By

Mohammed Osama Abdel Rahman

El Samadony

Preface
There is much public concern about the issues surrounding the
effects of electromagnetic fields on health in particular, the
potential health effects of new communication technologies such
as mobile telephones. This report extensively describes what
electromagnetic fields are, where they are found, and what is
being done to investigate their potential for affecting our health.
There are maximum exposure limits that are reviewed in the
light of scientific researches.__________________________

CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Introduction..
1.1 Overview
1.2 The growing concern

5
5
6

Chapter 2 Characteristics of Electromagnetic fields .

2.1 Physics of EMFs
2.2 The electromagnetic spectrum

7
7
9

Chapter 3 Sources of Electromagnetic field ...

3.1 Natural sources
3.2 Man-made sources

10
10
16

Chapter 4 EMF Impact on Environment .....

4.1 Human being
4.2 Animals
4.3 Vegetation
4.4 Aquatic Life

24
24
28
29
30

Chapter 5 Standards and Guidelines ........

31

References .........

35

ABBREVIATIONS

ELF
EMF
ICNIRP
IEEE
NIR
RF
UV
WHO

Extremely Low Frequency

Electromagnetic Field
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation
Protection
Institute for the Electric and Electronic Engineers
Non-Ionizing Radiations
Radiofrequency
Ultraviolet
World Health Organization

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview:
Recent years have seen an unprecedented increase in the number and
diversity of sources of electric and magnetic fields (EMF) used for
individual, industrial and commercial purposes. Such sources include
televisions, radios, computers, mobile cellular phones, microwave
ovens, radars and equipments used in industry, medicine and commerce.
All these technologies have made our life richer and easier. Modern
society is inconceivable without computers, television and radio. Mobile
phones have greatly enhanced the ability of individuals to communicate
with each other and have facilitated the dispatch of emergency medical
and police aid to persons in both urban and rural environments. Radars
make air traveling much safer [1].
Simultaneously, these technologies have brought with them concerns
about possible health risks associated with their use. Such concerns
have been raised about the safety of cellular mobile telephones, electric
power lines and speed-control radars. Scientific reports have suggested
that exposure to electromagnetic fields emitted from these devices could
have adverse health effects, such as cancer, reduced fertility, memory
loss, and adverse changes in the behaviour and development of children.
However, the actual level of health risk is not known, although for
certain types of EMF it may be very low or non-existent.
5

There is also confusion about the biological effects of non-ionizing

radiations (e.g radio waves, microwaves, etc.) versus ionizing radiations
such as X-rays and gamma rays [1].
The conflict between concerns about possible health effects from
exposure to EMF and the development of electricity supply and
telecommunications facilities have led to considerable economic
consequences. For example, electrical utilities in many countries have
had to divert high voltage transmission lines around populated areas and
even halt their construction. The installation of base stations for mobile
telephone systems has been delayed or has met opposition from the
public because of concerns that the RF emissions from these base
stations might cause cancer in children. In the United States, for
example, 85% of the total number of base stations needed have yet to be
constructed [1].
Measures to significantly reduce electric and magnetic fields in the
environment, below what is now commonly accepted, are costly. It has
been estimated that concerns about EMF and health are now costing the
United States economy alone about US$ 1 billion annually. However,
if unacceptable health risks do occur, costly prevention measures will be
required [1].

1.2 The Growing Concern:

In the last two decades, awareness has increased for this health hazard
problem and many institutions both public and private, expressed great
interests in the electromagnetic fields impact on environment as a global
issue and the human health as specific issue, resulting in a more precise

definitions for the problem and standards that ensures its elimination or
reduction.
All over the world, numerous studies have been carried out on the
possible effects of electromagnetic fields on humans, animals, plants and
cell or tissue cultures, and a series of large-scale epidemiological surveys
has also been conducted.
Based on these research results and upon evaluations of biological
effects that have been established to have health consequences, The
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
(ICNIRP) developed a guidline for emf exposure limits [2].
Disparities in EMF standards around the world have caused increasing
public anxiety about EMF exposures from the introduction of new
technologies. Therefore, the World Health Organization (WHO)
commenced a process of harmonization of electromagnetic fields (EMF)
standards worldwide. Future standards will be based on the results of the
WHO's International Electromagnetic Field Project [2].

