolds number, within the boundary
layer, there exist laminar, transition and turbulent zones.
The thickness of the thermal boundary layer is usually
different from hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness
and depends on the thermal properties of the fluid.
When Prandtl number, (Pr = / < 1, the momentum
boundary layer remains within the thermal boundary layer. If
Pr > 1, the reverse is true.
= / is called momentum diffusivity (m2/s), and
= k/cp is called thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
Flow across a Cylinder
Transverse flow of a fluid across a single cylinder or a bank
of cylinders is an important flow situation in industrial heat
transfer.
For example, a hot process stream flowing through a pipe
may be cooled by blowing air across the pipe. Here, also a
boundary layer forms as shown below:

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Forced Convection

 Point A is stagnation point because the fluid velocity is zero

at this point and the pressure is maximum (velocity head
converted to pressure head).
As one move away from the stagnation point along the
periphery, the boundary decelerates and its thickness
increases.
The velocity profile within the boundary layer becomes
gradually more and more flattener.
Further away from the stagnation point, the retarded layer is
unable to overcome the static pressure and the boundary layer
separates from the cylinder surface.
Downstream of this point of separation, reverse flow sets in
near the surface but forward flow continues in the outer part
of the boundary layer.
On the rear side of the cylinder, there are wakes, and the flow
becomes turbulent.
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Forced Convection

 The nature of the flow field in the boundary layer has a

profound influence on the heat transfer coefficient at the
cylinder surface.
Exact or approximate mathematical solutions to convective
heat transfer problems in simple situations are possible.
However, many of the practical industrial situations, it is
difficult calculate heat transfer coefficients.
A large number of empirical correlations have been
developed over the years to relate the heat transfer
coefficients (which itself is an empirical quantity) with
relevant properties, parameters and variables of systems.
It is convenient to correlate experimental data by using a set
of dimensionless groups. A dimensionless group is
composed of two or more variables, parameters or properties.
The technique of dimensional analysis is a powerful tool to
identify the dimensionless groups which are to be used to
correlate the variables that influence a particular physical
process.
Convective heat transfer to fluid flowing in a pipe: Heat
transfer coefficient (h) may depends on fluid velocity (V),
pipe diameter (d), thermal conductivity of the fluid (k), its
specific heat (cp), density (), and viscosity ().

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Forced Convection

Dimensional Analysis
The simplest method for selecting dimensionless groups for a
given problem is dimensional analysis using Buckingham pi
theorem and the method of indices.

Statement of Buckingham Pi Theorem:

If the equation (X1, X2, , Xn) = 0 is the only relation among the
quantities X1, X2, , Xn, and if it holds for any arbitrary choice of
the units in which these quantities are measured, then the solution
of this equation has the form f (1, 2, , m) = 0, where 1, 2,
, m are independent dimensionless products of the Xs. Further,
if p is the minimum number of primary quantities necessary to
express the dimensions of the Xs, then n p = m.
Dimensionless Groups in Convective Heat Transfer to a fluid
flowing through a circular pipe
Let us now apply the Buckingham Pi theorem to this particular
problem of heat transfer in order to identify the dimensionless
groups.

Our intention is to correlate experimental data on heat transfer

coefficient with the important quantities in heat transfer in pipe
flow:
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Forced Convection

Quantity

Unit

Dimensions

Heat transfer coefficient, h

W/m2/K

Mt-3T-1

Fluid velocity, V

m/s

Lt-1

Pipe diameter, d

Thermal conductivity, k

W/m/K

MLt-3T-1

Specific heat, cp

J/kg/K

L2t-2T-1

Density,

kg/m3

ML-3

Viscosity,

kg/m/s

ML-1t-1

Note that four primary quantities [Mass (M), Length (L), time (t)
and temperature (T)] are necessary to express the dimensions of
the quantities.
W/m2/K = (J/s)/m2/K = (Nm/s)/m2/K = (kg. m/s2)(m/s)/m2/K
W/m/K = (J/s)/m/K = (Nm/s)/m/K = (kg. m/s2)(m/s)/m/K
J/kg/K = (Nm)/kg/K = (kg. m/s2)(m)/kg/K = m2/s2/K
Therefore, the number of dimensionless groups (m) will be 7 4 = 3.

Let us select the following combinations to express 1, 2 and 3.

1 k a11 a12 a13 d a14 h a15
2 k a 21 a 22 a 23 d a 24 c p a 25
3 k a31 a32 a33 d a34 V a35

where aijs are unknown constants.

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Forced Convection

Consider the first group 1:

M 0 L0t 0T 0 ( MLt 3T 1 ) a11 ( ML1t 1 ) a12 ( ML 3 ) a13 ( L) a14 ( Mt 3T 1 ) a15

Equating the powers of M, L, t and T on both sides, we get

M:

a11 + a12 + a13 + a15 = 0

L:

a11 - a12 - 3a13 + a14 = 0

t:

-3a11 - a12 3a15 = 0

T:

- a11 - a15 = 0

Above, we have four equations in five unknowns. Let us solve

above by expressing a11, a12, a13 and a14 in terms of a15:
a11 = - a15 ; a12 = 0 ; a13 = 0 ; a14 = a15 .
Thus,

a15
1 hd

Similarly, it can be shown that

a
c p 25
dV a35
2
and 3

Thus the seven variables in this problem can be correlated through the
above three dimensionless groups.
It is also possible to arrive at the same dimensionless groups by the
method of indices in which we assume a power law dependence of h
on the remaining variables. Thus,
h C k 1 2 3 d 4 c p 5 V 6

where C and is are constants.

