List of questions Biophysics 2006-7

Chapter 1 Structure of matter:

1. Types of force interactions
There are two forms of matter: particles and fields.
~Particle form of matter can exist in solid, liquid, gas, or plasma phase.
~Fields are governed by force interactions. There are 4 types of force interactions.
Gravitational
Electromagnetic
Strong
Weak
*The two different types of matter can mutually transform. Ex: an electromagnetic wave is
created when a particle and its antiparticle collide. (particle field)
Force Interactions:
~Electromagnetic interaction occurs between electric charges
~Strong interaction occurs between quarks in atomic nuclei
~Weak interaction causes attractive forces between particles
~Gravitational interaction causes attractive forces between bodies
~Force interactions in all types of fields possess exchange character meaning that they are
realized when an exchange of energy quanta occurs. Basic Bose particles represent
excitation in each field.
~Corresponding Bose particles for each force interaction:
Electromagnetic field Photon
Strong interaction Gluons (three different colors)
Weak interaction W+, W- and Z particles
Gravitational field hypothetical Graviton
*The strength of the forces created due to these interactions is dependent on distance.
~At distances corresponding to the size of the atomic nuclei (about 10-15 m) the
relative ratios of the strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational interactions
are
1 : 10-3 : 10-15 : 10-40
~For this reason, the structure of atomic nuclei is mainly determined by the strong
interaction, whereas the gravitational interaction becomes the most important
interaction at large distances.

2. Wave properties of particles

~Elementary particles possess (as do their systems: atoms, molecules) both corpuscular and
wave properties (corpuscular-wave dualism)
wave property diffraction and interference experiments show that light is
represented by waves
corpuscular property photoelectric effect demonstrates that light is a flux of

energy in the form of photons.

~Wave theory of matter: Motion of a particle with mass m, momentum p, and energy E is
related to the wavelength of de Broglies wave by
= h/p
And to the frequency by f = E/h
~The equation for wavelength suggests that wavelengths of elementary particles are very
short (shorter than visible light). This is why the resolving power of an electron microscope
is better than that of an optical microscope.
*The energy E of photon (J) is related to the frequency f of the wave and to its wavelength
lamda () by
E=hf = hc/
where h = 6.63 x 10-34 J.s = 4.13x10-15 eV = Planks constant c=velocity of light

~The corpuscular-wave dualism has its consequences:

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: it is impossible to determine with perfect accuracy
the position and momentum of a particle simultaneously. If the position vector r is being
measured, its momentum will change and vice versa.

3. Quantum properties of waves

Energy emitted from electromagnetic radiation comes in discrete bundles called quanta. The
energy value of a quantum is
E=hf = hc/
This suggests a particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation where each light particle
(photon) carries an energy that is proportional to its frequency.
High frequency (short wavelength) high energy
Low frequency (long wavelenth) low energy
~The corpuscular-wave dualism has its consequences:
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: it is impossible to determine with perfect accuracy
the position and momentum of a particle simultaneously. If the position vector r is being
measured, its momentum will change and vice versa.
4. Quantum numbers
The state (position and energy) of an electron can be described by a wave function
composed of dimensionless parameters which equal the degrees of freedom.
~The degrees of freedom of an electron = 4
~Thus, atomic theory states that the any electron in an atom can be completely
described by 4 quantum numbers.
With the exception of the last quantum number ms (spin), the numbers determine the
geometry and symmetry of the electron cloud.
~The electron cloud is a space around the nucleus in which the probability of
finding an electron is high.

Pauli Exclusion Principle: no two electrons in a given atom can possess the same set of four
quantum numbers. (i.e. each electron in a given atom has a unique set of quantum numbers
and exist in the same quantum state)
1. Principle Quantum Number (n)
n = any positive integer 1, 2, 3, ...
n describes the electrons total energy and shell in which it can be found
~n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 corresponds to shell K, L, M, N, O, P, Q
The greater the value of n, the higher the energy level and radius of the electrons orbit
Maximum # of e- in energy level (shell) n = 2n2

*The difference in energy between two adjacent shells decreases with distance from the
nucleus (1/n12 - 1/n22)
n= total energy electron
M= 9.11x10 -31
E0= 8.854x10 -12 FM-1
e= 1.6x10 -19 coloumbs
2. Orbital Quantum Number (L)
For any given n, L is a number from 0 n-1
It is determined by the angular momentum L where the magnitude of L =
Describes the subshell of the electron
Subshells s, p, d, f correspond to l values of 0, 1, 2, 3
Determines the shape of the orbital (s is spherical, p is bilobed, etc)
The max # of e- that can exist within a subshell = 4l + 2
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
Possible values are l to +l
~For any value of l, there will be 2l +1 possibilities of ml
ex: l=0, s subshell, 1 possibility of ml 1 orbital
ex: l=1, p subshell, 3 possibilities of ml 3 orbitals (oriented in the x, y, and
z axes)
~For any value of n, there are n2 orbitals
Specifies the particular orbital within the subshell where an electron can be found
Determines the spatial orientation of the orbital
It also estimates the direction of vector L in an external magnetic field
4. Spin Quantum Number (ms)
+-1/2
Describes the spin of the electron due to its internal angular momentum (S)
In the presence of an external magneticc field, electrons orient themselves in one of two
possible orientations corresponding to +-1/2
Two electrons within the same orbital must have opposite values of spin (paired e-)
~Parallel e- are electrons in different orbitals that possess the same value of ms
* Electron transitions may be probable or improbable (allowed vs. forbidden)

~allowed: transitions in which l changes by +-1

~forbidden: transitions in which l changes by more than +-1
*During electron transitions n can vary arbitrarily

5. Orbital magnetic moment of an electron

Electrons possess an orbital magnetic moment and spin due to their own internal rotation.
~They are Fermi particles b/c they have a half value of spin
The orbital magnetic moment of an electron is given in a unit called the Bohr Magnetron (B)

6. Emission Spectrum of the hydrogen atom

~Electrons within an atom can be excited to higher energy levels when heat or other forms of
energy are applied. The excited state is not stable and short-lived. Thus the electron returns
rapidly to its initial state simultaneously emitting energy in the form of a photon.
~The energy of the released photon equals the energy difference between the excited and
initial states of the electron
~Since there are discrete values of electron energies only certain energies (frequencies,
wavelengths) may be emitted by the atom.
~The different electrons within the atom will be excited to different energy levels and each
will emit a photon characteristic of the energy transition it undergoes.
~Thus a line spectrum is produced with each line corresponding to a specific electron
transition.
~Each element produces a unique emission spectrum that can serve as its fingerprint.
~The set of spectral lines observed during transitions from all higher levels into a certain
energy level corresponding to the given n is called a series.
The atomic emission spectra of hydrogen is composed of several series
Lyman Series: lines corresponding to e- transition from higher energy levels into the
ground state (n = 1)
Iobserved in the ultraviolet region of light (high energy emission)
Balmer series: lines corresponding to e- transitions from higher energy levels into
n=2
observed in the region of visible light
Paschen series: lines corresponding to e- transitions from higher energy levels into
n = 3 (Paschens series) and to higher values of n
observed in the region of infrared light (low energy emission)
*The greatest energy emitted is in the Lyman series and corresponds to an electron falling
from n = to n = 1

7. Ionization and Excitation

Electrons with minimum E are in the ground state
Excitation: Electrons within an atom can be excited to higher energy levels when heat or

other forms of energy are applied (i.e. absorption of a photon).

~The energy absorbed MUST equal the energy difference between the excited and initial
states of the electron
~The excited state that is formed is not stable and short-lived.
~Thus the electron rapidly transits to a lower energy simultaneously emitting energy in the
form of a photon (energy corresponds to energy difference between final and initial states).
-of lower energy
Luminescence- energy transitions from higher to lower states are accompanied by the
emission of radiation in the form of photons. 2 types:
Flourescence spontaneous deexcitation releasing a photon (occurs at 10-5 - 10-7s)
The electron can transition into a metastable state from which transition into the
ground state is not allowed (l +-1), a metastable state.
Phosphorescence an electron remains in the metastable state and emits radiation at
a later time
Ionisation: occurs when an e- absorbs energy hf greater than its binding energy (the work
that must be done/energy that must be supplied to completely remove an e- from an atom).
~the energy absorbed must overcome the electrostatic forces holding the proton to
the electron
The remainder of energy is converted to kinetic energy of the e- and the e- is able to escape
the atom. Photoeffect
E + Eb = 0
Eb=-E
E= Eb + Ek

Photoeffect

hf= Eb + mv2
where hf is the energy absorbed
~Binding energy (ionization potential) varies.
*Lowest values are for valence electrons
*Heavy atoms have much higher binding energies (Z2 x higher than in the H atom)

a positively charged ion is formed by ionization

an ionized atom is not stable. i.e. electron loss increases the energy of the system

the atom tends to return to its ground state with simultaneous emission of fluorescent
radiation
8. Structure of electron shells in atoms
Electron configuration is the pattern by which electrons fill an atom.
Electron filling is governed by two principles:
1. The arrangement is at minimal energy
2. No two electrons within the atom occupy the same quantum state
-electrons fill shells and subshells in order of increasing energy and each subshell is filled
completely before the next subshell begins filling
-in the case of heavy atoms, higher shells can fill prior to lower ones if the total energy
associated with the shell is lower in the higher shell.
-highest # of electrons in a shell is 2n2

Closed shell/subshell: one that is completely occupied by electrons

s (2 e-), p (6 e-), d (10e-), f (14 e-)
-Total orbital and spin angular moment =0 and distribution of the electrons eff
charge is symmetrical.
Hunds Rule: within a given subshell, orbitals are filled so that there are a maximum number
of half-filled orbitals with parallel spins.
-electrons prefer empty orbitals due to the repulsion of neg. charges that occurs in
filled orbitals
-filled orbitals contain 2 e- with opposite spin
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p6, 6s2, 4f14, 5d10, 6p6, 7s2, 6d10

9. Atomic nucleus
The atomic nucleus is formed by nucleons: protons and neutrons
~It can be described by:
Atomic # = Z,
Mass # = A,
Neutron # = N = A Z
~The total electrical charge Z of a nucleus is 1.6 x 10-19 C
~Most of the atoms mass is found in the nucleus (nucleon mass is 2 x 103 times greater than
electron mass)
~The mass of atoms is expressed in atomic mass units (AMU)
1 AMU = 1/12 the mass of a C-12 atom. 1 A.M.U.=1.66x10-27 kg = energy
equivalent 931MeV
Isotopes- nuclei of the same element with same proton #, different neutron #
(same Z, diff A)
Isobars- nuclei with equal # nucleons, # different protons (same A, diff Z)
Isomers- same # of protons and neutrons but different energies of nuclei
-not stable, e- fall to lower energy levels emit radiation
Radius of proton = 1.23x10-15 m
Radius of heavy atoms can be calculated Ra= (1.23x10-15) x A1/3
*atomic radii decrease from left to right on the periodic table and increase down a group
Nuclear forces hold an atom together via the strong interaction
~Range is 10-15 m
~Strength is not dependent on nucleon charge
~The strong interaction is the strongest force at this distance
Energy e- =0.51 MeV
Energy p =938MeV
Energy n =939MeV
Radius r =1.23x10-15 m

10. Binding energy in atomic nucleus

Mass Defect (m): the difference between the calculated and actual mass of a nucleus

~The mass of a nucleus is always less than the combined mass of its protons and
neutrons
~The difference is due to matter that has been converted to binding energy which
holds the nucleons together.
*binding energy peaks at iron which is the most stable atom. In general, intermediate sized
nuclei are the most stable.

*The greater the defect, the greater the binding energy.

11. Potential barrier of atomic nucleus
~At short distances, strong interactions are stronger than electromagnetic interactions.
~A charged nucleus of Ze forms as electromagnetic force field around it with potential U(r)
that is a function of the r = distance from nucleus.
~This creates a potential barrier around the nucleus due to the electromagnetic interaction
for positively charged particles (protons,dueterons,alpha-particles) that enter the nucleus.
Positively charged particles must overcome the potential barrier to enter the atom.

12. Magnetic moment of a proton

~The vectors of a protons internal magnetic momentum and spin magnetic moment are in
the same direction while in a neutron they are anti-parallel.
~Magnetic moment of proton is 658 times lower than that of electron. That is why magnetic
phenomena of nuclei are so weak and sophisticated devices were designed for observation of
their effects.

13. Magnetic properties of atomic nuclei

~Protons and neutrons possess an internal angular momentum & spin magnetic moment
-In a proton, the vectors of its internal magnetic momentum and spin magnetic
moment are in the same direction while in a neutron they are anti-parallel.
~The value of spin is a half integer in multiples of h.
~Therefore, nuclei which contain odd number of protons, neutrons, or odd numbers of
nucleons, possess a total spin different from zero.
-These nuclei also possess a non-zero magnetic moment since protons as well as
neutrons are formed by electrically charged quarks.

~The product of nuclear spin number, I, and Dirac constant gives the spin of the nucleus.
~Nuclei with even mass numbers have integer values of the spin (in units h) while nuclei
with odd mass number possess half integer spins.
~Effects of magnetic resonance are observed for nuclei with nuclear spin # I > 0.
~The magnetic properties of nuclei serve as the basis for nuclear magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI)

~The magnitude of the magnetic moment of a nucleus is expressed in units of the Nuclear
Magneton
*The value of the nuclear magneton is lower than that of Bohrs magneton
The nuclear magneton has a value greater than Bohrs magneton bc magnetic
moment is inversely proportional to the mass of the particle (mp >me)
14. Physical principles of mass spectrometry
~Mass spectrometry can be used to determine the isotopic composition of a given sample.
~This method is based on the fact that the trajectory of charged particles moving in a
magnetic field is dependent on their mass
Method
(1) sample is ionized-(e- removed) to become positive ions of charge q
(2) the ions are accelerated by a potential difference V to E=qV (a beam of ions is formed)
(3) The ion beam is seperated into several beams depending on each ions specific charge
m/q. The path/deflection of an ion in a magnetic field depends on its mass to charge ratio.
(4) Each beam is detected and its intensity is measured intensity provides information
about the relative amount of each isotope present in the sample (% composition)
E=qV = 1/2mv2

15. Physical principles of nuclear magnetic resonance

*The magnetic properties of nuclei provide the basis for NMR
-Nucleons possess their own half-integer value of angular momentum.
-Magentic moment of proton is 2.8nm and neutron is 1.9nm (dependent on the mass
of the particle)
-the magentic moments of nuclei with non-zero values of spin (and thus magnetic
moments) can be utilized to provide information about the amount of particular
nucleus within a given sample.
-The magnetic moments of such nuclei are oriented randomly under normal
conditions and can align with an external magnetic field when one is present
~The potential energy of a nucleus/proton in the presence of an external magnetic field
B =B where is the magnetic moment of the proton
~Protons can exist in two possible energy states within a magnetic field +-B depending
on their spin number of +-1/2
In the higher energy state, the magnetic moments are oriented antiparallel to the
field
In the lower energy state, the magnetic moments are aligned with the field
~If protons are exposed to electromagnetic radiation with energy that equals the difference
between these two energy states, resonance exchange of energy occurs between the nuclei
and incident wave.

E = hf = 2B
w= angular frequency
B= magnetic induction
~Resonance exchange of energy is called nuclear magnetic resonance
~This resonance exchange of energy occurs at Lamors frequency which is
f=w/2
from w=2f

-If a proton is in a lower energy state with energy -B, a photon is absorbed and
transition into a higher energy state with energy +B occurs.
-If a proton is in a higher energy state with energy B, then a photon is emitted and
transition into lower energy state B occurs
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
-diagnostic application of NMR
-free protons in the hydrogen nuclei of water are utilized since almost all biological tissues
contain water.
-The patient is placed into an external magnetic field which aligns the magnetic moments of
hydrogen nuclei, pulses of radio waves are passed through the patient causing deflection of
the magnetic moments. The magnetic moments then return to their lower energy aligned
states with simultaneous emission of a photon by the nucleui. The strength, frequency, and
time it takes for the nuclei to return to their pre-excited state produces a signal. The signal is
analyzed by a computer and an image is produced in which the differences in tissue
composition can be visualized.
-MRI produces 3 images in one: a distribution of proton density, and relaxation times T1 and
T2.
-The frequency at which resonance exchange of energy occurs is dependent on the atoms
environment. Thus a compound can contain many nuclei that resonate at different
frequencies producing a complex spectrum.
*magnetic moment is influenced by the shielding action of a nucleis own electrons as well
as the electrons of other atoms in its vicinity.

