First Edition - 2010 Communication Theory Dr. J. S. ChitodeCommunication Theory ISBN 9788184317633 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. Ne part of this book should be reproduced in ony form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and revievol system without prior permission in waiting, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by ‘Technical Publications Pune” #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shanwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, Inia Printer : Alet DTPintes ‘Seno, 10/3,Sinheand Reed, Pune - 417-061 suRuur rr eeruaE RRL A eSts = Chapter-1 Amplitude Modulation Systems Chapter-2 Angle Modulation Systems (2-1) to (2-48) Chapter-3 Noise Theory (3-1) 0 (3-136) Chapter-4 Performance of CW Modulation Systems (4-1)to (4-32) Chapter-§ Information Theory (5-1) to (6-148) ‘Appendix-A Mathematical Relationship (A-1)t0(A-8) Appendix-B _ Schwarz's Inequality @B-1)t0(B-2) Appendix-C Fourier Transform Relations (C-1)t0(C-2) Appendix- D__ Error Function (0-1) t0(0-2) Appendix-E Functions (€-1) Appendix-F Probability Density Functions (-1) References {R- 1) to (R-2) * Large number of solved example: * More detailed and modular representation of chapters. * Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. * Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. TROL A AOi Unit-1 Amplitude Modulation Systems Review of spectral characteristics of periodic and_non-periodic signals; Generation and demodulation of AM, DSBSC, SSB and VSB signals; Comparison of amplitude modulation systems; Frequency translation; FDM; Non-linear distortion. Unit-2 Angle Modulation Systems Phase and frequency modulation; Single tone, Narrowband and wideband FM; Transmission bandwidth; Generation and demodulation of FM signal. Unit-3 Noise Theory Review of probability, Random variables and random process, Guassian process, Noise - Shot noise, Thermal noise and White noise; Narrow band noise; Noise temperature, Noise figure. Unit-4 Performance of CW Modulation Systems Superheterodyne radio receiver and its characteristics; SNR, Noise in DSBSC systems using coherent detection; Noise in AM system using envelope detection and its FM system; FM threshold effect; Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis in FM; Comparison of performances. Unit -5 Information Theory Discrete messages and information content, Concept of amount of information, Average information, Entropy, Information rate, Source coding to increase average information per bit, ‘Shannon-Fano coding, Huffman coding, Lempel-Ziv (LZ) coding, Shannon's theorem, Channel capacity, Bandwidth S/N trade off, Mutual information and Channel capacity, Rate distortion theory; Lossy source coding. a A RSTable of Contents (Detail) Chapter- 1” Amplitiide Modulation Systems - 4.1 Communication System.. 1.1.1 Modulation and Demodulation in Communication System 1.1.2 Baseband and Carrier (Passband) Communication 4.1.3 Electromagnetic Waves : The Carriers of Electric Signals 1.1.4 Communication Channel .... 1.1.5 Analog Verses Digital Communication 1.1.6 Transmission Media... At, dal Cable . 1.1.6.2 Fiber Optic Cable (FOC) 1.1.6.3 Microwave Transmission 1.2 Review of Spectral Characteristics of Periodic and Non-periodic Signals . 1.2.1 Continuous Time Fourier Series (CTFS) Representation. 1.2.1.1 Trigonometric Fourie Sees 2... 1.2.1.2 Compact Trigonometic Fourier Series, 1.2.1.3 Exponential Fourier Series. 1.2.1.4 Convergence of Fourier Series - Dirichlet Conditions . 1.2.2 Properties of Fourier Series. 4.2.3 Fourier Transform. 4.2.3.4 Defnition of Fourier Transform... 2... 1.2.3.2 Existence of Fourier Transform - Dirichiet Conditions. . 1.2.4 Properties of Fourier Transform . . . i 4.2.5 Fourier Transform of a Periodic Signal.......... 