Chapter 2

CHARACTERISTICS OF
ELECTOMMAGNETIC FIELDS
2.1 Physics Of EMFs:
When current flows in a wire, there is also a magnetic field generated
around it, which is the fundamental concept behind an electromagnet [3].
This magnetic field radiates away from the wire in a circular fashion (Fig.
1). The combination of these two fields is what we call an
electromagnetic field (EMF) [4]. The electric field describes the force
created by electric charges, and the magnetic field describes the force
caused by moving charges in the form of electric current.

Fig. 1 Electromagnetic field around a conductor [4].

Electric fields are produced by voltage and increase in strength as the

voltage increases. The electric field strength is measured in units of volts
per meter (V/m). Magnetic fields result from the flow of current through
wires or electrical devices and increase in strength as the current
8

increases. Magnetic field strength is usually measured in units of ampere

per meter (A m1). A related quantity is magnetic flux density, measured
in tesla (T). The other unit frequently seen in the literature is milligauss
(10 mG = 1 T) [5].

The electric and magnetic fields that combine to form an electromagnetic

wave travel at right angles to each other and to the direction of motion. In
following figure (Fig. 2), imagine this electromagnetic wave front
jk
jjjj

traveling to the right of the page. The electric field ( E ) in this illustration
consists of waves that rise and fall in a vertical plane, while the waves of
jjk
jjjj

the magnetic field ( H ) vibrate back and forth on a horizontal plane. These
waves, vibrating at right angles to each other, are inseparable and cannot
be defined individually. In other words, an oscillating field of electrical
energy will always create a magnetic field, and a moving magnetic field
will always create an electrical field; one causes and depends on the
other, and, together they form electromagnetic radiation [3].

Fig. 2 A schematic view of an electromagnetic field propagating along the Z-axis.

jk
jjjj
jjk
jjjj
The electric E and magnetic H fields oscillate in the x-y plane
and perpendicular to the direction of propagation [3].

In general, the electricity supply produces undistorted sinusoidal

waveforms with a frequency of 50-60 Hz. However, in some situations
the EMFs may contain additional frequency components called
harmonics, which are multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Electric fields are shielded or weakened by materials that conduct
electricity, even materials that conduct poorly, including trees, buildings,
and human skin. Magnetic fields, however, pass through most materials
and are therefore more difficult to shield. Both electric fields and
magnetic fields decrease rapidly as the distance from the source increases
(Fig. 4).

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4 Magnetic Field Strength Decrease with Distance

(a) Magnetic field near the ground for some typical overhead power lines [6].
(b) Magnetic field for typical photocopier [5].

2.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum:

One of the main characteristics which define an electromagnetic field
(EMF) is its frequency or its corresponding wavelength. Fields of
different frequencies interact with the body in different ways. One can
imagine electromagnetic waves as series of very regular waves that travel
10

at an enormous speed, the speed of light. The frequency simply describes

the number of oscillations or cycles per second, while the term
wavelength describes the distance between one wave and the next.
The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is simply the number of
oscillations which passes a fixed point per unit of time. It is measured in
cycles per second, or hertz. One cycle per second equals one hertz (Hz).
Large divisions commonly used to describe radio frequency (RF) fields
include the kilohertz (kHz), or one thousand cycles per second; the
megahertz (MHz), one million cycles per second; and the gigahertz
(GHz), one billion cycles per second.
Hence wavelength and frequency are inseparably intertwined; the
wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency. The middle of the
AM broadcast band, for example, has a frequency of one million hertz (1
MHz) and a wavelength of about 300 meters. Microwave ovens use a
frequency of 2.45 billion hertz (2.45 GHz) and a wavelength of 12
centimeters [5].
Many properties of EMF depend on its frequency. For example, heating
(thermal) effects are produced at microwave and infrared frequencies, and
the ability to knock electrons from atoms (ionization) appears at X-ray
and gamma ray frequencies. An electromagnetic wave consists of very
small packets of energy called photons. The energy in each packet or
photon is directly proportional to the frequency of the wave: The higher
the frequency, the larger the amount of energy in each photon [4].
The electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 5) encompasses a wide variety of
electromagnetic fields, including static fields, radio frequency fields,
11

ultraviolet (UV) radiation, visible light and X-ray radiation.