Chapter 2 Molecular Biophysics:

1. Covalent, ionic and hydrogen bonds
*energy is released in the formation of bonds
*Bond energy: the energy required to break a bond. The total bond energy is the sum of al bond
energies in a molecule
a) Ion bond
Result from the transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
-Negative charge exists on the atom that has gained an electron/s and the atom which has

lost electron/s has a positive charge (ex. Na+Cl-)

-Coulomb attractive forces between the oppositely charged particles create this bond.
-Range is larger as compared with covalent bond (not as strong) and the distance between
the bound atomic nuclei is larger than the sum of the individual radii of atoms.
-They also possess spherical symmetry and no direction is preferred.
-The bond is not saturated (the number of mutually attracted ions is not limited).
-By the interaction of ions with opposite charges, a stable spatial configuration is formed in
which ions periodically occupy regular places in space.
-Thus substances with ionic bonds mostly form crystals.
b) Covalent bond
-An electron pair is shared between two atoms with similar electronegativities. it is the
strongest of all bonds (atoms are held close together)
-This is a consequence of a quantum-mechanical effect called the exchange effect.
-Covalent bonds are dependent on the spin of electrons and these bonds are very strong if the
directions of spins are antiparallel.
-Only electrons of non-complete valence shells can participate. (complete shells are stable)
-Also, there is a saturation effect since it is realized only by a couple of electrons.
-Nonpolar covalent bond Unless the electrons are being shared by two atoms of the same
element (N2 same electronegativity), electric charge is not distributed symmetrically
(polar covalent bond) in the molecule thus resulting in a dipole.
c) Hydrogen bond
-Result of interacting dipoles
-Hydrogen atom can be bound to 2 atoms instead to one in some compounds containing F,
O, N atoms or FH, OH and NH radicals.
-In water, the hydrogen atoms are bound to 2 oxygen atoms.
-The energy of hydrogen bonds is about 10-45 kJ/mol.
*Important in the structure of alcohol, carboxylic acids, amines, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic
acids and proteins.
2. Phase states of matter
-Matter can exist in a various phases (its phase is mainly dependent on temperature and
pressure)
Gas atoms or molecules move around rapidly and are far apart from each other. Only very
weak intermolecular forces exist between the particles. Gases are easily compressible.
Liquid atoms or molecules are held together closely, liquids have definite volumes and are
not easily compressible, can move and take the shape of their container
Solid attractive forces between atoms are strong, particles can only vibrate around a fixed
position. The kinetic energy of solids is in the form of vibrational energy

Plasma
*gases and liquids are in a state of continuous irregular (thermal motion) while the thermal
motion of solids is limited to vibration and rotation of the bonds between atoms
3. State equation of an ideal gas
There are 4 assumptions of an ideal gas

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(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

consists of large number of identical molecules moving with random velocities

all kinetic energy is in the form of translational energy
molecules do not interact expect during brief elastic collisions with their
container and themselves
average distance between molecules is greater than their diameter

*Ideal gas law: the pressure and volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the # of
moles (n), and the temperature of the gas
PV=n RT
Gas constant R= 8.31 J/ mol-1 K-1
Avogadros number (N): the number of atoms/molecles in one mole N =
-If we denote N (total # of atoms/molecules) instead, (N = n x Na ) and we use Boltzmanns
constant k = R/Na, then
pV =NkT
*The state equation of an ideal gas holds for real gases at low pressure and high temperature.
In this case, interaction between molecules is minimal and can be ignored.
Boyles Law:
For isothermal processes
-The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure
PV=constant
P1V1 = P2V2
*as pressure increases, volume decreases and vice versa
Charles Law:
For isobaric processes
-The volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature
V/T= constant
V1/T1 =V2/T2
*as temperature increases, volume increases and vice versa
*pressure and temperature are related in the same way
4. Theorem of the equipartition of energy
-According to Maxwells theorem of the equipartition of energy, each degree of freedom has
an average energy of (1/2)kT.
-When heat energy is supplied to a molecular system, it is fuels vibrational and rotational
motion
-The number of degrees of freedom, i, depends on the number of atoms in a molecule.
-i=3 for single atom gas
-i=5 for molecules composed of two atoms
-i=6 for molecules composed of 3 or more atoms.
Kinetic Theory of Gases- The total energy Uk of translational motion of 1 mole of a single
atom is given by
K = Uk = (3/2)RT
*Temperature is related to kinetic energy
~The spectra of a molecular system contains lines corresponding to excited vibration and

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rotation states of molecules. Small energy differences correspond to changes between states
thus these lines can be observed in the infrared region.
5. Change of phases
-When thermal energy is supplied or removed from matter then its phase may change.
-Pressure and temperature influence phase changes.
Fusion
evaporation
ionisation
Solid liquid
gas
plasma
solidification condensation recombination
*The termperature at which these phase changes occur are known as the melting and boiling
points.
*The direct change of solid into gas is called sublimation and deposition is the reverse
process
-Molecules with relatively high kinetic energies due to addition of heat energy overcome the
attractive forces that hold them together and break away from the liquid (evaporation) or
solid phase (sublimation).
-Condensation involves the transformation in the opposite direction.
-Melting and evaporation are energy requiring changes (heat energy must be added).
-Freezing and condensation are accompanied by energy liberation (energy released as heat).
6. Basic laws of fluids
Pressure:
If a force of magnitude F exerts its action perpendicularly on a plane on the surface A then
the scalar quantity P =
P= F/A
SI Unit: pascal (Pa)) is defined by: 1 Pa = 1N/m2
-Normal pressure is 1 atmosphere (atm)= 760 mm Hg = 760 Torr = 1.013 x 105 Pa
Pascals Law - The magnitude of pressure does not depend on direction and is identical at all
points of a horizontal plane.
~Pascal also stated that an external pressure applied to a fluid in an enclosed container is
transmitted undiminished to all parts of the fluid and the walls of the container.
Application of Pascals principle: pistons

Hydrostatic pressure:
A liquid of density = m/v (kg.m-3) exerts pressure at a depth h under the surface of a liquid:
P = gh
Where g (m/s2) is the acceleration due to gravity.
is the density of the fluid
h is the depth below the surface
-Thus the hydrostatic pressure of the Hg column of the height 1mm is 133.3Pa.
Equation of continuity:

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-Results from the conservation of mass of a fluid

-If a certain volume of an ideal liquid (frictionless, incompressible) enters one end of the
tube per unit time, the same volume must leave at the other end.
-The flow rate Q is the volume of fluid flowing past a point per unit time: Q= V/ t
in (m3.s-1)
-Since in time t the fluid moves a distance x= vt and the volume leaving the tube is V=
Ax = Av t where A is cross section of tube. So Q = A.v
Therefore the equation of continuity:

A1v1 = A2v2

***A decrease in cross-sectional area results in increased flow velocity.***

.
BERNOULLI : The work done on a flowing fluid is equal to the change in its mechanical
energy.
-The bernoulli equation stems from conservation of energy (energy is conserved as a fluid
flows)
P + (1/2)v2 + gh = constant
pressure + kinetic energy + potential energy
P = the absolute pressure of a fluid
= density of the fluid
- The sum of pressure and total mechanical energy of a liquid per unit volume is constant
everywhere in the flow tube.
-Therefore the pressure at two points at the same depth in a fluid at rest is the same.
-Also as pressure increases, velocity of the fluid decreases.
7. Law of LaPlace
Describes the relationship between the pressure difference (P) across the surface of a
closed circular membrane and its wall tension T (N/m).
P = T (1/R1+1/R2)
Where R1 and R2 are the main radii of the membrane curvature at a given point.

The greater the pressure change, the greater the tension in the wall of the membrane
Smaller radii are able to withstand relatively high blood pressures (i.e. capillaries)

-For a cylindrical form of the membrane, one of the radii is infinitely large and thus:
Pcylinder = T/R
-For a sphere where R1=R2=R and thus P = 2T/R
The Law of LaPlace is of great importance in physiology it allows us to calculate the
tension in the walls of vessels of a given radii undergoing certain changes in pressure.
8. Gibbss phase rule

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Gibbs Law: The degree of freedom of a heterogeneous system is uniquely determined by

the # of phases that coexist together and by the # of independent portions that created the
system.
-Relates # of components, phases and degrees of freedom of a dispersion system
p + d = c +2
p-phase, c-chemical component, d-# degrees of freedom of system
-A Dispersion system has at least 2 phases: dispersive portion & dispersive medium
dispersive portion- dispersed in the medium, not continuous
dispersive medium- continuous
Heterogeneous- a boundary exists between the dispersive portion and the dispersive medium
(water & oil)
-if the refractive index of the two phases or portions is not the same, heterogenity in light
transmission can be observed.
Homogeneous- 2 portions existing in a single phase. The dispersion portion is dispersed in
the medium in the form of particles so small that they cannot be observed (sugar in water).
Such systems are also opticaly homogeneous.
-Single phase systems can be made of more than one component, thus the law of Gibbs
related the number of components, phases, and degrees of freedom
*The # of degrees of freedom of a heterogenous system is the # of independent variables
defining the equilibrium state (pressure, temp, concentration) and which can be individually
changed without change of # of phases.
i.e. when 2 phases are in equilibrium (gas & liquid) the system has 1 deg of freedom (either
Pressure or Temp); however, with 3 phases (sol/liq/gas) there are 0 degrees of freedom
-The latter is the case at the triple point

9. Phase chart of water

-It is a plot of temperature vs. pressure in which there are well defined areas corresponding
to the solid, liquid, and gas phase.
-The 3 phases are separated by lines of sublimation, fusion, and evaporation. These lines
represent the equilibria that exists between the two phase area they dissect.

Critical point a gas cannot undergo phase change into a liquid beyond this temp and
pressure
Triple point at this temp and pressure, all three phases exist in equilibrium

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10. Physical properties of water

-The water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms covalently bound to an atom of oxygen
-The electrons of the covalent bond are not shared equally and an electric dipole exists due
to the separation of charge.
-The electronegative oxygen atom with its higher affinity for electrons pulls the e- of the
covalent bond toward itself.
-Thus H has a partial positive charge while O has a partial negative charge.
-Covalent bond is very strong (length is 100 pm)
-The symmetry of the molecule is bent and the angle between the two atoms of H is 105
Hydrogen Bonding:
-The water molecule is bound to other water molecules in its vicinity by hydrogen bonds:
H:O
-The hydrogen bond is weaker than the covalent bond (180 pm)
-Hydrogen bonds interconnect H2O molecules in both the liquid and solid phase.
*All together, every O atom in water forms 4 bonds with H; 2 covalent and 2 hydrogen
bonds.
-H2O molecules in the liquid phase are more tightly packed than in the solid phase. Thus ice
is less dense than water. i.e. ice floats.
-In contrast to other liquids, the density of water increases with temperature. Water is most
dense at 4 C.
~An increase in temp means an increase in the kinetic energy of the molecules and
progressive splitting of hydrogen bonds.
Effects of Hydrogen Bonding:
-high values of latent heat of water (breaking hydrogen bonds requires a
high energy input)
-high boiling and melting point
Dipole Moment:
-Water is a polar solvent with good solving power.
-H20 molecules aggregate and form a hydrate sheath around ions increasing the effective
radii of ions in solution.
-Bound water- forms when H2O molecules bind to the surface of hydrophilic substances by
hydrogen bonds or by van der Waals forces.
Biological importance:
-A great proportion of the water in cells exists as bound water. Ex: lipids in phospholipid
membrane bind several H2O molecules.
-Water is a product and reactant in many biochemical reactions.
-Over 75% of the human body is made of water. Greatest content in blood (79%), then
muscle (76%), and bone (22%)
-Thermoregulation (perspiration)
-Transport (blood)

11. Dispersion systems and their classification

-A Dispersion system has at least 2 phases: dispersive portion & dispersive medium

15

dispersive portion- dispersed in the medium, not continuous

dispersive medium- continuous
-A dispersion system can be classified by various parameters:
A. Size of the particles reciprocal value of particle diameter (m-1) is called the
dispersion degree
-very fine particles possess a high dispersion degree
Several types:
Monodispersed system: dispersed particles are of the same size
Polydispersed system: dispersed particles are of various sizes
Based on specific size:
Analytical dispersion: dispersed portion particles are up to 1nm in diameter
Colloidal dispersion: 1- 1000 nm
Coarse dispersion: 1 m and greater

Follow-up: Analytical Dispersion

12. Electric double-layer of colloidal particles

-On the surface of colloidal particles lays a double layer of charged particles.
~This property distinguishes them from all other dispersions
-The electric double layer can be arranged by two different methods
Electrolytical dissociation
Adsorption of ions
-For example, in a solution of KI and AGNO3 that dissociates in water, micelles are formed
by several molecules of AgI which aggregate into a crystalline structure within the solution.
--The micelles tends to attract the ions from which they are formed.
~Thus excess Ag+ ions are attracted to the micelle surface forming a positive layer of
ions. Next NO3- are attracted to the positively charged surface forming a negative
layer.
~Both adsorption and electrostatic forces keep the micelle together but the strength of
the electrostatic force decreases with distance. Thus during motion of the colloidal
particle, only the 1st positively charged layer in the AgI micelle remains intact (it is
the part held together by adsorption forces). The micelle remains positively charged
and the + charge prevents further unification of micelles thus stabilizing the colloidal
state.
*The electrical double layer of particles results in an electrokinetic potential which is
responsible for the movement of colloids in an electrical field. Thus colloidal particles
can be seperated by electrophoresis. The velocity of movement (towards oppositely charged
electrode) is dependent on particle charge, size, and form.

16

13. Properties of colloid particles

-Particle size is 1- 1000 nm
-There are 2 types of colloidal solutions: (lyophobic and lyophillic) according to their
behavior with respect to the solvent.
-There are two types of colloidal particles:
Macromolecules: molecular polymers of smaller molecular components bound by
chemical bounds (ex: proteins, carbohydrates, etc)
Micelles: clusters of particles without any chemical bonds.
Properties:
Colloidal particles move in solution as individual particles.
Movement is zigzagged Brown motion due to repeated collisions with molecules of
solvent
Velocity of sedimentation due to gravity =
Permeability or impermeablility across membranes (used to separate colloidal particle
from the analytical portion of the solution or the dispersing medium itself)
Tyndal phenomenon: scattering of light rays that hit colloidal particles in a solution. The
intesity of scattered light depends on the particles size. For monodispersed systems,
(particles are of the same size) the intensity of scattered light can be used to estimate the
conc. of the particles.
On the surface of colloidal particles lays a double layer of charged particles

14. Principle of electrophoresis

-Electrophoresis is a technique used to separate and sometimes purify macromolecules especially proteins and nucleic acids - that differ in size, charge or conformation.
-It is one of the most widely-used techniques in biochemistry and molecular biology.
-When a charged molecule is placed in an electric field, it migrates toward either the positive
(anode) or negative (cathode) pole according to its mass: charge ratio.
-The migration velocity is proportional to the strength of the electrical field & the charge of
the molecule, and inversely proportional to its mass.
In contrast to proteins, which can have either a net positive or net negative charge, nucleic
acids have a consistent negative charge imparted by their phosphate backbone, and migrate
toward the anode.
15. Electrokinetic potential
Electrokinetic potential is the potential across the interface of all solids and liquids.
Specifically, the potential across the diffuse layer of ions surrounding a charged colloidal
particle, which is responsible for colloidal stability.

16. Transport phenomena

Transport phenomena are related to the motion of molecules and interaction between
molecules causing the net movement of physical quantities.
viscosity is the transport of momentum

17

 conduction of heat is the transport of energy

diffusion is the transport of molecules.
-In order for transport of any of these things can occur, an appropriate gradient must exist.
Ex: concentration, temperature, or velocity gradient.

17. Stokes law

-The internal friction force F for a sphere of the radius r moving in a medium of viscosity n
at velocity v is given by:
Strokes law: F= 6nrv
*This represents the friction encountered by a colloidal particle moving in a medium with
viscosity n.
-Stokes law can be applied for measurement of viscosity.
-In the case of motion at constant velocity, the driving force and the frictional forces differ
from each other only in sign, and the velocity is proportional to the driving force.
-The coefficient of proportionality is called mobility u.
~The value of u gives the mean velocity of a colloidal particle or macromolecule
moving in some medium by unit driving force.
In the case of spherical particles:
u= 1/6nr
Streamline (laminar) flow streamlines do not intersect.
Turbulent flow streamlines swirl and mix.
~In turbulent flow, some energy is dissipated as sound. Thus, the noise associated
with turbulent flow in arteries is used for blood pressure measurement.
*The values of a dimentionless parameter called Reynolds number, Re, can be used to predict
whether flow will be laminar or turbulent.
-Consider a fluid of viscosity n and density . If it is flowing in a tube of radius R, and has
an average velocity Vav, then Reynolds number is defined by
Re= (2VavR)/n
if Re<2000 flow is laminar
if Re>3000 flow is turbulent.