02.0... cseeeeveeeeeeee eens 1.3 Principles of Amplitude Modulation... 1.3.1 AM Envelope and Equation of AM Wave 41.3.2 Medulation Index and Percent Modulation 41.3.9 Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth ...... GE COREE RATE 1-14 24471.3.4 AM Power Distribution 1.3.5 AM Current Calculations 1.3.6 Amplitude Modulation by Multiple Sine Waves 1.3.7 Transmission Efficiency. 1.3.8 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) . 1.4 AM Modulator Circuit 1.4.1 Low Level AM Modulator. 1.4.2 Medium Power AM Modulator . 4.5 AM Transmitter 1.5.1 High Level Transmitter . 1.5.2 Low Level Transmitter. . 1.5.3 AM Broadcast Transmitter using 5 Patiaty Modulated Driver Stage. 1.6 Single Sideband Modulation... 4.6.1 Suppression of the Camier............0.006 1.6.1.1 Balanced Modulator or Ring Modulator using Diodes. 1.6.1.2 Balanced Modulator using FETS . 1.6.2 Suppression of Unwanted Sideband....... 1.6.2.1 Filter Method to Produce SSB... 1.6.2.2 Phase Shift Method to Generate SSB... 1.6.3 Frequency Translation. 1.7 Vestigial Sideband Transmission. 1.7.1 Modulator and Demodulator of VSB 1.7.2 Magnitude Response of VSB Filter... .. . . 1.1.3 Applications and Advantages Of VSB ....... 6. cece cece eee ee eee eee e nee eeee 1.8 AM Receivers.. 1.8.1 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver 1.8.2 Superheterodyne Receiver 1.8.3 Performance Parameters of Receivers . . 18.3.1 Selecivily. 18.3.2 Sensivily. 2... 1.8.3.3 Fidelity... eee 1.8.3.4 Image Frequency Rejection... 1.8.4 AM Detector Circuits . oe 1.8.4.1 Diode Det Exp Detector1.8.4.2 Negative Peak Clipping in Diode Detector... . 1.8.4.3 Diagonal Clipping in Diode Detector. . . 1.8.4.4 Synchronous or Coherent Detector . 1.8.5 Automatic Gain Control . . 1.8.6 Double Conversion AM Receivers 4.9 Suppressed Carrier System (DSB-SC} 1.9.1 DSB-SC Modulator, ............. 1.9.2 Synchronous Detection of DSB-SC Signal 1.9.3 Detection of SSB-SC Signals 1.9.4 Phasor Representation of AM-SC Signal... 1.9.5 Effect of Frequency and Phase Error. 1.9.6 Demodulation of DSB-SC Signal using Costas Loop bonssnieasanranlim bean 1-107 4.10 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) 1.11 Comparison of Various AM Systems ... 2.1 Angle Modulation .. 2.1.1 Definition. . 241.2. Relationship | Difference between FM and PM 2.1.3 FM and PM Waveforms. 2.1.4 Phase Deviation, Modulation Index and Frequency Deviation 2.1.5 Frequency Spectrum of Angle Modulated Waves ..... . 2.4.6 Bandwidth Requirement 2.1.7 Average Power in FM end PM Modulators 2.1.8 Narrowband FM 2-8 2.1.8.1 Phasor Diagram of Narrowband FM. ee 2-9 2.4.8.2 Generation ofNarowbandFM ee eee 2-10 2.4.9 Wideband FM... 2.4.40 Nonlinear Effects in FM. 24.44 Comparison between AM and Angle Modulation 2.1.12 Comparison between FM and PM . . 2.2 FM and PM Modulators... 2.2.1 Direct FM...2.24.4 FETReactance Modulator. eee 2.2.1.2 Frequency Modulation using Varactor Diode . 2.2.2 Indirect FM... 2.2.3 WBFM Generation using Indirect Method (Armstrong Method) . 2.3 FM Transmitters .. 2.3.1. Automatic Frequency Correction (AFC) . 2.3.2 Direct FM Transmitters 2.32.1 Crosby Direct FM Transmitter (Broadcast Band FM Transmitter) . 2.32.2PLL Direct FM Transmitter... . 2.3.3 Indirect FM Transmitter - Armstrong Method . 2.4 FM Receiver... 2.5 FM Demodulators ... 2.5.1 Round-Travis Detector or Balanced Slope Detector (Frequency Discriminator) . 2.5.2 Foster-Seeley Discriminator (Phase Discriminator) . 2.6 FM Noise Suppression.. 2.7 FM Stereo Multiplexing 2.7.4 Multiplexer of FM Stereo Transmitier 2.7.2 Demultplexer of FM Stereo Receiver. 2.8 Short Answered Questions...... 3.1 Introduction ... 3.2 Review of Probability 3.2.1 Experiment . 