Electromagnetic waves at low frequencies are referred to as
"electromagnetic fields" and those at very high frequencies are called
"electromagnetic radiations". According to their frequency and energy,
electromagnetic waves can be classified as either "ionizing radiations" or
"non-ionizing radiations" (NIR) [4].
a) Ionizing radiations:
The frequency of ionizing radiation is measured in millions or
trillions of hertz (cycles per second). The energy contained in a
given photon is proportional to its frequency, which means that the
higher the frequency, the higher the energy. The tremendous photon
energy of X-rays and gamma rays (because of their extremely high
frequencies) is capable of changing the internal structure of atoms
and molecules, as well as being immensely penetrating. This is the
sort of radiation we associate with radioactive substances such as
uranium, radium, and radiation emitted during atomic and
thermonuclear explosions. Ionizing radiation has sufficient energy
to cause actual chemical changes to take place within the molecular
structure of matter, damaging the cells of living tissues by creating
electrically charged, or ionized, molecules, and causing genetic
mutations. These deadly rays are particularly dangerous because
they are initially imperceptible, causing little or no temperature rise
within the exposed matter, and since their damaging effects are
cumulative, even slight exposure is hazardous[4].
b) Non-ionizing radiations:
Non-ionizing radiations is a general term for that part of the
electromagnetic spectrum which has photon energies too weak to
break atomic bonds. They include ultraviolet (UV) radiation,

12

visible light, infrared radiation, radiofrequency and microwave

fields, extremely low frequency (ELF) fields, as well as static
electric and magnetic fields.
Even high intensity NIR cannot cause ionization in a biological
system. NIR, however, have been shown to produce other
biological effects, for instance, by heating, altering chemical
reactions or inducing electrical currents in tissues and cells[4].

Fig. 5 Electromagnetic spectrumTypes of EMF Radiation.

13

Chapter 3

SOURCES OF EMFs
The sources of power frequency EMFs are divided broadly into those
produced by natural processes and those generated by human activity.
Naturally occurring EMFs arise from electrical processes associated with
the Earth and the atmosphere. In most environments the dominant source
of exposure is that associated with the generation, transmission and use of
electricity. People are exposed directly through the use of electrical
appliances or equipment, or incidentally through working close to heating
systems and power supplies.

3.1 Natural Sources:

3.1.1 Sun radiation:
The Sun emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. We see
this radiation as light in the visible region and feel it at infrared
wavelengths as 'heat'. Other radiation is also emitted as X-rays and radio
waves. All of these are electromagnetic waves and are part of the
electromagnetic spectrum [3]. The proportion of each type of radiation
emitted by the sun is shown in the diagram (Fig. 6):
Several measurements made in high quote atmosphere show that a
surface of 1 cm2, adsorbing solar energy perpendicularly to the solar rays,
adsorbs a heat quantity of 1983 calorie for each minute. This number is
said solar constant. Being 1calorie = 4184 joule the solar constant in the
International System is given by 1380 Joule per m2 and per sec. These
14

data corresponds to an electrical field of 700 V/m and to a magnetic field

of 2.5 microtesla. The centre of the spectrum of the solar radiation is
given by a wavelength of 510 nm corresponding to green light [3].

Fig. 6 Electromagnetic radiation from the sun.

3.1.2 Electric and magnetic field of the earth:

Static electric and magnetic fields (constant fields) of significant field
strength have always existed on this planet.
The movement of air in the atmosphere and the ionising effect of cosmic
radiation in the higher regions, the ionosphere, create a field of direct
electric current between the surface of the Earth and the ionosphere.
Under normal weather conditions, the field strength near the ground is
around 100-500 V/m, whereas it can rise to 20,000 V/m (20 kV/m) during
storms. Alternating currents at frequencies used in energy supply are
practically non-existent. The natural background field strength at 50 Hz is
only 0.1 mV/m.
This natural static geomagnetic field (Fig. 7) varies in strength from 35 to
70 microtesla (T) and is enough to deflect compass needles, and assist in
the navigation and migration of some birds and fish. This constant field is
created by circular action in the Earth's core. Extremely high field
15

strengths can occur in the vicinity of lightning (up to 1 T, which can cause
heart failure in humans). Small variations in flux density are induced by
the solar wind, which distorts the earth's magnetic field due to its streams
of charged particles. Furthermore, global storm activity also results in
high-frequency components within the magnetic field. However, these are
so small that at 50 Hz the alternating field component is merely 10-6 T
[7].