18. Viscosity and its measurement

-Viscosity is a measure of the internal friction of a fluid between adjacent layers of liquid
molecules as they slide past each other.
-The ideal fluid has 0 viscosity.
~Fluids that have small values of viscosity move more readily and behave more like
ideal fluids.
-In a cylindrical tube of radius r, a velocity gradient exists with the velocity vectors oriented
in a parabolic fashion.

18

Tangent tension (): the force of internal friction F results in tangent tension. It is
proportional to the vector of the velocity gradient.
Unit is the Pascal (N/m2)
= F/A

= n v
r

Dynamic viscosity: the proportionality coefficient n (unit is Pa.s)

Kinetic viscosity: the dynamic velocity / density (unit is m2.s-1)
Newtonian liquids: have a tangent tension proportional to the velocity gradient
ex: single component liquids and analytical solutiosn
Non-Newtonian liquids: have a tangent tension that is not proportional to the velocity
gradient
ex: colloidal particles, suspensions, and emulsions
Factors that influence viscosity:
Temperature Since the motion of particles depends on temp so does viscosity.
~In liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing temp
~In gases, viscosity increases with increasing temp
Concentration of suspended particles (c) The greater the conc. of suspended particles,
the greater the viscosity. i.e. higher hematocrit raises the viscosity of blood

*The highest Velocity Vmax is in the center of the tube.

~Velocity decreases with increasing distance from the center of the tube until it
reaches 0 at the walls of the tube.
Viscosity Measurement:
-Use the equation for flow rate Q
Ostwald viscosimeter:
Body viscosimeter: applies Stokes law
-The internal friction force F for a sphere of the radius r moving in a medium of viscosity n
at velocity v is given by:
Stokes law: F= 6nrv

Follow-up question
Hagen-Poiseulles law: Demonstrates that the laminar flow rate Q is extremely dependent on

19

the radius of the tube

Q=
Flow resistance (Rf): ratio of the pressure drop to the flow rate (SI units Pa.s.m-3)

19. Diffusion
-In spite of the random motion of molecules, diffusion is the net movement of dissolved
particles down their concentration gradient from a region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration.
-it functions against the vector of concentration gradient c/x where c = c1-c2
-density of diffusion flux is proportional to the concentration gradient
n/At = -D(c/x)

Ficks Law

n = # of moles A = area through which diffusion takes place t = time taken

unit for diffusion is (mol.m-2.s-1)
D = diffusion coefficient (m2 s-1)
*D is negative because the direction of flux is opposite to the direction of the concentration
gradient.
where T=temp, n=viscosity, r=radius, k=boltzmann constant
-The mean squared displacement is proportional to time and the diffusion coefficient by
xrms2 = 2Dt
*This equation can be used to calculate the time required for a diffusing particle to move a
certain distance
D = diffusion coefficient (m2 s-1)
-The value of D is dependent on the nature of the diffusing particle and the choice of solvent
or medium.
-It is also dependent on temperature (the relationship is directly proportional)
D = kT/6nr
Where k is the Boltzmann constant
*Therefore, an increase in temperature accelerates diffusion
Importance of Diffusion:
-It is the primary mechanism for absorption and distribution of substances between cells and
with the organisms environment absorption in small intestine, respiration in lungs,
excretion in the kidney.
20. 1st law of Fick
-Describes the relationship between the density of diffusion flux and the concentration
gradient they are directly proportional.

20

n/At = -D(c/x)
n = # of moles A = area through which diffusion takes place t = time taken
unit for diffusion is (mol.m-2.s-1)
D = diffusion coefficient (m2 s-1)
*D is negative because the direction of flux is opposite to the direction of concentration
gradient.

***Both surface tension and adsorption are phase border phenomena that result from
the forces between molecules***
21. Surface tension
-Surface tension is a property of the surface of liquids in which the surface behaves like an
outstretched rubber sheet
-The cohesive forces (attractive in nature) between liquid molecules are responsible for
surface tension.
-cohesive forces at the surface are directed toward the center of a liquid and cause the liquid
to have a minimum surface area. (this is why droplets of liquid obtain a spherical shape
min surface area)
-Below the surface of a liquid, the cohesive forces act on a molecule from all directions and
are equilibriated.
-However, at the surface of a liquid, the cohesive forces are unbalanced causing a net force
pulling the molecules back toward the liquid.
-Surface tension is a force acting perpendicularily to the surface of the liquid and its unit is
N/m and dimension is kg/s2
Surface tension is dependent on:
Temperature surface tension decreases with increasing temperature
Nature of dissolved particles some particles can decrease surface tension (surface-active
particles)
*surface tension is NOT dependent on the surface area of a liquid
22. Adsorption
-Adsorption is a process that occurs when a gas or liquid solute accumulates on the surface
of a solid or a liquid (adsorbent), forming a molecular or atomic film.
-Like surface tension, it is the result of surface energy.
-Surface-active molecules decrease surface tension and thus facilitate adsorption
-At the surface of a liquid, atoms are not wholly surrounded by other atoms of the same type
and bonding forces are not equilibriated. Thus the molecules will bind to whatever is
available including molecules or atoms of the adjacent phase.
This is due to molecules having an attractive force to unlike molecules van der waals
force or interaction. Van der waals forces are created between atoms/molecules with regions
of positive and negative charge.

21

-When the molecules of a liquid are attracted to those of a solid it is know as adhesion and it
is the phenomenom seen in water sticking to the sides of its container.
-Against the tendency of adsorption, is the need to equilibriate the concentration within the
liquid. Thus diffusion of solute takes place until an adsorption equilibrium is reached along
the boundary of the liquid.
-This equilibrium state is described by Gibbs adsorption equation which describes the
surface concentration of a substance (mol/m2)

23. Colligative properties of solutions

Colligative properties of solutions are those that depend only on the number of solute
particles and not on the identity of those particles
*They are independent of size, form, chemical behaviour, or type: molecules/ions
-There are 4
Vapor-pressure lowering (1st Law of Raoult) if a substance is dissolved in a solvent, the
partial pressure of the solvent above the solution will be lower with respect to pure solvent
Boiling-point elevation (2nd Law of Raoult) A liquid boils when its vapor pressure equals
atmospheric pressure. If the vapor pressure of a solvent has been decreased by addition of
solute particles, more energy is required to reach the boiling point
Freezing-point depression (3rd Law of Raoult) The freezing point of a solution is lower
than that of pure solvent because the solute particles interfere with crystalline structure
formation
Osmotic pressure
-Osmotic pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of water that counterbalances osmosis
across a semi-permeable membrane the flow of water molecules from a region of low
solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration.
-It is dependent on the number of particles present in solution that cant diffuse across the
semi-permeable membrane

24. Osmotic pressure

-Osmotic pressure is a colligative property meaning that it is dependent only on the number
of particles present and not on the nature of those particles.
-Osmotic pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of water that counterbalances osmosis
across a semi-permeable membrane the flow of water molecules from a region of low
solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration.

22

Thus osmotic pressure opposes the influx of water into a compartment with high solute
concentration.
Influx of water ceases when the hydrostatic pressure of the inflowing water molecules equals
the osmotic pressure of the solution.
*Only solute molecules that cant cross the semi-permeable membrane contribute to osmotic
pressure.
*Vant Hoff Laws quantitatively describe osmotic pressure.
a) At constant pressure, osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the molar concentration
of a solution
Posm = kCm
*Where units of Cm are mol/m3
b) Osmotic pressure is directly proportional to temperature

Posm = CmRT
*where R is the universal gas constant
c) At a given osmotic pressure, the same volumes of different solutions (at same temp)
contain the same amount of dissolved particles.
*analytical solutions have higher osmotic pressures than colloidal solutions bc the latter
particles are large and there are less of them in solution. (osmotic pressure is directly
proportional to the # of solute particles)
*Also dissociated ion solutions have twice higher osmotic pressures as compared to
nondissociated solutions of the same concentration.
Osmosis
Hypotonic solution: one of low solute concentration
Hypertonic solution: one of high solute concentration
Isotonic solutions: those that have equal solute concentrations
-Water will move from a hypotonic to hypertonic solution
-A cell will expand and lyse if placed into a hypotonic solution
-A cell will shrivel up if placed into a hypertonic solution
Biological importance
Osmotic pressure is crucial in the proper transport and distribution of nutrients, gases, and
wastes throughout the body.
-At the arteriole end of a capillary bed, hydrostatic pressure (gh) due to the pumping action
of the heart exceeds osmotic pressure of the surrounding fluid, thus blood flows out of the
vessels into the ECF.
-At the venule end of a capillary bed, hydrostatic pressure of blood has dropped while
osmotic pressure stays the same thus forcing blood back into the vessels.
-The organ responsible for maintaining osmotic balance in the body is the kidney.
25. Blood pressure measurement
-Blood pressure is the force per unit area that blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels.

23

-Blood pressure is measured by a sphygmomanometer. (units mmHg)

-It is expressed as systolic/diastolic pressure which corresponds to the pressure at ventricular
systole over the pressure at ventricular diastole.
-Normal blood pressure is 120/70
Method:
Auscultation:
-The sphygmomanometer is wrapped around the upper arm and a stethoscope is placed on
the brachial artery to aid the examiner in the hearing of sound due to blood flow.
-The blood pressure cuff is inflated to a pressure above the predicted systolic pressure and
the pressure is slowly released.
-Above systolic pressure, no sound can be heard bc no blood flows through the brachial
artery (the artery has been occluded)
-Systolic pressure is recorded as the pressure at which the examiner begins to hear the
tapping noises associated with blood flow in phase with heart beat.
-This noise slightly increases in loudness and then tapers off as blood flow through the artery
becomes steady.
-Diastolic pressure is recorded as the pressure at which the tapping sound disappears.
Palpation:
-A sphygnomanometer is used in the same way but instead of using a stethoscope, the
examiner uses two fingers to palpate the first heart beat.
-Systolic pressure is recorded as the pressure at which the examiner can palpate the first
heart beat (pulse)
-not a very reliable method of blood pressure measurement
-cannot be used to determine diastolic pressure
*blood pressure gradually drops as blood flows from arteries to capillaries due to increased
friction between the vessel walls and blood as well as the increase in cross-sectional area of
the capillary network (increased peripheral resistance)

Chapter 3 Thermodynamics:
1. Thermodynamic system
-A thermodynamic system is one that is governed by conservation of energy and that is
separated from its surrounding by real or imaginary boundaries.
-Heat (Q) or matter (# of moles n) may penetrate the boundaries. Work (W) can be
performed by or on the system.
There are 3 types of thermodynamic systems:
(i) Isolated: the system cannot exchange energy or matter with its surroundings
Q = 0 , W = 0 , n = 0 (energy remains constant whenever any chemical or
physical processes occur)
(ii) Closed: the system can exchange energy but not matter
Q0 , W=0 ,n=0
(iii) Open: the system can exchange both energy and matter (ex: an alive system)
Q 0 , W 0 , n 0
There are two types of systems parameters:
(i) Global (extensive): describe the system as a whole and possess additive properties; total

24

value of a global parameter for the whole system is the sum of the values of its individual
parts (mass, total charge, total number of particles, etc)
(ii) Local (intensive): depend on time and spatial coordinates (temperature, pressure,
chemical potential, etc)
Thermodynamic forces: gradients of temperature, concentration, or charge that cause the
flow of heat, substance, or electric charge (thermodynamic flows)

2. State Functions
The state of a system is described by its state functions.
State functions: properties of a thermodynamic system whose magnitude depends only on
the initial and final states of a system and not on the path of change
The state variables are
number of moles (n)
Pressure P
Temperature T
Volume V
related by the state equations pV=nRT
The state functions are
enthalpy (H)
entropy (S)
free energy (G)
internal energy (E or U)
related by the state equation G = H -TS

*All physical and chemical processes that occur in a system are related to changes of
variables and functions of state and are not dependent on the path of change.
-During the course of evolution, an isolated reaches an equilibrium state. An equilibrium
state is the most thermodynamically probable arrangement of the system. All states tend
toward equilibrium.
-The rate at which a system returns to equilibrium after deviating from it is called the
relaxation time.
-The deviation I from equilibrium state at time t is given by

reversible process: proceeds in only one direction

irreversible process: proceeds in both the forward and backward direction and is dependent
on thermodynamic forces (gradients)
3. Work and heat
Heat can be defined as the energy transferred between two bodies as a consequence of a
temperature difference between them.
~The temperature of a body is a measure of the average kinetic energy of its
molecules. Therefore, at constant volume an increase in temperature signifies an
increase in the internal energy of a system.

25

-Unit of heat is the calorie or Joule (1 cal = 4.184 J)

-Heat Capacity: the change in heat/change in temperature (units is J/K)
Q/T
-The amount of heat Q gained or lost by a substance (not undergoing a phase change) or
-The quantity of heat Q required to change the temperature T of a substance is
proportional to the objects mass and the identity of the substance.
Q = mcT
*Where m is the mass of the object and c is the specific heat
Specific heat: the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1 C or 1 K. (unit J.kg-1.K-1)
~The specific heat of a substance varies with temperature. Ex: liquid water has a
higher specific heat than ice.
~Specific heat is a property of the given substance.
*If we work with the number of moles, n, instead of mass, the equation changes to
Q = nCT, where C is the molar specific heat, measured in J.K-1mol-1. Since the number of
moles n = m/M, where M is the molar mass, C = Mc.

*The specific heat of a gas kept at a constant pressure, Cp, is greater that the specific heat of
a gas kept at constant volume, Cv.
-This is because at greater volumes more heat must be added to change the temperature of
water.
-The specific heat of water vapours (100C)
are Cp=2020 and Cv = 1520 J.kg-1K-1.
-The ratio cp/cv= Cp/Cv is called Poissons constant.
Phase Change
Temperature remains constant when a substance undergoes a phase change.
-The amount of heat gained or lost by a system undergoing a phase change or
-The amount of heat required to change the phase of a particular substance is given by
Q =mL
where L is the latent heat (units J/Kg): the amount of heat required to change the phase of
1kg of a particular substance
heat of fusion: latent heat for a phase change between solid and liquid
heat of vaporization: latent heat for a phase change between liquid and gas

26

*Water has a relatively high latent heat of fusion and evaporation. This means that a great
amount of heat energy must be supplied to change the phase of water.
For water, the specific latent heat of fusion at melting temperature 0oC is 334kJ/kg and the
specific latent heat of evaporation at boiling temperature 100oC is 2.26 MJ/kg.
Work
-First of all, work and heat are not state variables becuse they are dependent on the
thermodynamic path.
-A thermodynamic system is able to perform work on its surroundings or work may be done
on the system by its surroundings.
-Work in thermodynamic systems is dependent on pressure and volume.
-In a quasistatic process, the thermodynamic variables (P,V,T,n,etc.) change infinitely
slowly. Thus the system is always somewhat close to an equilibrium state.
-For example, a gas (system) contained in a cylinder with a piston (surroundings)
~The piston moves up when the gas expands and work is done by the system
~The piston moves down when the gas is compressed and work is done on the
system
If the piston rises by dx, the work dW done by the force of the gas is dW = F.dx = (PA)dx
where A is the cross-sectional area of the piston. Since the change of the volume of the gas
dV = A.dx, the work can be written as dW = P.dv. Thus, if the system transits the
quasistatically from an initial equilibrium state I into final equilibrium state f, the total work
done by the system is. .
*If volume does not change, no work is performed.
*If volume increases, W +, the system does work on its surroundings.
*If volume decreases, W-, the surroundings do work on the system.
-In a plot of pressure vs. volume, work is represented by the area below the curve.
-Therefore, the work done depends not only on the intial and final state, but also on the
thermodynamic path between the states.

-If volume remains constant, no work is performed

-In an isobaric process the expansion occurs at constant pressure and thus the work done is
W = P.(Vf-Vi).
-In an isothermal process the temperature is kept constant.
For special case of ideal gas we can apply the same equation pV=nrt and thus P = nRT/V
and by using the eqn we get W = nRT ln (Vf/Vi).
If a membrane replaces the piston and this membrane is punctured, the gas expands without
doing any work, which is the case of free expansion.

0th law:

27

Two systems individually in thermal equilibrium with a third system are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
Thermal equilibrium: two bodies with different temperatures will eventually reach the same
temperature if they are brought into thermal contact. Heat energy will be trasferred from the
body with a higher average kinetic energy of its molecules to the body with a lower energy.