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Forced Convection

Writing the dimensions of the various quantities, we have

Mt 3T 1 C ( MLt 3T 1 ) 1 ( ML1t 1 ) 2 ( ML 3 ) 3 ( L ) 4 ( L2 t 2T 1 ) 5 ( Lt 1 ) 6

Equating the powers of various dimensions, we get:

Power of M:

1 + 2 + 3

Power of L:

1 - 2 - 33 + 4 + 25 + 6 = 0

Power of t:

- 31 - 2 - 25 - 6

=-3

Power of T:

- 1 - 5

=-1

=1

There are four quantities in six unknowns. Solving for any four
unknowns (say 1, 2, 3and4) in terms of the remaining two
(5and6), we get
1 = 1 5
2 = 5 6
3 = 6
4 = 6 1
Therefore,
h C (k )1 5 ( ) 5 6 ( ) 6 (d ) 6 1 (c p ) 5 (V ) 6

On rearrangement,

hd C c p
k
k

Or,

dV 6

Nu C (Pr) 5 (Re) 6

Experimental heat transfer data in pipe flow are mostly correlated

in the form of the above equation.
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Forced Convection

Dimensionless Groups in Heat Transfer:

Reynolds number defined as Re = VL/ (where L is a
characteristic length) may be interpreted as the ratio of two forces
that influence the behavior of fluid flow in the boundary layer.
These two forces are the inertia forces and viscous forces:
Re = Inertia Forces / Viscous Forces
Inertia forces V2 / L

Viscous forces V / L2

When the Reynolds number is large, the inertia forces are in

command. Viscous forces dominate the boundary layer when the
Reynolds number is small.
Reynolds number influences boundary layer thickness. As the
Reynolds number increases, the viscous layer gets squeezed into a
smaller distance from the surface.
The value of Reynolds number beyond which the flow is no longer
considered laminar is called the critical Reynolds number. For
flow over a flat plate, the critical Reynolds number is observed to
vary between 1105 to 5105 depending on the turbulence level in
the free stream and the roughness of the surface. We normally use
5105 as the critical Reynolds number for flow over flat plates.

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Forced Convection

Calculation of the Reynolds number is easy as long as you can

Identify the characteristic length

Pick the right velocity

Use a consistent set of units

For flow over a flat plate, the characteristic length is the length of
the plate and the characteristic velocity is the free stream velocity.
For pipes the characteristic length is the pipe diameter and the
characteristic velocity is the average velocity through the pipe
obtained by dividing the volumetric flow rate by the crosssectional area.
For pipes with a non-circular cross-section, the characteristic
length is the Hydraulic Diameter defined as 4A/P, where A is the
cross-sectional area of the duct and P is the wetted perimeter.
You can easily verify that for a circular pipe the hydraulic
diameter equals the pipe diameter.
For non-circular pipes the average velocity is used as the
characteristic velocity.
The situation gets messy when you are dealing with a problem
that has many velocity and length scales. You must decide, based
on your design objectives, which length and velocity length
scales make sense for calculation of the Reynolds number.

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Forced Convection

Prandtl Number
Prandtl number is defined as:
Pr

c p
k

k
c p

It is the ratio of momentum diffusivity, (kinematic viscosity) to

thermal diffusivity, .
It can be related to the thickness of the thermal and velocity
boundary layers. It is actually the ratio of velocity boundary layer
to thermal boundary layer. When Pr = 1, the boundary layers
coincide. Typical values of the Prandtl number are:
Material

Pr

Liquid metals

0.004-0.03

Gases

0.7-1.0

Water

1.7-13.7

Oils

50-100,000

When Pr is small, it means that heat diffuses very quickly

compared to the velocity (momentum). This means the thickness of
the thermal boundary layer is much bigger than the velocity
boundary layer for liquid metals.

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Forced Convection

Nusselt number
Nusselt number is the dimensionless heat transfer coefficient (h)
and appears when you are dealing with convection.
Nusselt number, Nu, which is defined as the ratio of convection
heat transfer to fluid conduction heat transfer under the same
conditions, and therefore, it provides a measure of the convection
heat transfer at the surface.
Nusselt Number: Nu = hL/k, where L denotes the characteristic
length.
A characteristic length is defined based on the geometry of the
system. In the case of flow in a pipe, the pipe diameter is taken as
characteristic length whereas for flow past a flat plate, the distance
from the leading edge is taken as the characteristic length. In a
boundary layer situation the characteristic length is the thickness of
the boundary layer.
Physical significance of Nusselt number may be arrived at in the
following way:
Consider a fluid layer of thickness L and a temperature difference
of T across this layer. Heat transfer by convection can be
calculated as hT while heat transfer by conduction is kT/L.
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Forced Convection

We define Nusselt number as the ratio of these two:

Nu = heat flux due to convection / heat flux due to conduction
= hL/k
So, the Nusselt number may be viewed as the ratio of convection
to conduction for a layer of fluid. If Nu = 1, we have pure
conduction. Higher values of Nusselt mean that the heat transfer is
enhanced by convection.
A small value of Nusselt number indicate a sluggish motion little
more effective than pure fluid conduction. For example, laminar
flow in a long pipe. A large Nusselt number means very efficient
convection. For example, turbulent pipe flow yields Nu of order
100 to 1000.

Stanton Number:
The Stanton number is defined as St = h/(Vcp)
hL
k
St h
Nu
Vc p LV c p Re Pr

If we consider a temperature difference of T across the wall and

the bulk fluid, the convective heat flux becomes hT.

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Forced Convection

Now, if a fluid flows at an average velocity V, the rate of energy

transport by bulk flow or by the movement of the liquid per unit
area of cross-section is
= (mass flow rate) (specific heat) (temperature change)
= (V) (cp) (T)
The ratio of the above two quantities is
Rate of wall heat transfer by convection
hT
h

St
(V )(c p )(T ) (V )(c p )
Rate of heat transfer by bulk flow

Peclet number
The Peclet number is the ratio of the thermal energy convected to the
fluid to the thermal energy conducted within the fluid.
Pe

VLc p
k

VL c p
Re Pr

If a fluid flows at an average velocity V, the rate of energy transport by

bulk flow is
= (mass flow rate) (specific heat) (temperature change)
= (V) (cp) (T)
The heat flux due to conduction across a distance L under the same
temperature driving force is (k/L) T. The ratio of the above two
quantities is
(V )(c p )( T )
( k / L ) T

LVc p
k

Pe

Rate of heat transfer by bulk flow

Rate of heat transfer by conduction

If Pe is small, conduction is important and in such a case, the major

source of conduction could be down the walls of a tube.
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Forced Convection

Graetz Number
The Graetz number (Gz) is a dimensionless number that characterizes
laminar flow in a conduit. The number is similar to Peclet number,
however, is used with analysis of heat transfer in laminar flow of pipes.
Graetz number defined as:

where
di is the internal diameter of the pipe, L is the pipe length over which
heat transfer occurs.