Fig. 7 Natural electric (direct) and magnetic (constant) fields [7].

3.2 Man-Made Sources:

3.2.1 Power lines:
Power transmission lines bring power from a generating station to an
electrical substation. Power distribution lines bring power from the
substation to your home. Transmission and distribution lines can be either
overhead or underground. Overhead lines produce both electric fields and
magnetic fields. Underground lines do not produce electric fields above
ground but may produce magnetic fields above ground.

16

Power transmission lines: High voltage lines in most of the world

have a voltage of 132 kV to 380 kV and a frequency of 50 to 60
Hz. Typical EMF levels for transmission lines are shown in the
chart (Fig. 8). The distance at which the magnetic field from the
line becomes indistinguishable from typical background levels
differs for different types of lines [5].

Fig. 8 Typical EMF Levels for Power Transmission Lines.

These are typical EMFs at 1 m above ground
for various distances from power lines [5].

Electric fields from power lines are relatively stable because line
voltage doesnt change very much. Magnetic fields on most lines
fluctuate greatly as current changes in response to changing loads.
Magnetic fields must be described statistically in terms of
averages, maximums, etc. The magnetic fields above are means
calculated for 321 power lines for 1990 annual mean loads. During
peak loads (about 1% of the time), magnetic fields are about twice
as strong as the mean levels above. The graph shown (Fig. 9) is an
example of how the magnetic field varied during one week for one
500-kV transmission line [5].

17

Fig. 9 Magnetic Field from a 500-kV Transmission Line

Measured Every 5 Minutes for 1 Week

[5].

Power distribution lines: Typical voltage for power distribution

lines ranges from 4 to 24 kilovolts (kV). Electric field levels
directly beneath overhead distribution lines may vary from a few
volts per meter to 100 or 200 volts per meter. Magnetic fields
directly beneath overhead distribution lines typically range from 10
to 20 mG for main feeders and less than 10 mG for laterals. Such
levels are also typical directly above underground lines. Peak EMF
levels, however, can vary considerably depending on the amount of
current carried by the line. Peak magnetic field levels as high as 70
mG have been measured directly below overhead distribution lines
and as high as 40 mG above underground lines [5].

Power substations: In general, the strongest EMF around the

outside of a substation comes from the power lines entering and
leaving the substation. The strength of the EMF from equipment
within the substations, such as transformers, reactors, and capacitor
banks, decreases rapidly with increasing distance. Beyond the

18

substation fence or wall, the EMF produced by the substation

equipment is typically indistinguishable from background levels.
3.2.2 Household appliances:
In our houses there are many appliances which once activated create
electromagnetic fields. These fields typically act over a small area
(diameter of one meter, more or less). Some examples working at
extremely low frequencies (ELF = 3-3000 Hz) are: electric razor,
Hoover, hairdryer, washing machine, florescent, lamp, refrigerator,
toaster, iron and so on. Microwave ovens and others work at RF
frequency [8].
Magnetic fields close to electrical appliances are often much stronger
than those from other sources, including magnetic fields directly under
power lines. Appliance fields decrease in strength with distance more
quickly than do power line fields. The following table (Table 1) lists the
EMF levels generated by common electrical appliances [9].
Table 1 Typical magnetic field strength of household appliances at various distances [9].

Electric appliance

3 cm distance
(T)

30 cm
distance (T)

1 m distance
(T)

Refrigerator

0.5 1.7

0.01 0.25

<0.01

Colour TV

2.5 - 50

0.04 2

0.01 0.15

Portable radio

16 56

< 0.01

Iron

8 30

0.12 0.3

0.01 0.03

Dishwasher

3.5 20

0.6 3

0.07 0.3

Washing machine

0.8 50

0.15 3

0.01 0.15

Microwave oven

73 200

48

0.25 0.6

3.2.3 Working appliances:

19

Exposure assessment studies so far have shown that most peoples EMF
exposure at work comes from electrical appliances and tools and from the
buildings power supply. People who work near transformers, electrical
closets, circuit boxes, or other high current electrical equipment may have
60-Hz magnetic field exposures of hundreds of milligauss or more. In
offices, magnetic field levels are often similar to those found at home,
typically 0.5 to 4.0 mG. However, these levels can increase dramatically
near certain types of equipment [5].
The following figures (Fig. 10) are examples of magnetic field exposures
determined with exposure meters worn by four workers in different
occupations. These measurements demonstrate how EMF exposures vary
among individual workers. They do not necessarily represent typical
EMF exposures for workers in these occupations.