3rd law:
It is not possible to lower the temperature of any system to absolute zero in a finite number
of steps

4. First law of Thermodynamics

-The change in internal energy of a system is equal to the heat added to a system minus the
work done by the system.
-This relationship stems from conservation of energy
U = Q - W
W+ when the system performs work
W- when work is done on the system by its surroundings
Q+ when heat enters the system
Q- when heat flows out of the system

5. Second law of Thermodynamics

-Entropy of the universe is always increasing.
Entropy: a measure of the disorder of a system (JK-1)
-Entropy is also known as the thermodynamic function that describes the
degradation of energy

For reversible isothermal processes:

-The entropy of the system and its surroundings does not change
S=0

For irreversible processes:

-The entropy of the system + surroundings (the universe) increases
S > 0
Each spontaneous irreversible adiabatic process leads to an increase in the entropy of the
universe.
Spontaneous irreversible processes tend toward equilibrium. At equilibrium, entropy is at
its maximum and disorder is at its greatest this is the most probable arrangement of
the system
Entropy of various phases:
Entropy of gas > liquid > solid

28

 since molecules in a gas are in state of chaotic motion there is a greater degree of disorder
than in liquids and finally solids in which motion is restricted to the vibrational energy of
bonds.
Thus, a phase change from a solid to liquid and liquid to gas are accompanied by
increasese in entropy

Clausias statement: heat will flow spontaneously from a substance at a higher temperature to
a substance with a lower temperature and will not flow in reverse.
The Carnot Principle: an alternate explanation of the 2nd law
-No irreversible engine working between 2 reservoirs at constant temperature can be more
efficient than a reversible engine operating between the same temperatures.

6. Definitions of Thermodynamic Functions. (U,H,S,F,G)

Internal Energy (U) (joules):
-The change in internal energy of a system is equal to the heat added to a system minus the
work done by the system.
-This relationship stems from conservation of energy
U = Q - W
W+ when the system performs work
W- when work is done on the system by its surroundings
Q+ when heat enters the system
Q- when heat flows out of the system

Enthalpy (H) (j.mol-1)

H = U + pV
-This state function expresses heat changes at constant pressure (of isobaric processes)
-The change in enthalpy is equal to the heat absorbed or given off by a system at constant
pressure.
Exothermic reaction: (H -) heat is given off by the system
Endothermic reaction: (H+) heat is added to the system
*For spontaneous exothermic chemical processes occuring at constant pressure, heat is given
off, the enthalpy of the system decreases and the system reaches equilibrium.
Entropy (S) (j.k-1)
Entropy: a measure of the disorder of a system (JK-1)
-Entropy is also known as the thermodynamic function that describes the
degradation of energy

For reversible isothermal processes:

-The entropy of the system and its surroundings does not change
S=0

29

For irreversible processes:

-The entropy of the system + surroundings (the universe) increases
S > 0
Each spontaneous irreversible adiabatic process leads to an increase in the entropy of the
universe.
Spontaneous irreversible processes tend toward equilibrium. At equilibrium, entropy is at
its maximum and disorder is at its greatest this is the most probable arrangement of
the system
Entropy of various phases:
Entropy of gas > liquid > solid
since molecules in a gas are in state of chaotic motion there is a greater degree of disorder
than in liquids and finally solids in which motion is restricted to the vibrational energy of
bonds.
Thus, a phase change from a solid to liquid and liquid to gas are accompanied by
increasese in entropy

Free Energy (F) (Joules):

-also known as the Helmholtz function, it is defined by:
F = U - TS
-the unit of free energy is Joule
-its decrease equals max work done in an isothermal reversible process
Interpretation:
-The total energy is composed of the free (available) E that can be used for work done at
isothermal ireversible process and of the [TS] portion of energy which is not useful. F=U-TS
lower=more work
*A spontaneous irreversible process occuring at constant temperature is accompanied by a
decrease in free energy which reaches a minimum at equilibrium
Free Enthalpy (G) (Joules)
Represents the maximum amount of energy released by a process occuring at constant
temperature and pressure that is available to perform useful work.
G = H TS
*the unit of free enthalpy is Joule
-A spontaneous process occuring at constant temperature and pressure is accompanied by a
decrease in free enthalpy which reaches a minimum at equilibrium
-G = negative for sponateous processes
7. Chemical potential
(i) is the measure of the affinity of a given substance

30

-This formula indicates that at a constant temperature and pressure, a partial change in the
free enthalpy corresponds to a partial change in the # of moles. i.e. a change in composition
is related to a change in energy
-Which reactions will take place in system and their rate depend on their chemical potential
and on the amount of substance.
Chemical reaction change composition of system, therefore state changes as well; ? states ?
?Energy, and each trngle E can be expressed as product of extensive and inextensive factor
unit is (J.MOL-1)
delta G= partial change enthalpy
delta n= partial change in no of moles
8. Calorimetry
-Method for measurement of thermal energy.
-Calorimeters used to measure heat.
Dewars vessel is commonly used it is a mixing vessel
Water value k = the amount of water in (kg) which requires the same amount of heat to
increase its temp by 1 deg celcius as that consumed by the device
The equation for the calorimeter is:
Q = (M+K)cT
Where K = water value (kg) Q=Heat supplied (J) M= mass of heated water
Generally Q = mcT
C = specific heat capactity T = temperature change m = mass of substance
Specific heat is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of substance
by 1 degree C.
Constant-volume calorimetry
-The apparatus consists of strong steel container in which the reactants are placed. The bomb
is placed into an insulating container filled with a known amount of water and is fitted with a
timer and thermometer.
The initial temperature is measured and the reaction is ignited. Heat given off during the
reaction is absorbed by the bomb and water and the temperature of the apparatus rises.
-Since no heat enters or leaves the system, the process is adiabatic, and Q = 0. Thus it is
possible to determine the heat of the reaction.
* Calorimetry can also be used for energy requirements of an organism as well as the
evaluation of energy content in nutrients.

9. Thermoregulation in homiothermic organisms

31

-Temperature effects the rate of chemical processes in the body as proper enzymatic action is
dependent on an optimal temperature of 37 C.
-In order to maintain a constant temperature and proper functioning of organs, heat
production as a result of chemical processes and muscle activity must be offset by heat loss
to the surroundings.
-A constant body temperature is maintained by 4 different types of thermal losses.
Radiation:
Each body of a certain temperature emits energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves. Radiation in the infrared region of the spectrum is given off at temperatures
corresponding to the surroundings.
-According to the Stephan-Boltzmann Law, the energy irradiated by a black body is
proprtional to the 4th power of temperature.
-Thus the net quantity of heat lost by the organism is equal to the difference between
the 4th powers of the temperature of the body and its surroundings
-The quantity of heat that irradiates is dependent on blood flow to the skin and is
decreased by clothes and other insulating materials.
-contributes to 40 -60 % of total thermal losses
Flow of heat:
Blood distributes heat to various parts of the body. To increase heat loss, blood flow
to the skin is increased. To decrease heat loss, skin is diverted from the surfaces of
the body by constriction of skin capillaries
Conduction of heat:
Through direct contact with objects at temperatures different from that of the body.
*flow of heat and conduction are collectively responsible for 15-30% of losses.
Evaporation:
Method of heat loss during perspiration and respiration
The organism secretes a water and salt mixture through sweat glands in the skin. The
water droplets saturate the air in the skins immediate vicinity (relative humidity at
this point is 100% and movement of air carries the saturated air away from the body
producing a cooling effect
-Dew point- temperature at which the partial pressure of the vapor equals the
equilibrium vapor pressure -100%)
-production of sweat increases during physical exercise, higher body temperatures
(fever), and elevated environmental temperatures
This process contributes to 20 25% of total thermal losses
~Below 19C, thermal losses are minimal
~29-31C, production of heat and thermal losses are at equilibrium
~Above 31C, thermal losses are not sufficient to regulate body temperature and evaporation
takes over
* Thermal comfort of an organism is dependent on temperature of the air, relative humidity,
and movement of air.
10. Measurement of temperature
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules in a substance.
The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin.
-The lower limit of temperature on the Kelvin scale is 0 and is called absolute zero
-Kelvin temperature is related to the Celsius scale by
Tk = Tc +273

32

The relationship between the Celsius and Fahrenheit scale is

Tf = (9/5)Tc +32
The Fahrenheit scale has a different zero point. Water freezes at 32 F.
Various methods exist for measuring temperature. All of these are based on changes in the
thermometric properties of matter. (expansion, changes in electrical resistance, emmision of
radiation, voltage changes)
1. Liquid thermometers used in the laboratory setting. The thermometric property that is
exploited here is volumetric expansion. When a liquid at Vi is heated by a temperature T,
its volume increases by V. Thus the column of mercury expands in proportion to the
temperature increase.
Formula for volumetric expansion is V = ViT where is the coefficient of
volumetric expansion
2. Medical thermometers it is a mercury thermometer used to measure body temperature.
The scale is from 35-42C.
3. Calorimetric thermometer- used for the measurement of small temp differences
4. Thermocouple Measures the voltage difference induced by changes in temperature.
Consists of thin wires of two diff metals welded together. One of the junctions (the hot
junction) is placed into thermal contact with the object. The other junction is kept at
constant temp. A thermocouple generates a voltage difference that is measured by a
voltmeter.
5. Electrical resistance thermometer based on the fact that the electrical resistance of a
metal wire changes with temperature. A platinum wire is placed in contact with the
object to be measured and electrical resistance is measured as a function of temperature
increase
6. Thermistor- based on the fact that the electrical resistance of a semiconductor decreases
with increased temp. i.e. the density of free e- increases. Resistance is measured as a
function of temperature. Produces very reliable results.
7. Thermography method of measuring the intensity of emitted radiation due to a temp
source
-the intensity of radiation emmitted increases with increasing temp
-produces a thermogram which displays the various infrared intensities in color
-used in medicine, to detect malignant cancers, since cancer tissue is associated with
increased metabolic activity and elevated temp.
8. Bimetallic strip two metals with different expansion coefficients are welded together,
when temp is increased, the strip bends toward the side with the lower expansion
coefficient it is used to control temp in devices that need to maintain a constant temp
(thermostats)

11. Specific heat

Specific heat: the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1 C or 1 K. (unit J.kg-1.K-1)
~The specific heat of a substance varies with temperature. Ex: liquid water has a
higher specific heat than ice.
~Specific heat is a property of the given substance.

33

-The quantity of heat Q required to change the temperature T of a substance is

proportional to the objects mass and the specific heat of a substance.
Q = mcT
*Where m is the mass of the object and c is the specific heat

12. Latent heat

L is the latent heat (units J/Kg): the amount of heat required to change the phase of 1kg of a
particular substance
heat of fusion: latent heat for a phase change between solid and liquid
heat of vaporization: latent heat for a phase change between liquid and gas
Phase Change
Temperature remains constant when a substance undergoes a phase change.
-The amount of heat gained or lost by a system undergoing a phase change or
-The amount of heat required to change the phase of a particular substance is given by
Q =mL
*Water has a relatively high latent heat of fusion and evaporation. This means that a great
amount of heat energy must be supplied to change the phase of water.
-For water, the specific latent heat of fusion at melting temperature 0C is 334kJ/kg and the
specific latent heat of evaporation at boiling temperature 100C is 2.26 MJ/kg.

34

Chapter 4 Physical and Physiological Acoustics:

1. Physical properties of acoustic waves
-Sound is a mechanical disturbance propagated through a deformable medium and can be
transmitted through solids, liquids, and gases but not through a vacuum.
-Sound waves are produced by a vibration source of suitable frequency and are transmitted
through media by the oscillation of its particles
-They are longitudinal in nature meaning that the media particles oscillate around
their equilibrium positions in the direction of wave motion.
*In the solid phase, oscillation in the transverse direction can also occur

*Sound waves propagate through different media with different velocities.

In gas, velocity of sound =
*Velocity of sound is also dependent on temperature.
-This stems from the fact that density =m/v and mass = moles x Molar mass and # of moles
is directly proportional to temperature. Thus c is directly proportional to density which is
directly proportional to T

In liquid, the velocity sound =

***The velocity of sound in air is 344 m/s***

In water and soft tissues velocity of sound is 1400 -1600m/s, and in glass it is 6000 m/s.
Thus the speed of sound is fastest in solids.
-The wavelength of an accoustic wave
= c/f

c= f

Acoustic amplitude (a) the amplitude of oscillation of media particles which varies
between a max value and 0
a=amaxsin(2ft)
Acoustic Velocity the velocity of the vibrating motion of media particles

-Also varies between a maximum value and 0 thus effective accoustic velocity was defined.
Effective acoustic velocity
Acoustic pressure due to oscillations of media particles producing periodic changes in the
density of the media. These produce periodic changes in the acoustic pressure. Acoustic

35

pressure is in phase with acoustic velocity.

Effective accoustic pressure
*The effective accoustic pressure is related to the effective accoustic velocity, density of the
medium, and velocity of sound by

Acoustic impedance (z)

of a plane acoustic wave passing through some medium is defined as the ratio of effective
acoustic pressure to the effective acoustic velocity
z= Pef/vef = pc
z=pV p=denisty v=acoustic velocity of material
Zair = 440 pa.s.m-1
unit is pa.s.m-1
*Acoustic impedence is greater in more dense materials

2. Sound intensity and loudness, units

Sound intensity, I - The amount of energy passing through an area of 1m2 perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation within 1s (Intensity =P/A)
Units W/m2
I = vef Pef = P2ef / c
*Intensity of sound is directly proportional to the effective accoustic pressure squared.
Intensity Level L (units are the bell or decibel)
In decibels...
L = 10 log I/Io
In bells...
L = log I/Io
* If intensity increases by 100, intensity level is 20 dB
Loudness
-Is a physiological quantity that describes the perception of sound.
-Intensity of sound of frequency 16Hz to 16kHz that comes to the ear results in hearing and
the perception of sound is described by its physiological quantity loudness.
- Sound perception is subjective and the ear is sensitive to various frequencies to various
extents, therefore loudness is NOT proportional to intensity
-The dependence of loudness on the intensity of the stimulus is described by WeberFerchners Law : the change in loudness (L is proportional to the relative change in the

36

stimulus

-Units of Loudness are the phones (ph)

speech is 40-60 phones
3. Field of hearing
The field of hearing is a region of sound intensities and frequencies that induces the effect of
hearing.
-The field of hearing can be visualized by a graph of frequency (hz) vs. intensity (dB).
-Curve of lowest intensity level represents the threshold of hearing. corresponds to a
loudness of 0 phones
-The threshold of pain (130Db) represents the upper boundary of hearing and is virtually
independent of frequency.
-Each curve in between represesnts an intensity level of the same loudness and the
frequencies at which it occurs.
Between 2 curves can be plotted iso-loudness lines.
Speech = 40-60Ph
street=60-90 Ph
jet=120-130 Ph
*Sound of frequency 16 Hz to 16,000 Hz can be perceived by the human ear
4. Weber-Fechners law in acoustics
-The dependence of loudness on the intensity of the stimulus is described by WeberFerchners Law : the change in loudness (L is proportional to the relative change in the
stimulus

Loudness
-Is a physiological quantity that describes the perception of sound.
-Intensity of sound of frequency 16Hz to 16kHz that comes to the ear results in hearing and
the perception of sound is described by its physiological quantity loudness.
- Sound perception is subjective and the ear is sensitive to various frequencies to various
extents, therefore loudness is NOT proportional to intensity
-Units of Loudness are the phones (ph)

5. Ultrasound generators
-Ultrasound waves have frequencies greater than 20 kHz these are beyond the frequency
that humans can detect.
-Ultrasound waves can be produced by mechanical, magnetic, or piezoelectric generators.
-Piezoelectric generators are important in medicine.
mechanical waves are generated by suitable materials vibrating due to a high-frequency
alternating electrical field in a liquid medium (oil)
-Piezoelectric generators are capable of producing intensities of 10 W/m2.

37

-The velocity of an ultrasound wave is the same as normal sound but ultrasound has a much
higher frequency and thus shorter wavelength. = v/f
ex: determine the wavelength at 1MHz. =1500/(106) is 1.5nm

6. Physical principles and diagnostic use of ultrasound

At the boundary of tissues of different acoustic impedances z, the reflection and refraction of
sound waves is observed according to the equation

Due to energy loss, sound waves are weakened in each medium to certain extents
The absorption of ultrasound in gas is much higher than in liquid
-Ultrasound is used in medical imaging to visualize muscles, tendons, and many internal
organs
-A piezoelectric generated is used to generate ultrasound waves that are directed into the
area to be examined
- a water-based gel is placed between the patient's skin and the probe to increase the
efficiency of sound transmission
-The sound waves are partially reflected from layers between different tissues. Specifically,
sound is reflected anywhere there are density changes in the body
-The time taken for echoes to return back to the transducer along with some other parameters
are used to create the image .
-An ultrasound produces a reflection signature which reveals details about the inner structure
of the medium .
-The effects of ultrasound are
mechanical - cavitations
thermal increase the temp within regions ultrasound is absorbed
electrochemical decomposition of some high molecular weight compounds and
polymerization
biological structural changes, changes in the permeability of cell membranes and
conductivity of nerves, alteration of pH, analgesic effects, etc.
-The biological effects of ultrasound depend on intensity
The intensity of ultrasound for diagnostic purposes must not exceed 1.5 W/m2, or
irreversible morphological changes may occur.
-Can use ultrasound for pre-natal screening, internal medicine, gynecology.
frequencies >20khz
7. Audiometry
-The testing of hearing is most often carried out by establishing the threshold of hearing, the
softest sound which can be perceived in a controlled environment.
-It is typical to do this testing with pure tones by providing calibrated tones to a person via
earphones, allowing the person to increase the level until it can just be heard.
-Various strategies are used, but pure tone audiometry with tones starting at about 125 Hz

38

and increasing by octaves, half-octaves, or third-octaves to about 8000 Hz is typical.