Grashof Number
Grashof number is used in connection with natural or free convection.
The Grashof number is a dimensionless number in fluid dynamics
which approximates the ratio of the buoyancy force to the viscous force
acting on a fluid.

Where g = gravity, = volumetric thermal expansion coefficient , Ts =

source temperature, Tinf = quiescent temperature, L = characteristic
length, = kinematic viscosity.
The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is a thermodynamic
property of a substance given by

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Forced Convection

where = density, T = temperature, and measures the fractional

change in density as temperature increases at constant pressure.
In natural convection the Grashof number plays the same role that is
played by the Reynolds number in forced convection.

Rayleigh Number
In fluid mechanics, the Rayleigh number for a fluid is a dimensionless
number associated with the heat transfer within the fluid.
The Rayleigh number is defined as the product of the Grashof number,
which describes the relationship between buoyancy and inertia within a
fluid, and the Prandtl number, which describes the relationship between
the viscosity of a fluid and its temperature.
Ra = Gr Pr
When the Rayleigh number is below the critical value for that fluid,
heat transfer is primary in the form of conduction; when it exceeds the
critical value, heat transfer is primarily in the form of convection.
It turns out that in natural convection the Nusselt number scales with
Rayleigh number rather than just Grashof number. Most correlations in
natural convection are of the form:

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Forced Convection

Correlations for the Heat Transfer Coefficient: External Flows

Convective heat transfer in external flows is encountered in
many practical situations.
Typical cases are
o Flow over a flat surface (e.g., convective heat transport
from a wall)
o Along or across a single pipe or a pipe bundle (e.g., heating
of air by a bundle of steam pipes)
o Over a sphere or a bed of spheres (e.g., heat transfer in
packed bed of catalyst or that in a fluidized bed)
Flow over a Flat Plate
Heat transfer in flow over a flat plate occurs through the boundary
layer formed on the plate. The flowing correlations are routinely
used for heat transfer calculations in the boundary layer flow.
For heat transfer in laminar boundary layer flow:
Nu x 0.332 Re x

Where

1
2

Pr

1
3

0.5 Pr 50

Nux is the local Nusselt number = x hx / k

Rex is the local Reynolds number = x V /

x is the distance from the leading edge of the plate, and hx is the
local heat transfer coefficient.

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Forced Convection

An average value of the heat transfer coefficient over a distance L

may be obtained as
L

hav 1 h x dx
L
0

For heat transfer in turbulent boundary layer flow, a simple

correlation in common use is
Nu x 0.0296 Re x

4
5

Pr

1
3

5 105 Re x 10 7 , 0.6 Pr 60

Example 1:
Air flows over a flat surface, 2 m in length (and 1 m in width) oriented
in the direction of flow, maintained at 150 oC. The pressure is 1 atm
and the bulk air temperature is 30 oC. If the air velocity is 12 m/s,
determine (a) the local heat transfer coefficient as a function of
longitudinal position, (b) the average heat transfer coefficient, and (c)
the rate of heat loss from the surface.
Data: The relevant physical properties of air at the mean film
temperature [(150 + 30)/2 = 90 oC] of 90 oC: = 0.962 kg/m3, =
2.131 10-5 kg/m/s, k = 0.031 W/m/ oC, cp = 1.01 kJ/kg/ oC.

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Forced Convection

Flow across a Cylinder

The correlation of Churchill and Burnstein [Journal of Heat
Transfer, 99, 300 (1977)]

Nu 0.3

1
1
0.62(Re) 2 (Pr) 3

4
55
8

Re

1 2.8210 5

0.4 3
1 (Pr)

for 102 < Re < 107, Pe = (Re) (Pr) > 0.2

Example 2:
A 0.724 mm diameter nichrome heating wire carries a current of 8.3
amperes. The wire has an electrical resistance of 2.625 ohm/m. Air
flows across the heated wire at a velocity of 10 m/s. If the bulk air
temperature is 27 oC and the pressure is essentially atmospheric, what
will be the temperature of the wire at steady-state?
Data:
The relevant physical properties of air at 27 oC:
= 1.1774 kg/m3, = 1.983 10-5 kg/m/s, k = 0.02624 W/m/ oC, cp =
1.0057 kJ/kg/ oC.
The relevant physical properties of air at 130 oC:
= 0.878 kg/m3, = 2.30 10-5 kg/m/s, k = 0.0338 W/m/ oC, cp =
1.014 kJ/kg/ oC.

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Forced Convection

Flow past a sphere:

Whitaker [AIChE Journal, 18, 361 (1972)] suggested the following
correlation:
2
1

3
2

Nu 2 0.4 (Re) 0.06 (Re)

0.4 0.25

(Pr)
w

Where is the viscosity of the fluid at the bulk temperature, and

w is that at the wall temperature. The above correlation is
applicable for both gases and liquids. The Reynolds number is
based on the diameter of the sphere. The number 2 arises out of
the contribution of conduction only when there is no motion in the
medium.
Example 3:
A ball of ice, 4 cm in diameter, at 0 oC is suspended in a dry air stream
at 25 oC which is flowing at a velocity of 2 m/s. (a) What is the initial
rate of melting of the ice? (b) How much time would be needed to melt
away 50% of the ice? Assume that the shape of the ice-ball remains
spherical all the time.
Data: Heat of fusion of ice, = 334 kJ/kg, density of ice, ice = 920
kg/m3, for air at 12.5 oC., which is the mean air-film temperature, =
1.248 kg/m3, = 1.69 10-5 kg/m/s, k = 0.026 W/m/ oC, cp = 1.005
kJ/kg/ oC.