32:2 Sample Specs (8) s:csssvesanvarwitecienamvieavaes vanies ceasnsaeainsis 3-2 3.2.3 Event 3.2.4 Definition of Probability 3.2.5 Axioms (Properties) of Probabiity 3.2.6 Conditional Probability... 3.2.7 Bayes’ Rule or Bayesian Policy 3.2.8 Probabilities of Statistically Independent Events ............sseseeseeeeeeesees 3-10 3.3 Random Variables .3.3.1 Discrete Random Variables . 3.3.2 Continuous Random Variables. 33.3 Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF). 3.3.3.1 Properties ofCDF.. .. .. . - 2 * 3.3.3.2 Calculation of CDF for Discrete Random Variables 3-29 3.3.4 Probability Density Function (PDF) . . . 3.344 Properties ofPDF .. 2... 2... 3.3.4.2 Caloulation of POF . Seen eee 3.3.4.3 Mean/Average or Expected Value... . 3.3.4.4 Moments and Variance... 2... 3.4 Mathematical Definition of Random Process 3.4.1 Definition of a Random Process. 3.4.2 Difference between Random Variable and Random Process 3.4.3 Mathematical Representation of Random Process 3.5 Stationary Process..... 3.5.1 Definition. 3.5.2 Mathematical Explanation ....... 3.6 Mean, Correlation and Covariance Function 3.6.1 Mean of Random Process .... 3.6.2 Autocorrelation Function. 5. fiance Fi 3.6.4 Properties of Autocorrelation Function... 3.6.4.1 Property 1: Mean Square Value... . . . . 3.6.4.2 Property 2: Even Symmetry 3.6.4.3 Property 3: Maximum Value... s,s. 3.6.5 Crosscorrelation Functions. 3.7 Ergodic Process 3.7.1 Ensemble Averages and Time Averages 3.7.2 Definition of Ergodic Process 3.8 Gaussian Process. 3.8.1 Definition of Gaussian Process 3.9 Noise... 3.9.1 Extemal Noise . . 3.9.1.1 Atmospheric Noise .39.1.2 Extraterrestrial NOG ee 3-93 3.9.1.3 IndustialNoise.. ams pipe yeahs ret 3-94 3.9.2 Intemal Noise 39.23Partiion Noise. eee 39.24 Low Frequency or Flicker Nose... eee 39.25 High Frequency or Transit Time Noise. . 3.10 Noise due to Several Amplifiers in Cascade... 3.11 Noise Factor 3.11.4 Noise Figura. 5 3.11.2 Cascade Connection of Amplifiers (Fris's Formula). 3.12 Noise Temperature 3.13 White Noise .... 3.14 Frequency Domain Representation of Noise 3.15 Spectral Components of Noise 3.16 Superposition of Noises...... 3.17 Linear Filtering ... 3.17.1 RC Low Pass Filter 3.17... Ideal Low Pass Filter . 3.17.3 Ideal Bandpass Filter ....... 3.18 Noise Equivalent Bandwidth . 3.19 Narrowband Noise... oe 3.19.1 Quadrature Components of Narrowband Noise oe 3218 3.19.2 Representation of Narrowband Noise interms of Envelope and Phase Components 3-127 3.19.3 Sine Wave Pulse Narrowband Noise . .. . . 3-129 3.19.4 Properties of the Components of Narrowband Noise . 3.20 Short Answered Questions 4.1 Introduction .... 4.1.1 Output Signal to Noise Ratio ( SNR), ‘ 4.1.2 Channel Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)........2000ecceeecsecseeeeeeennneeeees 44 RES eS ae4.1.3 Figure of Merit 4.2 Receiver for AM Signal .. 4.2.1 AM Receiver Model .... 4.2.2 Noise in SSB-SC Receiver 4.2.3 Noise in DSB-SC Receiver . 4.2.4 Channel SNR for AM Signal... 4.2.5 Output SNR for Envelop Detection. 4.2.6 Figure of Merit for Envelope Detection 4.2.7 Threshold Effect... 4.3 FM Receivers... 4.3.1 FM Receiver Model .. 4.4 Noise in FM Receivers. 44,41 Output Signal Power. . 4.4.2 Output Noise Power 4.4.3 Output Signal to Noise Ratio . . 4.4.4 Channel Signal to Noise Ratio . 4.4.5 Figure of Merit 4.4.6 Capture Effect... 4.5 FM Threshold Effect. 4.6 Présiiphaete and De-emphasis in FM... 4.6.1 psd of Noise and Signal 4.6.2 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis . 4.7 Hilbert Transform and its use for Representation of Noiss 4.7.1 Definition. 4.1.2 Use of Hilbert Transform to Relate Quadrature Components of Noise 4.8 Comparison of Performance of AM and FM Systems. 4.9 Short Answered Questions ...... 5.1 Introduction ... 