-Hearing tests of right and left ears are generally done independently. The results of such
tests are summarized in audiograms.
L= 10log I / Io (db)

Chapter 5 Optics in Medicine:

1. General classification of electromagnetic waves
-Electromagnetic waves are trasverse waves because the electric and magnetic field vectors
oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
-The electrical and magnetic field vectors are in phase and oriented perpendicular to one
another. The magnitudes of the fields are relatd by
E=cB

-Electromagnetic waves can vary in wavelength and frequency but they all travel at the
speed of c = 3 x 108 m/s in a vacuum.
c = f

The speed of light in a vacuum stems from

Where

-The electromagnetic spectrum refers to the full range of frequency and wavelength of
electromagnetic waves.
Radiowaves
109 m 1mm
Infrared
1mm - 700nm
Visible light
360nm-760nm
Ultraviolet light
400 10 nm
X-ray
10nm 10-2
Gamma ray
less than 10-2
-Light of well defined wavelengths is produced by electrons undergoing transitions between
energy levels
-Light of a continuous range is produced by the random accelerations of electrons in hot
bodies.
Intensity of Light: instantaneous power incident on a unit area (Watts/m2)
Given by the Poynting vector S which is defined as the product of E and B

39

Since E and B flunctuate with time, the average intensity can be defined

The electrical and magnetic field components carry the same amount of energy.
An electromagnetic wave transports momentum and exerts radiation pressure
Radiation pressure = F/A
Units are N/m2 or J/m3

2. Stefan-Boltzmann and Wein laws

At temperatures above 0 K, matter emits electromagnetic radiation. The amount of energy
radiated depends on the temperature of the emitter.
Weins Displacement Law
Weins displacement law states that the wavelength of maximum emission is inversely
proportional to temperature.
-the greater the temperature of the emitter the smaller the wavelength of emitted radiation.
We get Weins Law by:
taking the first derivative of Plancks Law
setting it equal to zero
solving for wavelength
max= a/T
where a = Weins constant = 2.90 x 10-3 mK
Stefan-Boltzmann law:
The Stefan- Boltzmann law states that the total energy being emitted per unit area per second
is proportional to the 4th power of the absolute temperature.

P =power in watts, A is in m2, T in degrees Kelvin,

Stefan-Boltzmann constant (s) = 5.67 10-8 W/m2K4.

3. Lens equation
Converging lens- are thicker at the center than at the rim.
-cause parallel rays to be focuses at the focal point

40

Diverging lens- are thicker at the rim than the center.

-cause parallel rays to diverge from a virtual focal point

Thin lens equation relates the object distance, image distance and focal length of the lens.
1/f = 1/a + 1/b
where a= object distance, b = image distance, f= focal distance
Sign convention:
-image distance is + and real behind the lens since rays of light actually converge there
-focal length (f= r/2) is + for a converging lens and for a diverging lens
*converging lenses can produce all types of images depending on the object distance, but a
diverging lens can only create a virtual, reduced, and erect image.
Magnification the ratio of the image height to the object height
M = -b/a

Power of a Lens (D)

P = 1/f
-Unit is the diopter
-P has the same sign as f, so if f is +, P is + and vice versa
Therefore, a converging lens has a + power while a diverging lens has a - power
If several lenses are placed in series, the total optical power for the system is

Followup info:
Lens suffer from
Chromatic aberration different colors have different focal points
Sherical aberration a monochromatic beam cannot be brought to the focal point
*Least distance of distinct vision - the closest point that a person can comfortable bring an
object to their eye is 25 cm for a normal eye (children can bring it closer, the elderly must
hold it further).

41

4. Extinction, Lambert-Beer law

EXTINCTION (absorbance): the absorption of a portion of lights energy as it passes
through a material.
The resulting intensity is given by
*Where d is the thickness of the medium and is the coefficient of
absorption
-The absorption coefficient is a function of wavelength. Therefore, absorption is a selective
process and materials absorb only a distinct wavelength or set of wavelengths.
* is 10-3 m-1 in air, 1m-1 in glass, 106 m-1 in metal. Therefore, intensity decreases to
1/e or 1/2.7 = 36% of its initial value when passed through 103 m of air, 1m of glass,
or 10-6 m of metal.
-When light is passed through a solution, its absorption coefficient is proportional to its
concentration.

-where is the molar extinction coefficient. Its value depends on the type of molecules
present in solution, the solvent, and the wavelength of incident light.

-The Lambert-Beer Law states that the extinction (absorbance) of a solution is directly
proportional to its concentration.
~Also, there is a logarithmic dependence of the intensity of light passing through a
solution and the concentration of the sample.

* The Lambert-Beer law is used for determining concentration of a substance by measuring

the extinction E.
5. Scattering of light
Light may be scattered in two ways:
Rayleigh Scattering occurs when light passes through a dilute gas and interacts with its
molecules.

42

~In order for interaction to occur, the molecules must have a size much smaller
than the wavelength of incident light.
-the interaction occurs as the electric field of the incident electromagnetic wave
induces an oscillating magnetic moment that emits an electromagnetic wave of the
same frequency and wavelength elastic scattering
~light is scattered into all directions but its intensity is very low
~The ratio of the intensity of scattered light to incident light is
-k is a constant, M is the molar mass, is the wavelength of incident light
-this relationship suggests a very strong dependence of scattering intensity on
incident wavelength. Violet light (short wavelength) scatters much more intensely
than does red light (long wavelength).
-Red light which has a wavelength 2 x that of blue light scatters 16 x less intensely
than blue light.
-If the concentration is known, the molar mass can be calculated from this
equation
Raman Scattering
-Raman scattering occurs when light interacts with molecules and the resulting spectrum has
added spectral lines corresponding to short and long wavelengths of scattered light.
-Two types of energy changes can occur in the scattering molecules upon interaction with
light
~the vibrational and rotational energy of the molecules can increase (the photons
transfer some of their energy) the scattered photon has a lower energy
~the vibrational and rotational energy of the molecules can decrease the
scattered photon has a higher energy
*the probability of Raman scattering is very low and the intensity of the spectral lines is very
weak (cannot be detected by the naked eye) can use laser to increase intensity,
photomultipliers to detect radiation.
6. Dispersion of light
Dispersion: separation of white light into its spectral components of different wavelengths
due to various velocities of the spectral components and resulting refractive indices.
-Although the speed of light for all wavelengths in a vacuum is the same, light of different
wavelengths travels through a medium of refractive index n, with different velocities.

-The speed of light through a medium is a function of its wavelength and the refractive index
of a medium is therefore a function of the wavelength of incident light.
-The effect is seen when white light is incident at an angle upon a glass surface where the
two sides are nonparallel (prism).
- The nonparallel surfaces act to increase the angular separation between wavelengths.
-Thus each color has its own angle of deviation.
~Red has the longest wavelength, smallest refractive index and thus it is bent at an
angle much smaller than that violet light which has a short wavelength and large
refractive index.

43

7. Refraction of light and its use in spectroscopy

Reflection the rebounding of light rays at the boundary of a medium. Governed by the law
of reflection which states that the angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection
Refraction the bending of light rays at the boundary of two media.
-This occurs because the speed of light in media is less than that in a vacuum.

-A ray will bend toward the normal when it enters a medium in which its wave velocity is
slower.
-The refractive index n is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum c to the speed
of light in a particular medium v.
.
Snells Law: predicts the bending of light rays as they pass from one media to another.

~If the refractive index of the second medium is greater than that of the first, the
light rays will bend toward the normal
~If it is smaller, the light rays will bend away from the normal (angle of refraction
will be greater than the angle of incidence)

*The frequency of the wave does NOT change as light passes from one medium to another.
*only its wavelength and speed change

*wavelength of light is reduced when traveling through a medium

Total Internal Reflection
-When light passes from a medium with a higher index of refraction to one with a lower
index of refraction, it bends away from the normal.
-If the angle of incidence is increased to the critical angle, the refracted ray will be at an
angle of 90 to the normal and will emerge parallel to the surface of the boundary.
-Total Internal Reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle and the light ray is reflected back into the original material.
* Application of total internal refraction is endoscopy and optic fibers.
* Refraction is applied in spectroscopy to identify different molecules according to how they
refract light.
-Using a prism spectroscope, the dispersion of light according to wavelength is
studied.
-A diverging beam of white light is emitted from a source and the rays are
collimated and made parallel. The rays are dispersed through a prism and passed
through an objective lens which forms the corresponding spectrum on an indicator
(photographic plate or photomultiplier).

44

8. Interference of light
-Evidence for the wave character of light is provided by the interference and diffraction of
light.
-Interference is caused by the interaction of light waves which leads to the addition of their
amplitudes.
-Interference can be observed in two ways:
When light passes through a thin layer of medium with refractive index n between
two parallel planes and the refractive and reflected waves interact with one another.
During diffraction in which light deviates from its original path when passing
through a narrow slit.
-Interference can only observed with coherent waves light waves whose phase difference
does not change with time. In relation to each other, they differ in wavelength, frequency,
and phase shift.
-Interference can be constructive or destructive in nature:
-Constructive interference (maximum) - occurs if the path difference is an integer multiple
of wavelength
-regions where two light waves interfere constructively appear as bright spots (max
light intensity) on the screen

-Destructive inteference (minimum) - appears if the path difference is an odd number of half
wavelength
-regions where two light waves interfere destructively appear as dark areas on the
screen (min light intensity)

The path difference and phase difference of interfering light waves are related by:

Phase difference:
Wavelength of a light wave changes in a medium with refractive index n according to
New phase speed is:
The phase difference between a wave traveling path d1 in a medium with refractive index n1
and a wave traveling path d2 with a refractive index of n2 equals:

The phase difference is also equal to the difference between optical paths multiplied by

45

Where according to the Fermet principle, the optical path is equal to the product of refractive
index and geometrical path

*When light passes through a thin layer of medium with a refractive index of n between two
parallel planes, the interference of refracted and reflected waves takes place.
Difference in optical paths is given by (when n of air =1)

Where d is the thickness of the layer, is the angle of

incidence, is the wavelength of applied light.
When light encounters a medium of higher refractive index, the reflected wave undergoes a
phase shift equal to and /2 (path change that corresponds to ) must be added to the right
side of the equation.
-The interference of the reflected and refracted wave will increase in intensity if

-and will decrease if

-when white light passes through a thin layer, maxima and minima on the screen appear for
each wavelength individually (soap bubbles)

9. Diffraction of light
-Diffraction is the spreading out of light as it passes through a narrow opening which is on
the order of wavelengths.
-It is the result of interference of light waves where each point along the slit acts as a wave
source.
-When the seperation between slits is d than the path difference between two outgoing rays
at angle is:

-When the white light impacts an optical grating, a diffraction spectrum can be observed on
the screen.
-It consists of a bright central fringe with alternating dark and bright fringes on either side.
Bright fringes correspond to constructive interference and dark fringes correspond to
destructive interference of light waves.
-It differs from the refraction spectrum because the wavelength corresponding to red color
possesses maximum deviation.
Maximum occurs at:

46

Minimum occurs at:

The integer k is referred to as the order of the fringe.

10. Refractometry & Polarimetry

Refraction the bending of light rays at the boundary of two media.
-This occurs because the speed of light in media is less than that in a vacuum.
Dispersion: separation of white light into its spectral components of different wavelengths
due to various velocities of the spectral components and resulting refractive indices.
-Although the speed of light for all wavelengths in a vacuum is the same, light of different
wavelengths travels through a medium of refractive index n, with different velocities.

Refractometry:
-Used to determine the refractive index of a substance in order to assess its composition or
purity.
* Refraction is applied in spectroscopy to identify different molecules according to how they
refract light.
-Using a prism spectroscope, the dispersion of light according to wavelength is
studied.
-A diverging beam of white light is emitted from a source and the rays are
collimated and made parallel. The rays are dispersed through a prism and passed
through an objective lens which forms the corresponding spectrum on an indicator
(photographic plate or photomultiplier).
* Also used in determining the refraction of the eye. This gives the degree to which the eye
differs from normal which will determine whether or not the patient needs glasses and, if so,
how strong they should be.

Polarimetry
-Unpolarized light a beam of natural light in which the electrical field vectors of the waves
are oriented randomly in space.
-Linearly polarized light light in which the electrical field vectors are all oriented in the
same direction (parallel to eachother) The magnetic field vectors are also aligned.
-Polarization is the process of separating linearly polarized light from a beam of natural
(white) light.
It can be carried out in 3 ways:
Reflection & Refraction when light is incident on the boundary between two media at
Brewsters angle of incidence, the reflected and refracted angles are perpendicular to each
other and their sum = 90. At this angle of incidence, the reflected and refracted rays are
linearly polarized.

Birefringence polarization of natural light using an anisotropic substance

47

Isotropic materials properties do not depend on direction. (arrangement of atoms is

random) Ex: liquids and amorphous substances such as glass
Anisotropic materials properties depend on direction. There is an ordered arrangement of
atoms which only transmits electrical fields in a certain direction and absorbs all other
incident light. Results in linearly polarized light. (sunglasses)
-absorb ordinary rays
-transmit extraordinary rays bc their electrical field is aligned with the polarization
axis
-If two polarizing materials are placed in sequence, the amount of light transmitted through
them varies from a minimum to maximum value depending on how they are oriented in
respect to one another.
If the polarization axes are aligned (parallel), all light passing through the first
passes through the second as well
If the polarization axes are perpendicular, no light is able to pass through
Law of Malus gives the intensity of light transmitted by a polarizer
Where Io gives the intensity at = 0 (when the polarization axes are parallel and the same
amount of light is transmitted through the second polarizer as is transmitted through the first)
-Optically active substances rotate the plane of polarized light.
The angle of rotation is directly proportional to the concentration of the optically active
substance.
This property is exploited in polarimetry which is used to determine the concentration of
optically active compounds.
In polarimetry, a beam of light is emitted from a source, passed through a filter, polarizer,
cuvette, analyzer, and finally the intensity of its transmitted light is evaluated.
~when the cuvette is filled with water, max intensity of light is observed between the
polarizer and analyzer
~when the cuvette is filled with an optically active substance, the analyzer must be
rotated by an angle corresponding to the new angle of plane polarized light in order
for max amount of intensity to be observed
The angle of rotation of plane polarized light by an optical substance is given by

11. Biophysics of vision

-The eye functions in detecting light energy and transmitting information about intensity,
color, and shape to the brain
-sensitive to wavelengths of 400 750nm
-The transparent cornea at the front of the eye bends and focuses incoming light. The rays
travel through the pupil whose diameter is controlled by the muscular iris. The iris responds
to the intensity of light by adjusting the size of the pupil.

48

-The light continues on to the lens which focuses the image on the retina. The shape of the
lens is controlled by the ciliary muscle.
-Changing the shape of the lens allows the eye to vary its focal length and focus on objects at
various distances (accommodation).
-The retina contains photoreceptors called cones and rods.
Cones sense high intensity illumination and color (located in the fovea centralis
and some in the periphery)
Rods detect low intensity illumination and are important in night vision (located
in the periphery of the retina)
*we have much more rods than cones
-Rods and cones transduce light energy into nerve impulses. This process contains a
photochemical step which functions in adaptation of the eye to the current light intensity.
-the cones contain three types of pigments each of which absorbs light of a
certain band of wavelength.
-The rods contain a red pigment called visual purple or rhodopsin that is bleached
by light. It is a conjugated protein bonded to the pigment retinene. Rhodopsin is
stable until exposed to light. Light causes it to disscociate into protein and
retinene. Under dark conditions, it is reformed with the help of vitamin A.
* Only about 10% of light intensity stimulates the photoreceptors and some wavelengths
stimulate the retina more than others.
Photopic vision maximum sensitivity in daylight is 550 nm (yellowish green)
Scotopic vision maximum sensitivity in the dark is shifted toward shorter wavelengths of
505 nm.
-The image formed on the retina is inverted and reduced in size.
-The information obtained by the photoreceptors is transmitted to the brain via the optic
nerves.