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Forced Convection

Correlations for the Heat Transfer Coefficient: Internal Flows

Laminar flow through a circular pipe
A correlation suggested by Sieder and Tate (Industrial Engineering
Chemistry, 28, p1429, 1936):

1
3

(Re)(Pr)
Nu 1.86
L / d w

0.14

The above correlation is applicable when

0.48 < Pr < 16,700

0.0044 < (/w) < 9.75

[Pe (d/L)] > 108

The fluid properties must be evaluated at the mean bulk temperature of

the fluid. In the above, Pe = (Re) (Pr), d is the pipe diameter, L is the
pipe length, is the viscosity of the fluid at the bulk temperature and
w is the viscosity at the wall temperature, Tw.

Turbulent flow through a circular pipe

For fully developed turbulent flow through a pipe, the following
correlation suggested by Dittus and Bolter (Univ. California, Berkeley,
Pub. Eng., 2, 443, 1930):

Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n

Where n = 0.4 for heating (Tw > T) and n = 0.3 for cooling (Tw < T).

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Forced Convection

The above correlation is applicable when

0.7 < Pr < 160

(d/L) < 0.1

Re > 10,000

The above correlation is applicable for moderate values of temperature

difference between the wall and the bulk, (Tw T).
When the temperature difference between the wall and the bulk is
substantial, its effect on fluid properties, particularly on viscosity,
needs to be taken into account. For such cases, the Seider-Tate equation
(Industrial Engineering Chemistry, 28, p1429, 1936) is recommended:

Nu = 0.027 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.33 (/w)0.14

The above correlation is applicable when

0.7 < Pr < 16,700

(d/L) < 0.1

Re > 10,000

Whitaker [AIChE Journal, 18, 361 (1972)] suggested the following

correlation:

Nu = 0.015 (Re)0.83 (Pr)0.42 (/w)0.14

In case of heat transfer to and from a liquid metal, flowing through a
pipe at a constant wall temperature, the following correlation is
suggested by Seban and Shimazaki (Trans AME, 83, 803, 1951):

Nu = 5 + 0.025(Pe)0.8
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23

for Pe > 100, and L/d > 60.

Forced Convection

Flow through a Non-circular Duct

Ducts of non-circular cross-sections, rectangular or square, are often
used in the industrial and other applications. Flow through the annulus
of a double-pipe heat exchanger, flow through the shell side of shell
and tube heat exchanger and flow of hot exhaust gases through
rectangular or square ducts are a few common examples.
The above equations for estimation of the Nusselt number are generally
applicable for heat transfer calculations for flow through non-circular
ducts, but the equivalent diameter of the duct is to be used in the
calculation of the Reynolds number.
The equivalent diameter (de) is four times the hydraulic radius (rH). The
hydraulic radius is defined as

rH Cross sectional area of flow

Wetted perimeter

And

d e = 4 rH

For example, in the case of flow through a rectangular duct of sides L1

and L2, the equivalent diameter is

L L
d e (4) 1 2
2 ( L1 L2 )
It should be noted that the calculation of the wetted perimeter of a duct
in the case of heat transfer calculation may be different from that used

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Forced Convection

in the case of determination of pressure drop between two concentric

tubes in a double-pipe heat exchanger.
Let the outside diameter of the inner pipe be d1, and the inside diameter
of the outer pipe be d2. If our objective is to calculate the pressure drop
for flow through the annulus, the wetted perimeter is [d1 + d2],
because both the walls forming the annulus contribute to the frictional
pressure drop. But, if we consider heat transfer from a hot fluid flowing
through the inner pipe to a cold fluid flowing through the annulus,
wetting of the outer wall of the inner pipe only becomes relevant to the
heat transfer coefficient in the annulus. So, here the wetted perimeter is
simply, d1. The equivalent diameters of the annulus in the respective
cases are:
For pressure drop calculation:

d 2 d 2
4 2 1
d e (4)
d 2 d1
(d1 d 2 )
For heat-transfer calculation:

d 2 d 2
2 2
4 2 1 d 2 d1
d e (4)

d1
d1
Heat Transfer Coefficient in a Packed and a Fluidized Bed:
Heat transfer to or from a gas flowing through a packed bed of solid is
important in various industrial applications.
For example,
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Forced Convection

 In a gas-solid catalytic reactor heat generated by an exothermic

chemical reaction inside the catalyst pellets is conducted through
the pellets and then convected to the reaction mixture flowing
through the catalyst bed.
While drying a moist solid by passing a hot gas through it, heat
transfer from the bulk gas to the surface of the solid occurs by
forced convection through the packed bed of the material to be
dried.
A packed bed of inert solid is often used for the recovery of
waste heat from a hot gas stream. The heated bed serves as
storage of thermal energy.
The following heat transfer correlation for gas flow through a packed
bed is useful.

( St ) (Pr) 2 / 3 2.06 (Re) d 0.575 ;

p

90 (Re) d p 4000

Where
St = Nu/[(Re) (Pr)] is the Stanton number
(Re) d p

d p Vo

is the particle Reynolds number

dp is the diameter of a particle

Vo is the superficial fluid velocity (i.e., the fluid velocity based
on the cross-section of the bed).
The bed porosity or the void fraction is denoted by . Typically
varies from 0.3 to 0.5 (theoretically, = 0.69 for uniform-sized

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Forced Convection

spheres, 0.71 for a bed of cubes, and 0.79 for a bed of cylinders
having length equal to the diameter).
The group (St) (Pr)2/3 is called the Colburn factor.
Heat transfer between the fluid and the solid in a fluidized bed is also
very important in industrial applications such fluidized bed dryers,
reactors, etc. The following equation may be used for the estimation of
heat transfer coefficient to or from particles in a fluidized bed.

hd p
k

d pVo
2 0.6

1/ 2 c 1/ 3
p
k

Example 4:
A stream of solid particles at 800 oC is to be cooled to 550 oC in a
fluidized bed. Air is the fluidizing medium, and it has a mean
temperature of 500 oC in the bed. The pressure in the bed is maintained
at 1.2 atm absolute and the superficial air velocity is 0.5 m/s. Calculate
the average time of contact between the solid and the gas required for
the desired cooling of the solid.
Assume that the gas-film heat transfer resistance controls, the
temperature inside a particle remains uniform at any time, which is
reasonable if the solid has a small particle size and its thermal
conductivity value is not too small. The following data are given.
Solid particles: average particle diameter, dp = 0.65 mm; specific heat,
cps = 0.196 kcal/kg/ oC, density, s = 2550 kg/m3.
Air at 550 oC: = 0.545 kg/m3, = 3.6 10-5 kg/m/s, k = 0.05
kcal/m/h/ oC, cp = 0.263 kcal/kg/ oC.