20

Fig. 10 Magnetic Field Exposures of Workers (mG)

[5].

Table-2 may give a general idea about magnetic field levels for different
jobs and around various kinds of electrical equipment. It is important to
remember that EMF levels depend on the actual equipment used in the
workplace. Different brands or models of the same type of equipment can
have different magnetic field strengths. It is also important to keep in
mind that the strength of a magnetic field decreases quickly with distance
[5].
Table 2 EMF Measurements During a Workday [5].

3.2.4 Telecommunications and transmission antennas:

Electromagnetic fields are also generated by high frequency technology.
In telecommunications there are many categories of appliances: radio and
TV towers, space communications, direct radio communications, mobile
phone base-stations, radar, electric blankets, radios, TVs, computers,
mobile phones and so on.
21

Nowadays, mobile telephony is commonly used all over the world. This
wireless technology relies upon an extensive network of fixed antennas,
or base stations, relaying information with radiofrequency (RF) signals.
Over 1.4 million base stations exist worldwide and the number is
increasing significantly with the introduction of third generation
technology [10].
Mobile phone handsets and base stations present quite different exposure
situations. RF exposure to a user of a mobile phone is far higher than to a
person living near a cellular base station. However, apart from infrequent
signals used to maintain links with nearby base stations, the handset
transmits RF energy only while a call is being made, whereas base
stations are continuously transmitting signals.
Handsets: Mobile phone handsets are low-powered RF
transmitters, emitting maximum powers in the range of 0.2 to 0.6
watts. The RF field strength (and hence RF exposure to a user)
falls off rapidly with distance from the handset. Therefore, the RF
exposure to a user of a mobile phone located 10s of centimeters
from the head (using a "hands free" appliance) is far lower than to
a user who places the headset against the head. RF exposures to
nearby people are very low [10].
Base stations: Base stations transmit power levels from a few
watts to 100 watts or more, depending on the size of the region or
"cell" that they are designed to service. Base station antenna are
typically about 20-30 cm in width and a meter in length, mounted
on buildings or towers at a height of from 15 to 50 meters above

22

ground. These antennas emit RF beams that are typically very

narrow in the vertical direction but quite broad in the horizontal
direction. Because of the narrow vertical spread of the beam, the
RF field intensity at the ground directly below the antenna is low.
The RF field intensity increases slightly as one moves away from
the base station and then decreases at greater distances from the
antenna [10].
Typically within 2-5 meters of some antenna mounted on rooftops,
fences keep people away from places where the RF fields exceed
exposure limits. Since antenna direct their power outward, and do
not radiate significant amounts of energy from their back surfaces
or towards the top or bottom of the antenna, the levels of RF
energy inside or to the sides of the building are normally very low.
Other RF sources in the community: Paging and other
communications antenna such as those used by fire, police and
emergency services, operate at similar power levels as cellular base
stations, and often at a similar frequency. In many urban areas
television and radio broadcast antennas commonly transmit higher
RF levels than do mobile base stations.

23

Chapter 4

EMF IMPACT
ON ENVIRONMENT
Protection of the environment and conservation of nature has become
matter of great interest to the public, as well as to governments. Public
concern about environmental exposure to EMF has ranged from claims of
reduced milk production in cows grazing under power lines to damage to
trees near high power radars. Therefore, the Impact of Electromagnetic on
environment was studied in numerous researches. A review of the results
of such studies is summarized as follows:
4.1 Human being:
"Electro-smog" is the buzzword which has directed public awareness
towards technical field emissions in recent years. All over the world,
numerous studies have been carried out on the possible effects of
electromagnetic fields on humans, animals, plants and cell or tissue
cultures, and a series of large-scale epidemiological surveys has also been
conducted. The effects of electromagnetic fields generally depend on the
frequency and intensity, but also on individual characteristics such as
body size or angle towards the field [7].
Findings have been largely substantiated with regard to the effects of
induced eddy currents at higher and medium-range field strengths (Fig.