Far point the furthest distance at which the human eye can focus is infinity
Near point the closest distance that the human eye can comfortably focus on is 25cm.
The distance of the near point increases with age (presbyopia or old-sightedness)
Photopic vision is the scientific term for human colour vision under normal lighting
conditions during the day.
In the range above 3.4 cd/m2 human eye uses three types of
cones to sense light in three respective bands of colour. The pigments of the cones have
maximum absorption values at wavelengths of about 445 nm (blue), 535 nm (green), . 575
nm (red).Their sensitivity ranges overlap to provide continuous (but not linear) vision
throughout the visual spectrum. The maximum efficacy is 683 lumens/W at a wavelength of
550 nm (yellow).

12. Eye defects

Emmetropia - The condition of the normal eye when parallel rays converge exactly on the
retina and vision is perfect.
-There is no need for the aid of glasses or contact lenses to help with focusing on objects in
the distance.
-Ametropia any deviation from normal resulting from the eyes inadequate refractive

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ability. Includes nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism.

Farsightedness (hyperopia) occurs when light entering the eye focuses behind the retina,
instead of directly on it.
-This is caused by an eye that is shorter than the normal eye.
-Farsighted people have trouble seeing up close, but may have difficulty seeing far away as
well.
-Corrected with a converging lens.

Nearsightedness (myopia) occurs when light entering the eye focuses in front of the retina
instead of directly on it.
This is caused by an eye that is longer than the normal eye.
-Nearsighted people typically see well up close, but have difficulty seeing far away.
-Corrected with a diverging lens.
Presbyopia - is caused by an age-related process. These age-related changes occur within the
proteins of the lens making the lens harder and less elastic with age. Age-related changes
also take place in the muscle fibres surrounding the lens. With less elasticity, the eye has
difficulty focusing on near objects. (Focal length increases with age)
-Corrected with converging lens

13. Absorption photometry

When light is passed through solution some of its energy is absorbed. This quality can be
exploited in absorption photometry to measure concentrations of solutions according to the
following law:
-The Lambert-Beer Law states that the extinction (absorbance) of a solution is directly
proportional to its concentration.
~Also, there is a logarithmic dependence of the intensity of light passing through a
solution and the concentration of the sample.

14. Optical properties of colloids

-Colloidal particles are macromolecules or micelles that move in solution as individual particles.
-Scattering of light that passes through a solution containing colloidal particles is called the
Tyndal phenomenon.
-Since intensity of scattered light depends on particle size, measurement of the intensity of
scattered light can be applied for the estimation of concentration in monodispersed colloidal
system.
-Some solutions may non exhibit the Tyndal effect because the solute particles are too small to
scatter light.

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15. Principle of laser

LASER: Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
-A laser is a device that produces a very narrow, intense, monochromatic, coherent light
beam
Principles behind laser function:
-Electrons can only exist in defined energy states and transition from a higher to lower
energy state is accompanied by the release of a quantum of radiation with frequency

-If an electron spontaneously falls to a lower energy state due to interaction with an
electromagnetic field, the atom will emit a noncoherent electromagnetic wave. (called
induced transitions)
-induced radiation is of the same frequency, polarization, and direction of the
radiation that induced the emission
The Boltzmann law describes the distribution of energy levels under normal conditions

*The number of atoms in the excited state is dependent on temperature.

*At normal conditions, only a small portion of atoms are in the excited state.

How a laser works:

-Lasers are able to produce intense coherent light by a process called inversion.
~During inversion, there are more atoms in the excited state than the ground state.
-This is accomplished by exciting atoms into a higher energy level and allowing them to fall
into a metastable state for a relatively long period of time (for 10-3 s). Thus many atoms
enter and collect in this semi-excited state producing inversion. (occurs in the ruby crystal of
a ruby laser)
-When light with energy equal to the difference between the metastable and ground state
passes through the crystal, all atoms simultaneously transit into the ground state emitting in a
pulse of intense coherent light. Its wavelength is equal to the wavelength of the incident
radiation.
-The intensity of the pulse is inversely proportional to its duration
I = F/A
P = E/t (unit is Watts)

*Lasers are used in medicine in the destruction of small sized tissues, in coagulation of
tissues, and healing of ulcers.
.

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16. Optical microscope

-An optical microscope makes use of of the refractive properties of lenses to bend light and
magnify an image.
-In a compound microscope, 2 lenses are used to provide greater magnification of the object.
-The first lens is the objective and the second is the eyepiece.
-The function of the objective is to put an image of the object at a point closer to the
eyepiece that the focal point of the eyepiece.
-The eyepiece then acts as a simple magnifier.
-Fo = 5mm
-Fe = 15 mm
-Optical tube length () is the distance between the focal points of the objective and
eyepiece.

-The distance between the lenses is

If the object is placed just beyond the focal point of the objective, a real, inverted, and
enlarged image is formed.
This image acts as a real object for the eyepiece
The final image produced is virtual, inverted, and enlarged.

The magnification of the objective is

(neg bc the image is inverted
The numerical aperature A is
Where is the half of the aperature angle at which the objective lens is seen from the object on
the optical axis
And n is the refractive index between the object and the objective.
The total magnification of the objective and eyepiece is

e is the shortest distance between 2 points that can be resolved

The resolving power of a microscope is 1/e

Resolving power is dependent on
wavelength of light (the shorter the wavelength, the greater the resolving power of the
microscope)
numerical aperature (numerical aperature can be increased by using an immersion objective
instead of a dry objective. n=1 for air vs. n=1.5 for oil)
*The resolving power limits the magnification of the microscope.

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17. Principles of electron microscopy

-Electron microscopes use beams of electrons instead of light to form images.
-Their ability to produce greater magnification is a result of a much higher resolving power
as compared to light microscopes.
-The greater resolution and magnification is due to the wavelength of an electron
being much smaller than that of a photon.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) involves a high voltage electron beam emitted by
a cathode, usually a tungsten filament and focused by electrostatic and electromagnetic
lenses. The electron beam that has been transmitted through a specimen that is in part
transparent to electrons carries information about the inner structure of the specimen in the
electron beam that reaches the imaging system of the microscope. The spatial variation in
this information (the "image") is then magnified by a series of electromagnetic lenses until it
is recorded by hitting a fluorescent screen, photographic plate, or light sensitive sensor. The
image detected may be displayed in real time on a monitor or computer.
the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) produces images by detecting low energy
secondary electrons which are emitted from the surface of the specimen due to excitation by
the primary electron beam. In the SEM, the electron beam is rastered across the sample, with
detectors building up an image by mapping the detected signals with beam position.
-The SEM has a large depth of focus.

Chapter 6 Electricity in medicine:

1. Coulombs law, permittivity
Coulombs Law gives the magnitude of the electrostatic force F between two charges q1 and
q2 that are seperated by a distance r.

* The attractive or repulsive force F acting between 2 charges qo and q is directly

proportional to their product and inversely proportional to the distance between them.
-the electrostatic force can be attractive or repulsive in nature
-it is dependent on
-charge q The greater the charge, the greater the electrostatic force
-radius r electrostatic force decreases as distance between the two charges increases
-permittivity constant the greater the permittivity constant, the smaller the electrostatic
force.
permittivity constant a measure of a materials ability to transmit an electrical field
-a higher permittivity value is associated with a materials ability to store the same amount
of charge but with a smaller electrical field. This leads to increased capacitance.
Value in a vacuum:

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-Permittivity values in insulators are higher than Eo.

-This is the result of dielectric polarization which occurs in insulators and leads to a
decreased force between the charges as compared to a vacuum.
-Therefore, relative permittivity can be defined. This is the ratio of the permittivity of a
given material to that of a vacuum.

-The high permittivity of water enables good solubility of salts in water. Water molecules
decrease the attractive forces between negatively and positively charged ions in solution.
This hydration of ions is accompanied by a decrease in free enthalpy (thermodynamically
favorable).
-Various ions are hydrated to various extents:
~Positively charged ions have higher hydration numbers bc their positive charge
induces a greater polarization effect in the electron shells of water molecules than
does a negative charge.
~Smaller ions also possess higher hydration numbers than larger ions of the same
size.
For ex: K+ has a greater radius in crystalline structure than does Na+. However,
in water solution, the effective radius of Na+ is greater than that of K+ due to
its smaller size. This means that Na+ is hydrated to a greater extent and its
effective radius increases.
*This quality is important when considering the permeability of ions in cell
membranes and the resulting membrane potential. Since Na+ is hydrated to a greater
extent, it has more difficulty transversing the phospholipid bilayer of the cell
membrane. This explains why cell membranes are more permeable to K+ than Na+.

2. Intensity, voltage, resistance, impedance and their units

INTENSITY: The intensity of an electrical field is given by

The electrical field strength is defined as the electrostatic force felt by a positive test charge
qo divided by its charge.
Units are Newtons/coulomb which equals volts/meter
Intensity can also refer to the amount of energy transmitted via acoustic or electromagnetic
radiation. Intensity is the measure of average energy flux. For example in the case of sound,
intensity = power/area
Intensity is a vector quantity and has units watts/m2
VOLTAGE (V): Since work must be done to move a charge in an electrical field, voltage is
the amount of work that must be performed to move a positive test charge q0 through an
electric field from point a to point b. The voltage or potential difference is the difference in

54

electric potential between two points.

-The work depends only on the electric potential at the two points and is independent of the
path taken by the charge.

Unit is the Volt. 1V = 1J/1C

*voltage is a parameter of electricity which causes current to flow when circuit is
compeleted.
* V is a scalar quantity whose sign is dependent on the sign of the charge
*0 electric potential is defined at an infinite distance away from the source.

RESISTANCE (R): opposition to the flow of charge in a direct current (electrical current).
*Resistance does not effect the flow of charge, it just results in a potenial drop.

R=U/I
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm.
Resistance of a conductor is dependent on its:
Length (L)- directly proportional the longer the resistor, the greater the resistance (e- have
to travel longer through the resistor-greater potential drop)
Crosssectional area (A) inversely proportional the greater the crossectional area, the
greater the resistance (an increase in the amount of conduction paths for the e-)
Resistivity ()- directly proportional the greater the materials resistivity, the greater the
resistance.
Resistivity is value that characterizes a materials intrinsic resistance to current
flow
SI unit is ohm x meter

Temperature most conductors have higher resistance at higher temperatures (due to more
oscillations in the atoms of the conductor causing a resistance to e- flow)
*conductors have low values of resistance while resistors have high values of resistance

IMPEDANCE (Z): opposition to the the flow of charge in an alternating current

Z=U/I
-it is based on three components

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Resistance (R)
Inductive reactance (L)
Reactive capacitance (Rc)

In tissues, inductive reactance can be neglected

3. Donnans equilibrium in a cell membrane

-Donnans equilibrium is the behavior of diffusable ions near a semipermeable membrane
failing to distribute themselves evenly across the membrane due to the presence of another
charged nondiffusable particle. This results in an uneven charge distribution across the
membrane and the formation of an electrical potential between the two solutions (Donnans
potential).
In the absence of a nondiffusable ion:
If a solution of KCl is added to one side (side 1) of a semipermeable membrane and water is
added to the other side (side 2), KCl will dissociate and the two ions will move down their
concent to side 2. The ions will continue to diffuse back and forth until equilibrium is
acheived and there are equal concentraions of K+ and Cl- on either side of the membrane. At
equilibrium, equal numbers of K+ and Cl- ions will diffuse back and forth across the
membrane to maintain equal concentrations on either side and electrical neutrality.

In the presence of a nondiffusable ion:

If an impermeable anionic protein is added to side 1, there are equal concentrations of K+ on
either side and no Cl- ions in side 1. In the beginning, some Cl- ions will diffuse down their
concencentration gradient to side 1. This gives side 1 a net negative charge and establishes
an electrical gradient for Cl- ions which restricts more Cl- ions from entering side 1. This
electrical gradient also attracts K+ ions from side 2 to side 1. K+ ions will then move back to
side 1 as a result of a K+ concentration gradient. At equilibrium, the product of the
concentrations of the diffusable ions on either side is equal. However, there is a slight excess
of cations on side 2 along with a sight excess of anions on side 1 producing an electrical
potential between the two sides.

4. Resting membrane potential (Donnans Potential)

-Every neuron has a seperation of positive and negative electrical charge across its cell
membrane..
-The electrical potential difference is about 60 70mV at rest and is known as the resting
membrane potential.
-The negative resting membrane potential is a result of the membrane being significantly
more permeable to K+ ions than Na+ ions. Thus K+ diffuses down its electrochemical

56

gradient into the cell to join anionic proteins. Na+ remains outside of the cell.
Since , by convention, the potential outside the cell is arbitrarily defined as zero, and given
the relative excess of negative charges inside the membrane; the potential difference across
the membrane is expressed as a negative value.
*The potential difference across the membrane can be measured with two glass
microelectrodes

5. Electrochemical potential
The work required for transport of 1 mole of the i-th component (ion or electron) inside the
given phase, defined as the sum of its chemical and electrostatic components

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6. Nernst equation
In electrochemistry, the Nernst equation gives the electrode potential (E), relative to the
standard electrode potential, (Eo), and describes how concentration of the ionic species
affects the potential difference between the half cells of a battery. In physiology, the Nernst
equation is used for finding the potential difference across a cell membrane with respect to
one ion.
Ecell = Eo - (RT/nF) ln (Keq) keq= conc ex over conc int

R is the universal gas constant 8.315 J K-1 mol-1

T the temperature in kelvins.
a is the chemical activities on the reduced and oxidized side, respectively
F is the Faraday constant 9.6484*104 C mol-1
n is the number of electrons transferred in the half-reaction.
[red] is the concentration of oxidizing agent (the reduced species).
[ox] is the concentration of reducing agent (the oxidized species).
7. Measurement of electrical conductivity in solutions
Both intracellular and extracellular fluids contain a sufficient amount of ions which makes
them good conductors of electric charge.
The property of a solution to conduct electrical current is described by the
Specific Conductivity K which is inversely proportional to (resistivity)

Molar Conductivity: used to relate the dependence of specific conductivity on ion

concentration

*Molar conductivity is dependent on temperature. It increases slightly.

In dilute solutions, where ions move around independently, the molar conductivity is
additive

Conductometry
*If only one type of electrolyte is present in solution, then electrical conductivity is directly
proportional to the concentration of the electrolyte.
Therefore, concentration can be estimated by measuring specific conductivity (k)

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Measurement of specific conductivity is carried out by using a conducting vessel with two
platinum electrodes. The vessel contains the solution and is located in the Wheatstone bridge
circuit whose resistance is unknown. Before, specific conductivity can be calculated, l and q
must be determined. The ratio of l/q can be determined experimentally by first filling the
vessel with a standard solution of known specific conductivity. The ratio l/q is called the
capacity C of the reacting vessel. With this information, the vessel is then filled with the
solution and the resistance is measured. Specific conductivity is calculated and the
concentration of the solution is estimated since specific conductivity and concentration are
proportional
8. Action potential and its detection
- Action potentials are generated by neurons after being excited by a stimulus of sufficient
magnitude.
-A neuron at rest has a membrane potential of -70 mV due to the unequal distribution of ions
across the neuronal membrane. Thus the inside of the cell is negative (anionic proteins &
higher K+) and the outside is positive (higher Na+).
-If a neuron is sufficiently stimulated, some Na+ channels open and sodium enters the cell
down its electrochemical gradient. This causes the membrane potential to rise slowly. Once
it reaches a threshold potential of -60 - -50 mV, an action potential is generated and all
voltage gated Na+ channels open. Na+ rushes into the cell and depolarizes the membrane to
a positive value.
-An action potential is an all or none response. This means that whenever a threshold
potential is triggered, an action potential of consitent size and duration is produced
irrespective of the strength of the stimulus.
-K+ channels then open and K+ rushes out of the cell down its electrochemical gradient
causing repolarization of the membrane to a negative value. hyperpolarization
-During an action potential it is impossible to invoke another absolute refractory period
-Immediately following an action potential it is difficult to initiate a response from the
neuron (need stronger stimuli) relative refractory period.
*The refractory period is important in the one way conduction of the action potential along
the length of the neuronal axon.
-Mylenated axons propagate action potentials much faster than unmyelinated axons through
saltatory conduction. In this method, regions of the axon are surrounded by an insulating
myelin sheath and the neuronal membrane is only permeable to ions at the Nodes of Ranvier.
Thus the action potential jumps from one node to the next.
Detection of Action Potentials:
An axon can be stimulated using two electrodes and some external source of voltage. One
electrode is placed inside the axon and the other on its surface.
If the external electrode is positive, hyperpolarization of the membrane occurs
(membrane potential decreases)
If the internal electrode is positive, depolarization occurs (membrane potential
increases)
-Rheobase magnitude of current just sufficient to excite a given nerve or muscle.
-Chronaxie duration of reponse time interval if the current of twice the rheobase is applied.