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Forced Convection

Heat Transfer with a Variable Driving Force: Co-current and

Counter-current Operations:
The calculation of the rate of heat transfer (Q) is very simple if the
overall heat transfer coefficient (U), the area of heat transfer (A),
and the driving force (T) all remain constant.
Q = U A T
However, in many cases, one or more of these quantities may vary.
We have already discussed heat transfer through a variable area (in
the case of radial transport through a cylinder or sphere).
We have also discussed heat transfer with a variable heat transfer
coefficient (boundary layer heat transfer over a flat plate).
Let us now discuss variation of the temperature driving force with
position in a heat transfer equipment or device such as double-pipe
heat exchanger or shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
The schematic of a double-pipe heat exchanger and temperature
distribution for co-current flow is shown below:
mc, Tc2
1

dA

Tc
mh, Th2

mh, Th1
Th

mc, Tc1

Double-pipe Heat Exchanger in Parallel or Co-current flow.

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28

Forced Convection

Th1
Temperature

T1

Th2
T2
Tc2

Tc1

Distance

Temperature Distribution in Co-current Flow

Double-pipe heat exchanger consists of two concentric pipes welded at
the ends and provided with flow nozzles so that a hot and a cold fluid
can be brought in thermal contact exchange of heat. One of the fluid
flows through the pipe while the other through the annulus. If both the
streams, the hot and the cold, flow in the same direction, the flow
arrangement is called parallel or co-current. If the hot and the cold
stream flow in the opposite directions, the arrangement is called
counter-current or counter-flow. The counter-current flow arrangement
is more common because it allows exchange of more amount of heat
between the streams than by the co-current configuration.
The schematic of a double-pipe heat exchanger and temperature
distribution for counter-current flow is shown below:
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29

Forced Convection

mc, Tc2
1

dA

Tc
mh, Th2

mh, Th1
Th

mc, Tc1

Double-pipe Heat Exchanger in Counter-current flow

Temperature
T1

Th2
Tc2

Th1

T2

Tc1

Distance

Temperature Distribution in Counter-current Flow

Let us consider the schematic of a co-current flow system. The
following notations are used:
m = flow rate of the fluid streams, kg/s
cp = specific heat, J/kg/oC
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30

Forced Convection

T1, T2 = Temperatures of the fluid stream at the ends 1 and 2

T = Th Tc = Driving force at any section
The subscript h refers to the hot fluid and c to the cold fluid, and
Th and Tc are the local temperatures of the respective streams.
Let us assume that the hot fluid flows through the inner pipe and
transfers heat through its wall to the cold fluid flowing through the
annulus. The temperatures of both the streams vary with the position
along the device.
Consider a thin section of the device having a heat transfer area of dA
(i.e., the area of the wall of the inner pipe in this section is dA). The
local temperatures of the fluids are Th and Tc for the hot and the cold
fluid, respectively. If U is the overall heat transfer coefficient (assumed
constant), the rate of heat transfer, dQ, at steady-state through the small
area dA may be written as
dQ = U dA (Th - Tc) = U dA T

(1)

Also a heat balance over the thin section gives

dQ = - mh cph dTh = mc cpc dTc

(2)

Here dTh and dTc are the changes in the temperatures of the hot and
cold streams over the thin section due to the exchange of heat. The hot
stream cools down as it flows through the pipe and hence dTh is
negative.
We can substitute Th = Tc + T in (2) and eliminate Tc. Thus,

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31

Forced Convection

dQ = - mh cph dTh = - mh cph d(Tc + T)

= - mh cph dTc - mh cph d(T)
mh c ph

= m c dQ - mh cph d(T)

c pc

(substituting dTc from Eq. (2))

Therefore,

m h c ph mc c pc
dQ
d (T )

m
c
m
c
c pc
h ph

(3)

But,

dQ = U dA T

Or,

m h c ph mc c pc
dQ
d (T ) = U dA T

m
c
m
c
c pc
h ph

Or,

mh c ph mc c pc
d ( T )

U dA
m
c
T
h
ph
m
c

h ph

(from Eq. (1))

(4)

Boundary conditions:
At end 1:

A = 0,

T = Th1 Tc1 = T1

(5a)

At end 2:

A = A,

T = Th2 Tc2 = T2

(5b)

Therefore,
T2 d ( T ) mh c ph mc c pc A

U dA
T
m
c
h
ph
m
c
h ph 0
T1

Or,

T1 mh c ph mc c pc

ln
U A
T2 mh c ph mh c ph

Or,

mh c ph mc c pc

UA
mh c ph mc c pc ln T1
T
2

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32

(6)

Forced Convection

Now, let us write the heat balance equations for the hot stream and the
cold stream over the heat exchange device. If Q is the total rate of heat
transfer, we have
Q = mh cph (Th1 Th2) = mc cpc (Tc2 Tc1)

(7)

Therefore,
(Th1 Th2) = Q / mh cph
(Tc2 Tc1) = Q / mc cpc
Adding,

1
1

(Th1 Th2) + (Tc2 Tc1) = Q m c

h ph mc c pc

Or,

mh c ph mc c pc
Q

(Th1 Tc1) - (Th2 Tc2) = m c

h
ph
m
c

h ph

Or,

mh c ph mc c pc
Q

T1 - T2 = m c
h
ph
m
c

h ph

Or,

mh c ph mc c pc
Q
( T1 T2 )
m
c
m
c

h
ph
c
pc

Substituting Eq. (6) in the above equation, we have

Q

UA ( T T )
1
2
T1
ln
T2

(8)