5.2 Discrete Messages and Information ContentS21 Discnate WNONNMEON SOUND. ss scicceesereriectierieneeetseseadseteneadants 5.2.2 Discrete Memoryless Source 52.3 Stationary Source 5.2.4 Analog Source 5.2.5 Uncertainty . 5.3 Definition of Information (Measure of Information). 5.3.1 Properties of Information . . eee 5.3.2 Physical Interpretation of Amount of Information . 5.4 Entropy (Average Information).. 54.1 Properties of Entrop) 5.5 Information Rate ........ 5.6 Extension of Discrete Memoryless Source... 5.7 Source Coding Theorem (Shannon's First Theorem) 5.7.1 Code Redundancy. 5.7.2 Code Variance. 5.8 Data Compaction (Entropy Coding) 58.1 Prefix Coding (Instantaneous Coding) . . 5.8.1.1 Properties of Prefix Code. 5.8.2 Shannon-Fano Algorithm: 5.8.3 Huffman Coding . .. 5.8.4 Lempel - Ziv (LZ) Coding . 5.8.5 Comparison between Huffman Shannon Fano & Prefix Coding. 5.9 Discrete Memoryless Channels ... 5.9.1 Binary Communication Channel. . . 5.9.2 Equivocation (Conditional Entropy) . . 5.9.3 Rate of Information Transmission Over a Discrete Channel . 5.9.4 Capacity of a Discrete Memoryless Channel 5.10 Mutual Information... 5.10.1 Properties of Mutual Information 5.10.2 Channel Capacit 5.11 Differential Entropy and Mutual Information for Continuous Ensembles 5.11.1 Differential Entropy...5.11.2 Mutual Information 5.11.3 Channel Capacity Theorem and Capacity of Continuous Channel 5.12 Shannon's Theorems on Channel Capacity ... 5.12.1 Channel Coding Theorem (Shannon's Second Theorem) a 5.12.2 Shannon Hartley Theorem for Gaussian Channel (Continuous Channel) . 5.12.3 Trade-off between Bandwidth and Signal to Neise Ratio . 5.12.4 Rate/Bandwidth and Signal to Noise Ratio, e Trade-off f (Implications of Information Capacity Theorem) ...........ccsceesecseeeeese 5-125 5.13 Rate Distortion Theory . 5.14 Short Answered Questions . Se ae a eaeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-2 Amplitude Modulation Systems Now let us consider different examples of communication that we use in our day to day life. 1) Telephone : All of us use telephones now a days. We know that we talk and listen through a telephone. The telephone set is connected to telephone exchange through wires. The other telephones are connected in the same way. Transmitter / Receiver Transmitter / Receiver or Talker / Listener \ or Talker / Listener Telephone ‘exchange Wires connecting the tele ‘Cammunicaion channelis the wire pining two eee telephone subscribers through exchange telephone exchenge Fig. 1.1.2 Communication on telephones; Line communication through wire As shown in Fig, 1.1.2 the transmission is bidirectional. Every telephone subscriber can talk as well as listen. Talking is equivalent to transmission of data (voice) and listening is equivalent to receiving of data. The data (ie. voice signal) is passed through wires. Thus the communication channel contains wires which are routed through telephone exchange. 2) Mobile phones (Cellular phones) : As we know, the mobile phones are becoming very much popular now a days. In the mobile phones also we can Talker / listener alan Bs L Mobile phone subscriber Base station antenna Signals propagate through air Talker / listener transmitter / receiver Mobile phone subscriber Base station antenna ‘Communication channel does not contain any connection between two mobil But the signals propagate through air. This is also called wireless communication. Fig. 1.1.3 Mobile communication : An example of wireless communicationaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-6 Amplitude Modulation Systems of this concept here. For example consider the case of Amplitude modulation. The message signal is of frequency 10 kHz and the carrier is of frequency 50 kHz, Then mathematically we can prove that the amplitude modulated signal will have carrier of 50 kHz, and two sidebands