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*resting membrane potential and the shape of the action potential varies for different types
of excitable cells (cardiac, neuronal, muscle)
9. Action potentials of heart muscle and their detection
-The heart contracts due to electrical stimulation controlled by the SA node (pacemaker of
the heart) in the right atrium which causes a path of depolarization to the AV nodes and the
rest of the conducting cells of the heart.
SA node causes atrial contraction
AV causes ventricular contraction
Repolarization occurs and the cycle repeats.
-The shape of the action potential in cardiac conducting cells is a wide plateau and the
duration of the action potential is much longer relative to that of neurons.
An electrocardiogram is used to detect the action potential of the heart.
P wave corresponds to atrial depolarization
QRS corresponds to ventricular depolarization
T wave- ventricular repolarization

10. Principle of oscilloscope

-An oscilloscope is used to visualize voltage that changes periodically with time.
-Its function is based on motion of electric charges in an electric field.
-A charged particle in the presence of an electric field experiences a force F
Its acceleration due to the force is

-Electrons are emitted from a heated filament and accelerated by the anode. The beam of eis collimated as it passes through a negatively charged cylinder. The collimated beam then
passes between 2 pairs of deflection plates (one horizontal and one vertical) and strikes a
screen coated with a phosphorescent material. As each electron strikes the screen, there is
emission of a tiny flash of light. The time basis is created by increasing voltage which then
falls to zero and is created by the horizontal plates. This voltage is then lead to the 2nd set of
deflection plates. If no voltage shows up at the 2nd pair, the screen displays a horizontal
straight line. If an alternating current of frequency identical to the time basis is lead to the
2nd pair, a cycle of current appears on the screen.
-if frequency of current is the time basis, two cycles appear on the screen.
-Oscilloscope are used to measure electric heart activity and breathing because they possess
periodical character.
11. Use of electricity for diagnostic purposes
The major application of electricity in diagnostic medicine is the electrocardiogram.
-The electrocardiogram records heart action potentials produced by changes in polarity of
cardiac cells.
-To record an ECG, electrodes are placed on different parts of the body. Each of these leads
monitors distinct areas of the heart. Using combinations of these electrodes, different
tracings of the heart's electrical activity can be made and recorded on paper or in a computer.

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Diagnoses- abnormal heart rates: bradycardia = slower rate, bachycardia= faster rate,
amythmia= irregular rate; myocardium damage as a result of myocardial infarction

Other applications include the electroencephalogram which records brain activity by

detecting electrical potential across regions of the brain.
Diagnoses: epilepsy, sleep patterns, brain death.
12. Use of electricity in therapy
Electrotherapy is based on the three different effects of electric current. The effects are
dependent on the type of electrical current used.
Electrolytic:
-A direct current has strong electrolytic effects (bc the organisms fluid has many
electrolytes, alkaline compounds deposit on cathode, acidic compounds deposit on anode). It
results in the changed stimulation of nerves. Higher direct current densities can result in
tissue damage.
-A weak electrolytic effect can be produced by low frequency alternating current
Stimulatory:
-Low frequency alternating current has a strong stimulatory effect (if this current passes
through the heart it can disrupt the hearts electrical activity and have lethal effects).
-Direct current can only produce stimulatory results at sudden changes of intensity.
Thermal
-A high frequency alternating current has a strong thermal effect.
-It is applied safely for heating tissues during diathermy.
*Electrotherapy is applied in physciatry, balneology, rehabilitation.

Chapter 7 Use of X-rays in medicine:

1. Production of X-rays, energy spectra
X-rays electromagnetic waves produced by high-energy electrons that were stopped upon
striking some target.
The wavelength of X-rays is very short 5 120 pm which corresponds to a high photon
energy of .01 - .02 MeV
-Due to their high energy, x-rays have a great penetrating ability.
X-ray production:
The source of x-rays is an evacuated x-ray tube containing a heated cathode and cooled
anode. A high voltage exists between them.
-electrons escaping from the heated cathode are accelerated by an accelerating voltage U

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(unit is the volt) and have energy

E =eU

X-rays are of 2 types:

* At high accelerating voltages, both types of x-rays and their respective spectra are
produced in an x-ray tube and superimposition of the two spectra occurs
1) Bremsstrahlung results in a continuous spectrum. Bremsstrahlung x-rays are produced
by electromagnetic interaction of the accelerated e- with the fields of atomic nuclei
-They are created when the kinetic energy of the accelerated electrons is transformed into the
energy of EM waves in the field of atomic nuclei
-The highest possible photon energy = eU =hfmax
c=f then = c/f
-the maximum energy and frequency therefore correspond to the shortest wavelength
-Because the interaction with the fields of atomic nuclei occurs at various distances from the
nucleus, the photon energies will vary as will their corresponding wavelengths and a
continuous spectrum will be created.
-The peak of the spectrum is shifted to the left (shorter wavelengths, higher energy) with an
increased accelerating voltage
-The emitted power of Bremstrahlung is proportional to the accelerating voltage, intensity of
the e- current, and atomic # Z of the anode target
P=kV2IZ
*from this relationship, power can be increased with a higher accelerating voltage, intensity
of electron current, and atomic # of anode
Efficiency:
Only 1% of the energy transported by e- to the anode is transformed into electromagnetic
waves, 99% is converted into thermal energy. Therefore, a method of cooling the anode is
needed and the anode must have a high melting point.
The efficiency n of a x-ray tube is given by
N= kVZ

2) Characteristic x-rays produce a line spectrum.

-Characteristic x-rays are emitted from the electron shells of anode atoms by ionization due
to the energy of the incoming accelerated electron beam.
-If the energy of the accelerated electrons is higher than the binding energy of the electrons
in the inner electron shells, ionization of these electrons will occur.
-The subsequent de-exitation results in emission of photons
-A line spectrum is formed since electron transitions have well defined energies associated
with them
-Higher atomic #s of the target anode will shift the line spectra to the left (shorter
wavelengths, higher energies)

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X-rays have several effects:

-Primary effects are excitation and ionization of target nuclei
-Other effects occur as well and they are the result of primary effects of x-rays:
Luminescence:
Ionizing effect: the electrical conductivity of some materials is increased (due to free
flowing electrons that were ionized and now free to roam)
Photographic effect: darkening of a photographic plate
Chemical effect: production of hydrogen peroxide in water
Biological effect: structural and functional changes in cells

2. Control of the energy and intensity of X-rays

-The penetrating ability of Bremsdtrahlung can be controlled by the accelerating voltage of
in the x-ray tube, the higher the voltage the higher the x ray energy and the greater its
penetrating ability E =qV
-The intensity can be controlled by changing the intensity of the anode current. This can be
done by varying the degree of heating of the cathode filament. It is a useful technique when
is desired to change the intensity of without varying the energy of radiation.
P=kV2IZ

3. X-ray apparatus
An x-ray machine is a machine used to produce x-rays via x-ray tubes.
-X-ray machines generating a beam of x-rays from a source (x-ray tube).
-The beam is projected through the body. Some of the X-rays will pass through the body and
others will be attenuated in the tissues. The transmitted x-rays then fall onto a photocathode
which contains luminescent screen or onto a photographic film. Semiconductor plates or
image intensifiers.
-Images taken with such devices are known as x-ray photographs or radiographs.
4. X-ray lamp
If the energy of an x-ray photon that strikes the anode in the x ray tube is greater than the
binding energy of e- in the e- shell of nucleus, the e- excitation are e- transition results in
production of the line x ray spectrum since electron energy levels are well defined.
Increasing atomic number Z of the target material results in the shift of these line spectra to
shorter wavelengths.
5. X-ray absorption
Attenuation = absorption
The intensity of a monchromatic x-ray beam propagating in some medium decreases
according to

Two processes cause the attenuation of X-rays:

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1) Photoelectric effect
photon transfers its whole energy to an electron, therby ionising the atom.
After leaving the atom, the electron induces ionization and excitation until its excess energy
is lost
-Therefore, x-rays do not cause ionization and excitation directly but rather through the high
energy electrons that are released as a result of their collisions with atoms
-This process occurs during Characteristic x-ray emission nad is accompanied by a line
spectrum
-Attenuation in bone due to the photoelectric effect is higher in bone than in soft tissue
because the effective atomic number of bone is higher
-tissues that attenuate x-rays well appear white on a radiograph while those that do not are
black
-Bone is seen as the unexposed region on the x-ray film (white).

2) Compton scattering
-During compton scattering a photon transfers only a fraction of its energy to an electron
causing a scattering effect.
-The scattered photon moves in a changed direction with a lower energy hf. (longer
wavelength)

This type of interaction does not depend on the atomic number of the absorber and the
probability of its occurence depends on incident photon energy.
-compton scattering plays an important role in x-ray contrast
*The total linear mass attenuation coefficient is equal to the sum of the attenuation
coefficients for the photoelectric effect and compton scattering

6. X-ray contrast
-The intensity of an x-ray beam passing through a patient decreases due to attenuation by the
photoelectric effect and compton scattering.
-The degree of attenuation varies for different tissues.
-The contrast Cr of traditional x-ray image (shadow image) resulting from different x ray
absorption coefficients in various tissues (of various density and effect atomic number) is
defined by

where I2,I1 are different x ray intensities

-The contrast of the resulting photographic plate is evaluated by brightness
*Since the linear attenuation coef. of bone or soft tissue decreases with increasing incident
photon energy, the contrast between bone and soft tissue decreases with increasing
accelerating voltage installed in the x ray tube.

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-In oder to differentiate between tissues with similar absorbing properties, contrast materials
are added.
Positive contrast: strong absorbers
Negative contrast: weaker absorbers

The following conclusions can be drawn according to the above equation:

A: the contrast is negative: more absorbing material will lower x-ray beam intensity on the
photographic film
B: contrast doesnt depend on the thickness of the irradiated object
C: for empty spaces the contrast is positive
7. Use of X-rays for diagnostic purposes
-X-rays can be used for diagnostic purposes due to the fact that different tissues in the body
absorb x-rays to various extents
-X-rays emitted by the x-ray tube pass through a certain body part and are then viewed on a
screen do to the luminescent properties of x-rays (summation image) or on photographic film
due to the photographic properties of x-rays.
-the image produced is a summation image
-depth can only be assessed by moving the patient
-Electronic image transfer can be used to increase the brightness. This is acheived by
acceleration of the e- produced by the photoelectric effect as they pass through the body
Because x-rays are damaging, least dose is desirable.
Scintigraphy: technique used to lower the dose of radiation for patients during examination
This technique utilizes a photographic film that contains a photographic emulsion on both
sides which increases the sensitivity
The density of blackening is equal to

The difference between the densities of two neighboring areas is called the radiographic
contrast
*photographic plates provide better resolution than due luminescent screens
Radiography : X-rays are highly penetrating, and x-ray machines are used in radiology to
take pictures of bones and teeth. They can also be used to diagnose fractured bones. Imaging
of the digestive tract can be done with the help of barium sulphate as a contrast medium.

8. X-ray therapy
-The use of x-rays in therapy is based on the principle that certain types of cells are more

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susceptible to x-ray damage than others (i.e. young and actively dividing cells such as are
present in cancerous growths)
-Used in destruction of malignant tumours.
Process:
-Low energy photons must be filtered out from the x-ray beam because they cause damage to
superficial tissues. (can use Zn, Cu, Al filters)
-This results in a more homogeneous x-ray beam that can be targeted to a particular tissue.
-The more narrow the the energy range of photons, the greater the quality of the beam.
-Quality is assessed by the HVL (half value layer) which reduces initial intensity by 50%.
The quality factor is : HVL1/HVL2 and should be about 1.5.
HVL1 absorbs x-rays with longer wavelength and HVL2 absorbs higher wavelength
Absorbed dose of radiation or exposure: the energy absorbed per unit mass. =E/m
(unit is Grey Gy)
I Gy = J/kg
There are several types
Air dose
Surface dose
Depth dose
-To avoid superficial damage, high energy photons are positioned sufficiently distant from
the patient;
-In the treatment of superficial lesions, deep tissue damage is avoided by using low energy
photons near to the skin.
-Physicians and technicians must be protected by shielding. The radiation hazard has to be
checked by film dosemeters. (1mGy/week is max)
-Gamma ray therapy has become increasingly more common and often replaces x-ray
therapy. It utilizes high energy photons emitted by radioisotopes
9. Depth dose
This is one of the various types of dose (exposure).
Depth dose is the amount of radiation absorbed at a certain depth below the surface.
-Since intensity of radiation from a point source of radiation decreases proportionally to the
squared distance from the source, the depth dose (Dd) observed at a depth d is related to the
surface dose (Ds) as:

where FS = distance between the focus of the X ray tube and the body surface

The implication of this relationship is that objects closer to the source are more exposed to xrays than objects further away.
-Geometrical considerations play an important role in x-ray therapy
-To avoid superficial damage, high energy photons must be positioned sufficiently distant
from the patient;
-In the treatment of superficial lesions, deep tissue damage is avoided by using low energy
(low accelerating voltage) photons near to the skin.

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-Physicians and technicians must be protected by shielding. The radiation hazard has to be
checked by film dose meters.

10. Principle of computed tomography

-Computed tomography is the most advanced x-ray imaging technique and has a high
resolving power and produces a higher contrast
-produces an image of a single layer (crossection) of the body
-The body cross-section to be examined is divided into small pixels of size less than 1 mm
-A narrow x-ray beam is passes through the body and its intensity is measured by a
photomultiplier.
-The value of attenuation coefficients of each individual pixel is calculated.
-This allows for the calculation of the emerging intensity I and subsequent image production
by a computer.

-produces a detailed image with good contrast, results are stored electronically, radiation
load for patient is the same as traditional x-ray

Chapter 8 Radioactivity and Ionizing Radiation:

1. Radioactive decay
Radioactive atoms are those with unstable nuclei (radionuclides) which will spontaneously
decay by emitting a particle or a quantum of electromagnetic radiation.
-Their decay may lead to the formation of a stable or unstable daughter nuclei.
There are two basic types of radionuclides:
Natural: occur in nature
Light natural radionuclides: atomic # less than 75 amu, do not form decay series,
resulting nuclei are stable
Heay natural radionuclides: form decay series in which parent nuclei give rise to
daughter nuclei
Artificial: are produced artificially in atomic reactors or accelerators

Decay Rate:
Number of nuclei at time t:
Where N is the number of nuclei at time t, e is eulers # for natural logarithms
is the disintegration or decay constant: it represents the relative rate of decay

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- unit is s-1
*The # of radioactive nuclei decreases exponentially with time
*The value of the ln N decreases linearly with time
Activity: the # of nuclei that decay in 1s
A = N
-activity can be used to estimate the decay rate
-activity decreases exponentially with time
-unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq)
-a radioactive sample will have an activity of 1 Bq if the number of nuclei that decay in 1s is
1.
2. Energy spectra of and radiation
decay: Decay of heavy radionuclides results in emission of an particle.
particle: composed of 2 protons + 2 neutrons. It is the nucleus of a Helium atom.
-has a charge of +2
- particle are absorbed by material very easily adn do not penetrate shielding material very
far.
-emission of an particle results in a daughter nucleus with an atomic # of 2 less than the
parent and an atomic mass of 4 less than the parent nucleus. The daughter nucleus is to the
left of the parent on the perdiodic table.
The parent nucleus changes according to the scheme :
-if the energy of the particle emitted is lower than the transmutation energy, then the
daughter nucleus that is formed is in the excited state and can fall to the ground state by
emission of gamma radiation
decay : is known as an isbaric transmutation of the nucleus since nucleon number is
conserved.
There are 3 types of decay:
1. Decay: Emisson of Electron and its antineutrino: A neutron decays into a a proton and
Mass number is conserved and atomic number increases by 1 (new proton)

* the electrons produced possess a continuous energy spectrum

2. + Decay: Emission of positron: A proton decays into a positron and an neutron
Mass # is conserved and atomic # decreases by 1 (a proton has decayed)

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* the positron energy spectrum is continuous

3. Electron Capture: occurs when unstable radionuclides capture an electron from the inner
K shell. The electron combines with a proton to form a neutron.
-The mass number is once again concerved but atomic number decreases by 1

*characteristic electromagnetic radiation is emitted

*Excited nuclei are formed in all three types of B decay and immediate transition into the
ground state occurs with simultaneous emission of gamma radiation
3. Energy spectrum of radiation
Gamma decay- This radiation is represented by gamma rays or high energy photons emitted
by the nuclei of radioactive elements.
-Since gamma rays do not carry charge or mass, both the mass number and atomic number is
conserved in the nucleus.