24

11), and these have formed the basis for the limit values in protective
legislation [7].

Fig. 10 Schematic Distribution of Eddy Currents Induced by Magnetic Fields

of Longitudinal and Transversal Orientation Towards the Body [7].

An external magnetic field induces eddy currents in the human body on a

circular plane perpendicular to the direction of the field. Similarly, an
electric field creates a flow in the body which follows the same direction
as the field: under high overhead voltage lines, for example, the flow
would be from head to foot - and vice-versa (alternating field!). These
field-induced flows are recognized as the predominant cause of biological
effects at low-frequency fields. Above certain trigger values, the
induction flows, just like direct body current, cause effects which can
damage the organism [7].
Table 3 Biological Effects of Different Current Densities at 50 Hz [7].

25

Electromagnetic waves can be characterized by their wavelength,

frequency, or energy. The three parameters are interrelated. Each
influences the effect the field may have on a biological system.
The International EMF Project of WHO is addressing the health concerns
raised about exposure to radiofrequency (RF) and microwave fields,
extremely low frequency (ELF) fields, and static electric and magnetic
fields. These electromagnetic fields can produce different biological
effects that may lead to health consequences [11].
Radiofrequency (RF) fields: are known to produce heating and the
induction of electrical currents. Other less established biological effects
have also been reported [11].
RF fields at frequencies above about 1 MHz primarily cause
heating by moving ions and water molecules through the medium
in which they exist. Even very low levels of RF energy produce a
small amount of heat, but this heat is carried away by the body's
normal thermoregulatory processes without the person noticing it.
A number of studies at these frequencies suggest that exposure to
RF fields too weak to cause heating may have adverse health
consequences, including cancer and memory loss. Identifying and
encouraging coordinated research into these open questions is one
of the major objectives of the International EMF Project.
RF fields at frequencies below about 1 MHz primarily induce
electrical charges and currents which can stimulate cells in tissues
such as nerves and muscles. Electrical currents already exist in the
body as a normal part of the chemical reactions involved in living.
If RF fields induce currents significantly exceeding this

26

background level in the body, there is a possibility of adverse

health consequences.
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields:
The primary action in biological systems by these fields is the
induction of electrical charges and currents. This mechanism of
action is unlikely to explain the health effects, such as cancer in
children, reported to occur from exposure to "environmental"
levels of ELF fields.
ELF electric fields exist whenever a charge (voltage) is present,
regardless of whether any current is flowing. Almost none of the
electric field penetrates into the human body. At very high field
strengths they can be perceived by hair movement on the skin.
However, some studies suggest that exposure to low levels of these
fields is associated with an increased incidence of childhood cancer
or other health consequences. Other studies do not. The
International EMF Project is recommending that more focused
research be conducted to improve health risk assessments.
ELF magnetic fields exist whenever an electric current is flowing.
They easily penetrate the human body without any significant
attenuation. Some epidemiological studies have reported
associations between ELF fields and cancer, especially in children,
but others have not. Research on effects of low-level
(environmental) ELF fields is currently underway, including that
monitored and encouraged by the International EMF Project [11].
Static electric and magnetic fields: While the primary action in
biological systems by these fields is the induction of electrical charges

27

and currents, other effects have been established to occur that could
potentially lead to adverse health consequences, but only at very high
field strengths.
Static electric fields do not penetrate into the body, but can be
perceived by skin hair movement. Except for electrical discharges
from strong static electric fields, they do not seem to have
significant health effects [11].
Static magnetic fields have virtually the same strength inside the
body as outside. Very intense static magnetic fields can alter blood
flow or change normal nerve impulses. But such high field
strengths are not found in everyday life. However, there is
insufficient information about the effects of long-term exposure to
static magnetic fields at levels found in the working environment.
Safety Standards: In order to ensure that human exposure to EMF should
not have adverse health effects, which man-made EMF generating
devices are safe and their use does not electrically interfere with other
devices, various international guidelines and standards are adopted [11].