If we define Tm as an appropriate mean driving force over the entire

length of the device, we have
Q = U A Tm
Therefore, Tm =

Ray, AK

(9)

( T1 T2 )
T
ln 1
T2

(10)

33

Forced Convection

Equation (10) is one of the most important equations in heat transfer

calculation. It shows that when the temperature driving force varies
from one end of a heat exchange device to the other, the log mean
temperature difference, Tm, given above is the applicable mean
driving force.
Let us now consider the case of heat exchange between a hot and a cold
fluid in countercurrent flow.
mc, Tc2
Tc

dA Tc + dTc
mh, Th2

mh, Th1
2

Th

Th + dTh
mc, Tc1

Overall energy balance:

Or,

Q = mh cph (Th1 Th2) = mc cpc (Tc2 Tc1)

(11)

T h1 T h 2
1

Q
m h c ph

(12)

and

Tc 2 Tc1
1

Q
mc c pc

Energy balance over a thin section of the device of area dA:

dQ = - mh cph dTh = mc cpc dTc = U dA (Th - Tc) = U dA T

(13)

The local temperatures of the fluids are Th and Tc for the hot and the
cold fluid, respectively, U is the overall heat transfer coefficient

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34

Forced Convection

(assumed constant), and dQ is the rate of heat transfer at steady-state

through the small area dA.
Therefore,
dTh

T T
dQ
h1 h2 dQ
mh c ph
Q

T T
dQ
c 2 c1 dQ
Q
mc c pc

And

dTc

Now,

d(T) = d(Th Tc) = dTh dTc = - (-dTh + dTc)

dQ
= Th1 Th2 Tc 2 Tc1
Q

= (Th1 Tc1 ) (Th2 Tc 2 )

dQ
Q

dQ
= (T1 T 2
Q

U T dA
= (T2 T1 )
Q
Or,

d ( T ) U ( T2 T1 ) dA

T
Q

Integrating,

T2
d (T ) U (T2 T1 )

T
Q

T
1

Or,

T
ln 2 UA T2 T1
T1 Q

Or,

Ray, AK

(from Eq. (13))

Q U A

T2 T1
T
ln 2
T1
35

A
dA
0

U A [ LMTD]

Forced Convection

Example 5:
Lubricating oil used in the gearbox of a 14,000 rpm high speed blower
is being recycled continuously through a double-pipe heat exchanger
for cooling. The oil is to be cooled from 70 oC to 40 oC at the rate of
1000 kg/h using water entering at 28 oC. The water temperature at the
exit should not exceed 42 oC. The specific heat of oil is 2.05 kJ/kg/ oC
and that of water is 4.17 kJ/kg/ oC. Calculate the required rate of flow
of water. If the heat exchange area is 2.0 m2, calculate the overall heat
transfer coefficient.
Example 6:
Nitrogen gas is heated at a rate of 2000 kg/h before passing it through
the trays in a tray drier in which an organic product is being dried.
Medium pressure steam is available from a waste heat boiler at a
pressure of 5.7 bar (saturation temperature = 160 oC) condenses within
the tubes of a finned tube heater. The gas flows outside the tubes. The
heat duty is 38,700 kcal/h. The specific heat of nitrogen can be taken as
0.239 kcal/kg/ oC. The heat exchanger has an area of 10 m2 and the
overall heat transfer coefficient is estimated at 70 kcal/h/m2/ oC. The fin
efficiency is 63%. Calculate the inlet and the outlet temperatures of the
gas.
Example 7:
Hot water is flowing through a 3.5 cm schedule 40 steel pipe (i.d. = 3.5
cm, wall thickness = 3.6 mm, kw = 43 W/m/ oC) at a velocity of 1.8 m/s.
The inlet temperature is 110 oC, and the length of the pipe is 15 m. A 2
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36

Forced Convection

cm thick layer of insulation (kc = 0.12 W/m/ oC) covers the pipe. The
outside film coefficient is 10 W/m/ oC, and the ambient temperature is
20 oC. Calculate the drop in the temperature of the water over this
section of the pipe.
Note that (a) heat loss from the pipe occurs under a variable driving
force that changes from one end of the pipe to the other, (b) there are
four resistances in series: the tube-side resistance, the resistance owing
to the pipe wall and that owing to the insulation, and the external
resistance because of an air-film. Calculate the tube-side heat transfer
coefficient using the Dittus-Bolter equation: Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.3.
Since the outlet temperature is not known, use the property values of
water at 110 oC. Properties of water at 110 oC: , = 950 kg/m3, =
2.55 10-4 kg/m/s, k = 0.685 W/m/ oC, cp = 4.23 kJ/kg/ oC.
Example 8:
A 41 mm i.d. schedule 40 pipe (i.d. = 4.1 cm, wall thickness = 3.7 mm)
carries water flowing at a rate of 1 kg/s. Water enters the pipe at 28 oC
and is heated by a stream of hot flue gas in cross-flow over the pipe.
The gas velocity is 10 m/s. The arrangement essentially aims at
recovering a part of the waste heat of the gas stream which has a bulk
temperature of 250 oC. The pressure is essentially atmospheric. The
length of the pipe is 20 m. At what temperature does the water leave the
pipe? The properties of the flue gas are about the same as those of the
air.