of (50 - 10) = 40 kHz and (50 + 10) = 60 kHz. These two side bands carry the message signal actually. But at the same time their frequency is much higher than that of message. This is nothing but translation of message frequency to high frequency side. + © Frequency of the carrier is higher than that of message signal lan = Amplitude = == modulated signal Fig. 1.1.6 a) The message signal to be sent to destination b) The carrier signal generated by the transmitter c) Message signal rides over the amplitude of carrier signal. Thet is the carrier is Amplitude modulated by the messageaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-10 Amplitude Modulation Systems Wireless communication : As the name indicates, there is no wire or any such medium for conduction of electromagnetic waves. Wireless communication takes place through air or vacuum. The frequencies right from 10 kHz upto 100 GHz are transmitted using wireless communication. Electromagnetic waves can be transmitted either by ground wave propagation, sky wave propagation or line of sight propagation depending upon the frequency. Fig. 1.1.8 shows different frequency ranges and their modes of propagation. All the radio, TV and satellite broadcasting is wireless communication. In wireless communication, the electromagnetic waves are transmitted and received with the help of radiators or antennas. The size of such radiations or antennas depend upon the frequency being transmitted/received. Normally for efficient radiation of the electromagnetic energy, the length of the antenna must be at least Yy of the wavelength of frequency being transmitted. For example consider the case of AM radio station transmitting 1 MHz frequency. The wavelength of this frequency is, Velocity of light (©) Wavelength = 3 x10° 1 x i0® = 300m Length of the transmitting antenna = 4 xd = 30 m atleast. The size of the antenna will reduce if the frequency of transmission is increased. Because of this reason, wireless communication is not used for low frequencies. The advantages of wireless communications are cost effectiveness, possible long distance communication and simplicity. But the drawbacks are noise interference, environmental effects and attenuation of the signal. Wireline communication and wireless communication can both be used for some frequency range. The choice is made upon the required distance and coverage area. 1.1.4 Communication Channel As we have seen in the preceding sections, the connection between transmitter and receiver is established through communication channel. We have seen that the communication can take place through wirelines, wireless or fibre optic channels. The other media such as optical disks, magnetic tapes and disks etc. can also be called as communication channel, because they can also carry data through them. Every communication channel has got some problems. Following are the common problems associated with the channels :aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-14 Amplitude Modulation Systems Advantages of co-axial cable : 1. Co-axial cable used for both data transmission. i.e. analog and digital data transmission. 2, It has higher bandwidth. 3. Easy to handle and relatively inexpensive as compared to fiber optic cables. 4. It uses for longer distances at higher data rates. 5. Excellent noise immunity. Disadvantages of co-axial cable : 1, Distance is limited. 2. Number of node connection is limited. 3. Proper connectors and termination is must. Characteristics of co-axiable cable : Co-axial cable has the following characteristics. 1. 10 Mbps is the transmission rate. 2. Maximum cable length for thinnet is 185 meters and for thicknet is 500 meters. 3. Flexible and easy to work with thinnet. 