4.2 Animals
Most studies of EMF effects in animals have been conducted to
investigate possible adverse health effects in humans. These are usually
performed on standard laboratory animals used in toxicological studies,
e.g. rats and mice, but some studies have also included other species such
as like short-living flies for the investigation of genotoxic effects. The
subject of this information sheet, however, is whether EMF can have
harmful impacts on species of wild and domestic animals. Under
consideration are:
28

 Species, in particular certain fish, reptiles, mammals and migratory

birds, which rely on the natural (geomagnetic) static magnetic field
as one of a number of parameters believed to be used for
orientation and navigational cues
Farm animals (e.g. swine, sheep or cattle) grazing under power
lines (50/60 Hz) or in the vicinity of broadcasting antennas
Flying fauna, such as birds and insects that may pass through the
main beam of high power radio-frequency antennas and radar
beams or through high intensity ELF fields near power lines.
Studies performed to date have found little evidence of EMF effects on
fauna at levels below ICNIRPs guideline levels. In particular, there were
no adverse effects found on cattle grazing below power lines. However, it
is known that flight performance of insects can be impaired in electric
fields above 1kV/m, but significant effects have only been shown for bees
when electrically conductive hives are placed directly under power lines.
Un-insulated un-earthed conductors placed in an electric field can
become charged and cause injury or disrupt the activity of animals, birds
and insects.
4.3 Vegetation
Field studies of 50-60 Hz exposure to plants and crops have shown no
effects at the levels normally found in the environment, nor even at field
levels directly under power lines up to 765 kV. However, the variability
of parameters associated with environmental conditions that affect plant
growth (e.g. soil, weather) would likely preclude observation of any
possible low-level effects of electric field exposure. Damage to trees is
well known to occur at electric field strengths far above ICNIRPs levels
due to corona discharge at the tips of the leaves. Such field levels are
found only close to the conductors of very high voltage power lines.
29

4.4 Aquatic Life

Although all organisms are exposed to the geomagnetic field, marine
animals are also exposed to natural electric fields caused by sea currents
moving through the geomagnetic field. Electro-sensitive fish, such as
sharks and rays in oceans and catfish in fresh water, can orient themselves
in response to very low electric fields by means of electro-receptive
organs. Some investigators have suggested that human-made EMF from
undersea power cables could interfere with the prey sensing or
navigational abilities of these animals in the immediate vicinity of the sea
cables. However, none of the studies performed to date to assess the
impact of undersea cables on migratory fish (e.g. salmon and eels) and all
the relatively immobile fauna inhabiting the sea floor (e.g. molluscs),
have found any substantial behavioural or biological impact.

30

Chapter 5

STANDARDS
AND GUIDELINES
A number of national and international organizations have formulated
guidelines establishing limits for occupational and residential EMF
exposure. The exposure limits for EMF fields developed by the
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
(ICNIRP) - a non-governmental organization formally recognized by the
World Health Organization (WHO), were developed following reviews
of all the peer-reviewed scientific literature, including thermal and nonthermal effects. The standards are based on evaluations of biological
effects that have been established to have health consequences. The
main conclusion from the WHO reviews is that EMF exposures below
the limits recommended in the ICNIRP international guidelines do not
appear to have any known consequence on health.
The exposure guidelines may differ by a factor of more than 100
between some former Soviet countries and Western countries. Because
disparities in EMF standards around the world have caused increasing
public anxiety about EMF exposures from the introduction of new
technologies, WHO commenced a process of harmonization of
electromagnetic fields (EMF) standards worldwide. Future standards
will be based on the results of the WHO's International Electromagnetic
Field Project [2].
31

Despite of criticizing of the ICNIRP international guidelines as lacking

clear interpretation on exposure safety or direct application to equipment
in existence, these guidelines is based on scientific results from all over
the world and is considered the sole authorized scientific guidelines to
follow. Consequently, the majority of national standards draw on the
guidelines set by ICNIRP.
Electromagnetic field levels vary with frequency in a complex way.
Listing every value in every standard and at every frequency would be
difficult to understand. Table-4 is a summary of the exposure guidelines
for the three areas that have become the focus of public concern:
electricity in the home, mobile phone base stations and microwave
ovens. These guidelines were last updated in April 1998 [2].
Table 4 Summary of the ICNIRP exposure guidelines [2].