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37

Forced Convection

Note that here heating occurs under a variable driving force which is
maximum at the inlet to the pipe and decreases along the length
because of a rise in the water temperature. Neglect the thermal
resistance of the pipe wall.
Data: For water at 28 oC: , = 996 kg/m3, = 8.6 10-4 kg/m/s, k =
0.528 kcal/m/h/ oC, cp = 1.0 kcal/kg/ oC.
For the flue gas (same as air) at the mean temperature of 139 oC [
(28+250)/2]: = 0.891 kg/m3, = 2.33 10-5 kg/m/s, k = 0.0292
kcal/m/h/ oC, cp = 0.243 kcal/kg/ oC.
Example 9:
Hot engine oil has to be cooled from 110 oC to 70 oC in a counter flow
double-pipe heat exchanger at a rate of 500 kg/h. The exchanger
consists of a 1 inch 14 BWG inner tube (i.d. = 21.2 mm, o.d. = 25.4
mm) and a 35 mm schedule 40 outer pipe (i.d. = 35 mm). The oil flows
through the annulus and the cooling water flows through the tube,
entering at 29 oC and leaving at 40 oC. Calculate the length of the heat
exchanger. The following data are available:
For oil: = 850 kg/m3, k = 0.12 kcal/m/h/ oC, cp = 0.478 kcal/kg/ oC.
Viscosity of the oild is a strong function of temperature and is given as
ln = [5550/T 19] kg/m/s, where T is in K.
For water at the mean liquid temperature: = 7.1 10-4 kg/m/s, k =
0.542 kcal/m/h/ oC, cp = 1.0 kcal/kg/ oC, = 996 kg/m3.

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38

Forced Convection

Flow across a Bank of Tubes

Cross flow of a fluid, particularly of a gas like air, over a tube bank,
either aligned or staggered, is important in many heat transfer
applications and equipment.
Typical applications are
Waste heat recovery from hot flue gases,
Flow of hot combustion gases across the tube bank in a watertube boiler,
Air flow over tubes containing refrigerants in an air-cooler, etc.

Flow across a tube bank: Aligned and Staggered.

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39

Forced Convection

The flowing correlation for Nusselt number proposed by Zhukauskas

[Advance Heat Transfer, 8, 1972]:

Nu h d C Re d , max m Pr 0.36
k

Pr
Prw

0.25

Where
h = Mean heat transfer coefficient

Red,max = (d Vmax )/
Pr = Bulk Prandtl number
Prw = Wall Prandtl number
and
Vmax

ST
V
ST d

for the aligned arrangement

Vmax

ST
V
2S D d

for the staggered arrangement

However, if the Vmax value calculated for the aligned arrangement is

larger than that calculated for the staggered arrangement, the former
value should be used.
The constants C and m in the above correlation are given below:
Configuration

Red,max

Aligned

103 2 105

0.27

0.63

Aligned

2 105 2 106

0.21

0.84

Staggered [ST/SL < 2]

103 2 105

0.35[ST/SL]0.2

0.60

Staggered [ST/SL > 2]

103 2 105

0.40

0.60

0.022

0.84

Staggered

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2 105 2 106

40

Forced Convection

Above correlation gives very good prediction

when the number of tube rows in the bank, N 20,
0.7 < Pr < 500, and
1000 < Red,max < 2,000,000.
However, the above correlation can be used even when N < 20.
If N = 4, the maximum error in prediction is around 25%.
In the figure, Ti denotes the temperature of the gas stream as it enters
the tube bundle. However, when the gas flows across the bundle its
temperature changes, and so does the gas phase temperature driving
force even when the tube surface temperature remains constant. In such
a case, it is necessary to use log mean temperature difference to
estimate the driving force, which is given by
Tm LMTD

(Ti Ts ) (To Ts )
(T T )
ln i s
(To Ts )

Where
Ts = constant tube surface temperature
Ti = gas temperature at the inlet of the tube bundle
To = temperature of the gas leaving the tube bundle
While the inlet temperature Ti is known, the exit temperature To can be
calculated from

To Ts
dNh
exp

Ti Ts
VN T ST c p

Where N is the total number of tubes and NT is the number of tubes in a

transverse row.
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41

Forced Convection

Example 10:

A large volume of exhaust gas available at 260 oC is used to preheat process

water. The gas flows across a tube bank and water flows through the tubes.
The outside diameter of the tubes is 6.0 cm. The tube bank has 15 transverse
rows and 14 longitudinal rows. The tubes are spaced 15 cm centre-to-centre
in an equilateral triangle arrangement. The hot gas approaches the tube bank
at a velocity of 16 m/s. If the tube surface temperature is 70 oC, calculate the
rate of heat transfer to water per meter length of the tube bank.
Data: Assume the properties of the exhaust to be same as those of air at 260
o

C: = 0.73 kg/m3, = 4.43 10-5 m2/s, cp = 0.248 kcal/kg/ oC, k = 0.0375

kcal/h/m/ oC. Prandtl number of air at the wall temperature (70 oC), Prw =
0.70

Momentum and Heat Transfer Analogies:

It is well known that the basic laws of transport of momentum and
heat are expressible in similar forms.
Consider laminar flow of fluid through a circular pipe:
Radial transport of momentum in the pipe occurs from a faster
moving layer to a slower moving layer according to the Newtons
law of viscosity

du x

d u x d u x
dr
dr
dr

(1)

Where
is the shear stress (also called the momentum flux),
is the viscosity, and
ux(r) is the radial distribution of axial velocity in the pipe.
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42

Forced Convection

 The quantity ux [(kg m/s)/m3] is the volumetric concentration of

x-momentum (or the momentum in the axial direction),
= / [m2/s] is the momentum diffusivity also known as
kinematic viscosity.
Therefore, Momentum flux =
(Momentum diffusivity) (Gradient of the concentration of the momentum)

Now consider the case of heat transfer to the fluid from the pipe of
the wall, which is maintained at a higher temperature and the fluid
gets heated as it flows through the pipe. The radial heat flux at the
wall is given by the Fouriers law

qk

dTx
k d c p Tx d c p Tx
dr
dr
c p dr

(2)

T increases with r, and therefore, the negative sign is not used.

is the thermal diffusivity in m2/s.
cp Tx) [kJ/m3] is the volumetric concentration of heat energy.
Therefore, Heat flux =
(Thermal diffusivity) (Gradient of the concentration of heat energy)

The flux equations and their physical representations given above for
the laminar flow show the similarity of the basic laws of momentum
and heat transport. The diffusivities of momentum and heat, i.e., and
have identical units, m2/s.