-The cobalt gun is used as a source of radiation used in radiotherapy. Uses radioactive cobalt
-60
-The known intensity of y-radiation decreases slowly with time since the half-life of this
radionuclide is about 5 years.
-It can used in therapy of malignant tumors by using ionising radiation.
4. Radioactive equilibrium
In a series of radioactive decay, an equilibrium will be reached at which time identical #s of
parent + daughter nuclei decay per unit time.
Rate of change of number of parent nuclei is

Rate of change of daughter nuclei is

-If T1 (half life of parent) << T2 (half life of daughter), then the activity of the parent
decreases due to its short half-life and and the activity of the daughter increases initially and
then decreases due to its own decay rate
*no equilibrium

-If T1>T2, then the activity of the parent decreases according to its decay rate.
-and since the half life of the daughter is short, the # of daughter nuclei increases up to a
maximum and then their activity decreases proportionally to the parent
*transitional equilibrium

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-If T1>>T2, (the half life of the parent is so long that it does not decay during measurement)
then the activity of the daughter will rise until it reaches that of the parent. Thus the # of
nuclei formed will equal the number that is decaying
-At this point the parent and daughter nuclei are in a state of permanent radioactive
equilibrium.
-Thus the ratio of the number of parent and daughter nuclei equals the ratio of their half
lives.

5. Physical, biological and effective half-life

-unit of half life is time (days, secs, hrs, years, whatever is appropriate)
Physical Half-life: (Tf) The time it takes for of the radioactive nuclei in a sample at zero
time to decay

Biological Half-life: (Tb)

The time required for half the quantity of a drug or other substance deposited into a living
organism to be metabolized or eliminated by normal biological processes.

Effective Half-life: The time required for the radioactivity of material administered or
deposited into an organism to be reduced to half its initial value by a combination of
biological elimination processes and radioactive decay.
The relative disappearance rate ef is the sum of the excretion rate and the decay rate.

*When passing through absorbers, radiation loses energy. Energy loss depends on both the
type of radiation and absorber
Range:the distance that radiation can pass through an absorber
Radiation can interact with matter in several ways: ionization, excitation, scattering, production
of brehmsstrahlung, and nuclear reactions
-ionization is the most significant source of energy loss for charged particles
6. Absorption of radiation
-Gamma radiation is high energy electromagnectic radiation that is highly penetrating.
-Only dense materials such as lead are capable of absorbing such high energy radiation.
-The attenuation coefficient for gamma radiation is the sum of the three attenuation
coefficients for the photoeffect, compton scattering, and formation of electron-positron pairs.
The photoelectric effect: a photon will transfer all of its energy to an electron in the shell of
an atom with which it is interacting. A part of this energy will contribute to the ionization

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energy required to completely remove an electron from an atom. The remainder of the
energy will be converted to the kinetic energy of the electron as it leaves the atom.
Probability of absorption due to the photoelectric effect:
-Thus the photoelectric effect is most probable at low energies and in heavy absorbers.
-This type of absorption is most probable in tissues with high Z for ex: bone
Compton scattering- occurs at high photon energies
-In this type of interaction, the photon interacts with a free electron in the absorber.
-Part of the photons energy is transferred to the electron and the electron and photon move
away from each other in a scattered direction. The resulting photon has a lower energy.
- The energy of the resulting photon is dependent on the scattering angle

-The highest decrease is expected for backscattering where the angle is 180 degrees.
-This process may be repeated several times until the photon donates the last bit of its energy
via the photoelectric effect.
Formation of electron-positron pairs: probability of this type of absorption is proportional to
the energy of the photon.
-also more probable in absorbers with higher atomic numbers
-At high energies, the photon will disappear and its energy will be converted to the rest mass
of the electron-positron pair and their kinetic energy.

Half-thickness: the thickness of the absorber which reduces the intensity of incident
radiation by 50%
Half-layer: the mass per unit area of absorber (kg/m2) with density p that reduces the
intensity of incident radiation by 50%
7. Absorption of and radiation
Alpha particles- Due to their relatively large mass and electric charge, the ionization losses
of energy are high and several 1000s of ion pairs may be formed during the absorption of
one alpha particle.
-Energy losses due to ionization and excitation are approx 50/50.
-The range of penetration is very small. i.e. with an energy of 10 MeV, penetration is about
10cm in air and several m in soft tissue or water. therefore apha particles can have a

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negative biological effect when passing through tissue bc all energy is concentrated into
several micrometers of tissue.

Beta-Ionization and excitation represents the highest energy losses of electrons during their
passage through an absorber.
-Their specific linear ionization is lower than alpha because of the lower mass to charge
ratio.
-In addition to ionization and excitation, Bremsstrahlung can also be produced.
-But the energy losses due to bremsstrahlng are relatively low and more important at high
energies
-Bremsstrahlung is high energy quanta of electromagnetic radiation that is produced
when accelerated electrons are stopped in the electrical field of an atomic nucleus.
-The intensity of Bremsstrahlung is proportional to the atomic number of the absorber and
the electrons energy.

-Bremsstrahlung radiation produces a continuous energy spectrum

The intensity of a beta beam decreases according to:

8. Nuclear reaction
-Neutrons interact with absorbers through nuclear reactions
-Neutrons cannot cause direct ionization or excitation because they are not charged particles.
-However, upon colliding with hydrogen nuclei hey can cause indiredct ionization
-When a neutron approaches an atom, it can be captured by the nuclear force and form a
compound nucleus (X +n)* which is in the excited state.
-This excited state last for only a brief amount of time and upon deexitation, the atom will
release a particle, group of particles or a quantum of electromagnetic radiation.
-This process is called the nuclear reaction
X + n = (X+n)* = X+ EM particles

9. Cosmic rays
-Cosmic rays are a form of ionising radiation that falls to Earth from the universe.
-Cosmic rays can be resolved into primary and secondary components
Primary component:
-Radiation that did not interact with atmosphere (fast protons, alpha particles & 1% of light
nuclei)

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Proton energy of 10GeV (have detected 10 to power 18 eV)

Secondary component:
soft: e-, e+ , photons, protons & light nuclei (can be shielded by 10cm Pb)
hard: fast mesons, high energy secondary protons, neutrons and all elementary particles
-Intensity depends upon altittude and geographical width (intensity increases up to 20km
then decreases up to 50km after which it is constant)
-The earths magnetic field causes variation of the intensity with geographical width
at the equator, cosmic ray intensity is lowest, at the poles its the greatest
**Important in nuclear medicine since it results in the background noise of detection devices
However the use of suitable shielding can decrease its effects.
10. Selective and integral detection of radiation
Because the amplitude spectrum produced by scintillators possess continuous character due
to the presence of compton scattering, using an amplitude discriminator, two modes of
detection can be performed:
Integral detection: all pulses with amplitudes greater than a set level are counted, The total #
of pulses is proportional to the area under the curve of number of pulses plotted as a function
of energy.
Selective detection- at photopeak, only pulses with amplitude between the lower level and
upper discriminatoion level are registered;
-advantage is good spatial resolution of head and decreased detection of cosmic rays and
scattered radiation.
Energy resolving power (R) of a scintillation head is defined by the width of the photopeak
measured at half its height expressed as a function the mean energy in percent

11. Principles of detection of ionizing radiation

-Detection of various forms of radiation is based on interaction of the radiation with the
sensitive part of the detector.
Detectors covert radiation energy into other forms of energy that can be registered by other
devices.
-After a detector absorbs radiation, it generates electrical pulses. The pulses produced by the
detector are amplified, formed in shape, measured, and individually registered or their mean
count rate is calculated by other parts of the radiation measurement device. The pulses are
registered by the counter.
Detection efficiency: the ratio of the number of particles registered by the detector to those
that pass through the detector.
-Multiple types of detectors are available and their function is based on the various
interaction radiation may have: ionization, excitation, chemical, thermal, or photographic.
***The three types of detectors used for ionizing radiation are the ionization chamber, the

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geiger-muller counter, and the scintillation counter

12. Detectors of ionizing radiation

The three types of detectors for ionizing radiation are the ionization chamber, the Geigermuller counter, and the Scintillation counter

13. Scintillation detector

-The scintillation detector is used for detection of gamma radiation
-It consists of 3 parts
1) Scintillator- converts radiation to luminescence (crystals of sodium iodide NaI
are frequently used as the scintillator)
2) Photomultiplier - detects scintillations
3) electronic parts fore registration of the signals
-Atoms of the scintillator are excited upon absorption of gamma radiation
-Photons of visible or ultraviolet light are then emitted during deexitation of the electrons in
the atoms
-The resulting luminescent photons impact the photocathode of the photomultiplier and
cause emission of electrons via the photoelectric effect.
- The photomultiplier consists of 8-14 dynodes which are electrodes with subsequently
increasing voltage. The 1st dynode has the lowest voltage. It ejects electrons which then are
accelerated to the next dynode and cause ejection of electrons there
-Thus many electrons are formed due to the impact of the first. This leads to great
amplification (105 107)
-The avalanche of electrons come to final dynode and creates a pulse of voltage
-The pulses are amplified and measured.
Detection efficiency = 30 50% for gamma radiation
Scintillation head the scintillator and photomltiplier (and preamplifier) are located within
the same container to prevent light from entering from the outside

14. Geiger-Muller Counter

-Used for the detection of beta radiation
-The Muller tube consists of metallic cylinder which represents the cathode and an axially
mounted tungsten wire which represents the anode.
-The tube is filled with an inert but ionizable gas (mostly argon and some other polyatomic
gas)
-A high voltage is set up between the electrodes
-When radiation enters the tube, the gaseous atoms are ionized.
-Due to the high voltage difference between the electrodes, the newly formed ions are
accelerated to high kinetic energies and may cause more ionization in other gaseous atoms
-Thus an electron avalanche is created from only one ion pair.

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-This produces a pulse in the electrical current within the tube that can be registered by the
counter part of the measuring device.
When count rate is plotted as a function of voltage, a plateau is formed at higher voltages. At
these points, the count rate is independent of the applied voltage

Detection efficiency = ratio of number of registered particles/ photons passing through

detector

15. Accelerators of particles

-Instrument that yields charged particles with high kinetic energy
-These high energy particles are then used for bombardment of target nuclei in order to
induce nuclear reactions or high energy bremsstrahlung
-Accelerators are typically used to accelerate positively charged particles.
+ charged particles such as alpha particles, protons, and deuterons are good sources
of ionizing radiation however they do not have sufficient energies. Thus using a
potential differences to accelerate the particles increases their kinetic energy and
allows them to be used for practical purposes
-In medicine, they are used in the production of short lived radio nucleotides (betatron) or
the production of High Energy Bremsstrahlung to destroy malignant tumors
-There are two types of acceleratorss Linear or Circular

A) Linear accelerators:
-Particles are accelerated when passing through the the straight or high frequency
accelerating tube
Electrostatic: power source for the voltage difference is the Van de Graaf generator
High frequency linear accelerator => power source is the klystron generator
-20-40 kV accelerator.
-Ions pass through gaps between metal cylinders of alternating polarity (the charge on the
first cylinder must be opposite of ion)
- There is stepwise increase in the lengths of the cylinders since velocity of accelerated ions
in each cylinder is higher than the previous one.
-the target atoms are located at the end of the last cylinder
-acceleration process takes place in a vacuum.
b) Circular Accelerators:
Cyclotron: used to accelerate heavy particles (protons, deuterons, alpha particles)
-consiste of 2 parts or Duants connected to high freq alternating voltage which creates an
alternating electrical field in the space between the duants
-The source of the particles is located between the two duants
-The particles are attracted to the oppositely charged daunt and simultaneously accelerated
upon entering the magnetic field.
-The magnetic field causes the particle to move in a circular motion

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-The polarity of the duants changes repeatedly so that the particle is attracted to one duant
and then to the other.
-the radius of the particles path increases as does its velocity and energy (inc. Volt & Elec)
Particles leave as a continuous flux
*Used in medicine in the production of short lived radio nucleotides for diagnostic purposes.

c) Accelerators of Negatively charged particles:

Betatron- device for the acceleration of e-The accelertion takes place in an evacuated glass ring
-The ring is situated at the poles of an electromagnet and pulsed jets of e- are delivered into
the ring
-A periodically changing magnetic induction

results in variable magnetic flux

which produces electromotoric force proportional to the variation of magnetic flux.
-The EMF accelerates e- during the 1st period when magnetic induction increases Therefore the Betatron=pulse accelerater.
The accelerated e- move w/ relativistic velocity
E= expressed in eV, r=radius and Bm teslas
-The accelerated electrons then hit the target to produce high energy Bremsstrahlung

*** Because neutrons do not have a charge they cannot be accelerated ***

16. Ionization chambers

This is basically a capacitor (seperates and stores charge with a potential difference between
the parallel plates) with 2 electrodes filled with air.
-Ion pairs (electrons and positively charged ions) are formed in the chamber though
interaction with ionizing radiation and are then attracted to the electrodes.
-Therefore, an electric current flows through the chamber and can be registered when
exposed to radiation
-The higher the operating voltage, the higher the accelerating force, the greater the intensity
of the electrical current flowing through the chamber
-The produced ions can disappear at the electrodes, chamber walls or by recombination.
-Ions with charge e move in electric field due to force F=eE where E is intensity of electric
field.
** Ionisation chambers are used as pocket personal dosimeters for evaluation of exposure to
radiation.

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17. Methods of personal dosimetry

Personal dosimeters are used to determine the amount of ionizing radiation that people who
work with radionuclides
Their function is based on 3 different interactions of radiation with matter
(1) Film-Dosimetry (effect on photographic emulsion) a photographic emulsion that is
sensitive to ionizing radiation is exposed to ionizing radiation and after its development the
dose is measured by the amount of blackening on the film.
-not accurate below 5 C/kg
(2) Thermoluminesence Dosimetry (based on the excitation effect of radiation)- The
electrons of lithium flouride crystals are excited to higher energy levels upon exposure to
radiation. They remain in the excited state until temp is increased (100 C) and then
deexitation occurs with emission of visible light. The intensity of the light is measured by a
photomultiplier and it is proportional to the dose absorbed by the crystal.
-good for 3mnths, work good at room temp and humidity
(3) Pocket Dosimetry (based on the ionizing effect of radiation)- utilizes a small
ionization chamber filled with air and charge. The ionization effect creates ion pairs and
electrical charge decreases thus measuring the dose
disadvantage: sensitive to humidity

18. Units of exposure and of absorbed dose of radiation

The basic quantity which describes a radiation source is emission
-Emission is the number of particles ( quanta) emitted by the source in one unit of time, s-1
Emission = # of quanta divided by second
-If the source is radionuclide, its emission is related to its activity (A).
-Activity: the # of nuclei that decay in 1s
A = N
-activity can be used to estimate the decay rate
-activity decreases exponentially with time
-unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq)
-a radioactive sample will have an activity of 1 Bq if the number of nuclei that decay in 1s is
1.
est s-1imated decays divided by one second unit is Bq which is becqurel
Bq used to be known as curie( ci) where 1 ci = 3.7 x 1010 bq..
-Based on the decay curve, it is easy to estimate the activity of the pharmaceutical
preparation at the time of its application to the patient.
-Because activity decreases exponentially with time, a larger volume of the radionuclide
preparation must be administered to ensure the proper dose
.
Mass , M of radionuclide = 2.073 x 10-15 A ( Mbq) Tf
M= mass expressed in micrograms

A =nucleon # Mbq= activity expressed in mbq, and

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Tf = half life in days.

Exposure: is a characteristic of x-ray and gamma radiation and it is based on ionization

effects and estimates the ionizing power of radiation in the air.
Exposure X = ratio of electric charge, Q, of ions created by complete absorption of
particles ( electrons and positrons) formed by interaction of X- of Y- rays in vol of air with
mass m.

Unit of exposure is Coulombs/kg

The formerly applied unit was the roentgen
Exposure Rate dX/dt is the change in exposure over change in time.
Its unit is A/kg and dimension is m2s-2A
Absorbed dose D = ratio of mean energy of ionizing radiation (E) absorbed to its mass.
Unit is gy ( grey) 1gy = J/kg -1.
-formally applied unit was the rad
Dose rate = mean increase of dose, (D), in time interval (t)
dD/dt = D/t unit is W.Kg -1.
Dose equivalent H is applied for the evaluation of the radiation effect on living organisms
H = DQN
SI units, Transformation of Units
Factor
1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18

Prefix Symbol
exa E
peta P
tera T
giga G
mega M
kilo k
deci d
centi c
milli m
micro
nano n
pico p
femto f
atto a

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Frequency
hertz: Hz = 1/s
Force
Ionizing radiation is produced by unstable atoms. Unstable atoms differ from stable atoms
because they have an excess of energy or mass or both.
Unstable atoms are said to be radioactive. In order to reach stability, these atoms give off, or
emit, the excess energy or mass. These emissions are called radiation.
Types of ionizing radiation.
Alpha particles (He2+ nucleus)
Beta particles (B-)
Gamma rays (photons)
Neutrons (uncharged nucleon)

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