Frequency

European power
frequency

Mobile phone
base station
frequency

50 Hz

900
MHz

1.8
GHz

2.45 GHz

Power
density
(W/m2)

Power
density
(W/m2)

Power
density
(W/m2)

4.5

10

50 Hz

Electric Magnetic
field
field (T)
(V/m)
Public
exposure
limits

5 000

100

32

Microwave
oven
frequency

Some practical information will help to relate to the international

guideline values given above. In the following table (Table 5), the most
common sources of electromagnetic fields are listed. All values are
maximum levels of public exposure [2].
Table 5 Typical maximum public exposure
for the most common sources of electromagnetic fields[2].

Source Typical maximum public

exposure
Electric field
(V/m)

Magnetic flux
density (T)

Mains power
(in homes not close to
power lines)

100

0.2

Mains power
(beneath large power
lines)

10 000

20

Electric trains and

trams

300

50

TV and computer
screens
(at operator position)

10

0.7

Typical maximum public

exposure (W/m2)
TV and radio
transmitters

0.1

Mobile phone base

stations

0.1

Radars

0.2

Microwave ovens

0.5

Due to public anxiety in Egypt about mobile base stations, the National
Telecommunications Regulatory Authority, National
33

Telecommunications Institute, Ministry of Health and Population, and

Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs have thus jointly produced a
modified manual of the required standards for installing mobile phone
base stations, up-to-date with the latest developments in
communications and information technology. This tripartite protocol
lists twelve conditions for the construction of cell sites as follow:
1. A cell site must be constructed on a building that is 15 - 50 meters
high from surface, with the possibility of exceptions in case this is
not available.
2. The antenna must be higher than the other surrounding buildings
within a range of 10 meters.
3. The roof of the building on which the antenna is to be fixed must
be made of enhanced concrete.
4. It is not permissible to fix more than one antenna on a single post.
5. The distance between two cell sites must be at least 12 meters.
6. The distance between the antenna and the utmost reach of humans
must be at least 6 meters.
7. Antennas may not be fixed on roofs that are not made of concrete.
8. Antennas may not be fixed on independent buildings, such as
hospitals.
9. Sites must have a fence at a distance of 6 meters from all
directions.
10.Companies must adhere to the standards endorsed by the
American Institute for Measurements and the Institute for the
Electric and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). The maximum
permissible power density a human being can be safely exposed
to must not exceed 0.4 mW/cm2 (900 MHZ - 1800 MHZ).
11.Antennas may not be directed towards schools.

34

12.Finally, Approval certifications that must be obtained are cited.

REFERENCES
1. WHO, Electromagnetic Fields and Public Health: the international EMF
project, Fact Sheet No. 181, World Health Organization, May, 1998.
2. WHO, WHO : Standards and Guidelines, available at
http://www.who.int/entity/peh-emf/standards/en/
3. Brooks D., Electromagnetic Field Basics, available at
http://www.mentor.com/pcb/tech_papers.cfm.
4. The Complete Microwave Oven Service Handbook, Operation, Maintenance,
Troubleshooting and Repair, Micro-Tech Production, 2000.
5. NIEHS and NIH, Electric and Magnetic Fields Associated with the Use of Electric
Power, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences National Institutes of
Health, 2OO2.
6. ESB, Electric and Magnetic fields in the Environment, Electric and Magnetic
fields in the Environment, Ireland, 1999.
7.

Berlin Digital Environmental Atlas 08.05 Electromagnetic fields, available at

http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/umweltatlas/ed805_02.htm.

8. NRPB, Health Effects from Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields, National

Radiological Protection Board, Vol. 14, No. 2, 2003.
9. WHO, , Typical exposure levels at home and in the environment, available at
http://www.who.int/peh-emf/about/WhatisEMF/en/index3.html.
10. WHO, Electromagnetic fields and public health: mobile telephones and their
base stations, Fact Sheet No. 193, World Health Organization, June, 1998.
11. WHO, Electromagnetic Fields and Public Health: Physical Properties and
Effects on Biological Systems, Fact Sheet No. 182, World Health Organization,
may, 1998.

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