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43

Forced Convection

 However, the properties of momentum or heat (or mass) in a

turbulent medium are not governed by the above simple laws.
Randomly moving tiny fluid elements, called eddies, act as the
carriers of momentum, heat (or mass) in a turbulent medium.
The movement of eddies is primarily responsible for transport in the
regions of a medium where the intensity of turbulence is high.
But, in the region close to the wall, the fluid motion is almost
laminar, and diffusional transport dominates.
A simple way of expressing the momentum or heat flux in a
turbulent medium was originally put forward by Reynolds who
argued that the laws of diffusional transport as given above (Eqs. 1
and 2) for laminar flow are still applicable in turbulent flow, but the
contributions of the eddy exchange should be incorporated in terms
of separate parameters.
The modified transport laws in a turbulent medium are given by
d
Turbulent transport of momentum: ( M ) u x
dr

q ( H ) d c pTx
dr

Turbulent transport of heat:

(3)

(4)

Where M and H stand for the eddy diffusivities of momentum and

heat respectively.
Note that if the transport of heat occurs from the fluid to the wall
(i.e., cooling of the fluid), the right side of eq. (4) should have a
negative sign.

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44

Forced Convection

Equation (3), written for r = R (i.e., at the wall) gives the wall shear
stress.

w ( M ) d u x r R 1 fV 2
dr
2

(5)

The RHS of Eq. (5) follows from the definition of Fanning friction
factor, f. In Eq. (5), V is the mean fluid velocity in the pipe and w is
the wall shear stress. If we define dimensionless velocity as

u
u x

(6)

Then, Eq. (5) can be re-written for the dimensionless velocity gradient
at the wall as

dr r R ( Mw )V 2( fV M )

du

(7)

Similarly, Eq. (4) can be written at r = R for the wall heat flux and for
the wall temperature profile. Thus,

Or,

qw ( H ) d c p uTx
h Tw Tm
dr
rR

(8)

dT
h

dr r R c p ( H )

(9)

Where
qw = wall heat flux
h = wall heat transfer coefficient
T = dimensionless temperature =

T
Tw Tm

Tm = mean fluid temperature

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45

Forced Convection

The analogy between momentum and heat transfer in pipe flow

was first quantified by Reynolds on the specific assumption that
(a) the

gradients

of

the

dimensionless

velocity

and

the

dimensionless temperature at the wall are equal, and

(b) ( + M) = ( + H)
Then, from Eq. (7) and (9), we have

dr r R 2( fV M ) ddrT r R c p (h H )

du

Putting, ( + M) = ( + H), we have

fV
h
cp
2

Or,

h f
V c p
2

Or,

hd
f
k

2
dV c p

Or,

Nu St h f
(Re)(Pr)
Vc p
2

(10)

Equation (10) is called the Reynolds analogy and can be used to

determine the heat transfer coefficient if the friction factor f is
known. For laminar flow, f = 16/Re (Hagen-Poiseuille equation), then
we have

St 8

(11)

Re

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46

Forced Convection

Prandtl, in 1910, provided a more realistic picture of the turbulent

transport by assuming that momentum and heat transfer occur through
eddy exchange or eddy transport in a turbulent core and through
diffusive transport in the laminar sub-layer near the wall.
With the above assumption, Prandtl developed the following equation
relating the Stanton number with the Fanning friction factor.

St

f /2
Nu h
(Re)(Pr) Vc p 1 5 f / 2 (Pr 1)

(12)

The above equation is called the Prandtl analogy. It reduces to

Reynolds analogy when Pr = 1.
Chilton and Colburn (1934) observed that experimental heat transfer
data could be better correlated by replacing the denominator in Prandtl
analogy, [1+5(f/2)0.5 (Pr -1)] by (Pr)2/3 in Eq. (12). That is,

St

Or,

Nu h f / 2
(Re)(Pr) Vc p (Pr) 2 / 3

f
Nu
jH
2
(Re)(Pr)1 / 3

(13)

(14)

Eq.(14) is called the Chilton-Colburn analogy and the LHS of Eq.

(14) is the well known Colburn j-factor (jH). While the Reynolds
analogy applies only to fluids for which the Prandtl number is close to
unity, the Colburn analogy applies over a range of Prandtl numbers
from 0.6 to 120.

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47

Forced Convection

Using the well known correlation for the friction factor

f = 0.046 (Re)-0.2

(15)

for pipe flow (5000 < Re < 200,000), the j-factor is given by
jH = 0.023 (Re)-0.2

(16)

For 3,000 < Re < 3,000,000, one can use the following correlation for
the friction factor
f 0.0014 0.125

(17)

Re 0.32

Note that all analogy equations connecting f and h have an important

limitation; they apply only to wall.
Example 11:

Aniline is a tonnage organic chemical used as a raw material for dye

intermediates, rubber chemicals and for isocyanates (isocyanates are the
starting materials for polyurethanes, a very important commercial polymer).
The modern method of manufacture of aniline is vapor phase catalytic
reduction of nitrobenzene by hydrogen.
The reaction gas mixture leaving the catalytic reactor in an aniline plant is
condensed in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. Condensation occurs in the
shell-side while cooling water flows through the tubes. The tubes are 3 m
long with 21.2 mm i.d and 25 mm o.d. Water flows at a rate of 0.057 m3 per
minute per tube. Water enters at 32 oC. The tube wall temperature may be
assumed to remain constant at 80 oC. Calculate the rise in temperature of
water as it flows through the tubes. The heat transfer coefficient may be
estimated from the Dittus-Bolter equation as well as from the heat transfer

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48

Forced Convection

analogies described above, taking the physical properties of water at the

mean fluid temperature.
Data: For water at 32 oC: = 995 kg/m3, = 7.65 10-4 kg/m/s, k = 0.623
W/m/oC, cp = 4.17 kJ/kg/ oC and at 40 oC: = 991 kg/m3, = 6.2 10-4
kg/m/s, k = 0.623 W/m/oC, cp = 4.17 kJ/kg/ oC

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49

Forced Convection