4. Ethernet designation to 10 base 2 ( thinnet ) or 10 base5 ( thicknet ). 5. Less expensive than fiber optics cable but more expensive than twisted pair. 6. Good resistance to electrical interference. 1.4.62 Fiber Optic Cable (FOC) A fiber optic cable is a light pipe which is used to carry a light beam from one place to another. Light is an electromagnetic signal and can be modulated by information. Since the frequency of light is extremely high hence it can accomodate wide bandwidths of information, also higher data rate can be achieved with excellent reliability. The modulated light travel along the fiber and at the far end, are converted to an electrical signal by means of a photo electric cell. Thus the original input signal is recovered at the far end. FOC transmits light signals rather than electrical signals. Each fiber has a inner core of glass or plastic that conducts light. The inner core is surrounded by cladding, a layer of glass that reflects the light back into core. A cable may contain a single fiber, but often fibers are bundled together in the centre of the cable. FOC may be multimode or signal mode. Multimode fibers use multiple light paths whereas signal mode fibers allow a single light path and are typically used with laser signaling. It is more expansive and greater bandwidth.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-18 Amplitude Modulation Systems Receiving antenna Transmitting antenna 7 Line of sight Transmitting | station | Fig. 1.1.10 rowave communication Microwave Transmitter and Receiver Fig. 1.1.11 shows block diagram of microwave link transmitter and receiver section. Voice set data Muttiplexer Modulator Up-converter Transmiting video antenna (a) Microwave transmitter Receiving antenna =H = RF iF Voice Down Demultiph video (b) Microwave receiver Fig. 1.1.11 Microwave transmitter and receiveraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-22 Amplitude Modulation Systems 2. Time Shift or Translation 1 x) 25 XW then, x(t) = x{t-tp) as, Zk) = 0 FF! cH wes (1.2.5) 3. Frequency Shift If xt) E25 xt then, at) = eiko eat 4p) AS, 20) =x(k-ky) -- (1.2.6) 4, Scaling If Fs x) 2s X00) then, 2) = xa) AS, 2h = xe) wes (12.7) Comment Fourier coefficients of aft) and x(at) are same, but spacing between frequency components change form 9 to aw. 5. Time Differentiation Fs If xtt) Ss xy then, 7 FS, jeany x0) ves (1.2.8) dt 6. Convolution in Time wf xit) AS, x@ and yt) Bow then, 2) = xtt) * yt) Xs Zh = TX) s+ (12.9) Significance : Convolution of two periodic signals results in multiplication of their Fourier coefficients and period T. 7. Multiplication or Modulation Theorem if xt 2S, xt and yi) AL s voy then, 2) = xt) yt) FAL. 2h = xx YH) .. (1.2.10) 8. Parseval's Theorem If a(t) is the periodic power signal with Fourier coefficients X(K), then average power in the signal is given by J) |X(K)|?. ie., koreaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-26 Amplitude Modulation Systems os t = 2 fet en ikamt ap = af e(iriankyt AR = gg fore? it =a] A4mKM at 1 2 se ee Sg (1+ j4nky 705 (1+ j4mk)0.5 _ 20 ~aajann? IP =~ayjank" #1 = 2 05 9 j2mk 1 isjank J Here e/2Rk = cos2nk-jsin2nk = 1 always. 2 He Xk) = --——2— [0.606-1 lence, (k) aejanr 0.7869 = 5a7a8F oo (1.2.20) Step 2: To express exponential Fourier series. Putting for X(k) in synthesis equation of equation (1.23), < _0.7869 = sikagt at kesrtra Step 3: To obtain magnitude and phase spectrum of X(k). 0.7869 " We have XU) = 7 FaqR BY equation (1.220) _ 0.7869 1-j4mk _ 0.7869(1-j 42k) " l4j4ank 1-jank — 14+(4n 0? = 786. ._ OTAOXA RE (12.21) 1+(4nk? © 14(40k)? (0.7869)? (0.7869x4 nk)? XW| = OBR 1x09] i+Gnh ep f+(4nb?7 __ |(0.7869) +(0.7869)? (42k)? . 7869)? (1+(41 k)2) (+402? f1+4nb2)2 0.7869 [X@| = yi +(40k)? And phase spectrum is given as, _,. [Imaginary part of equation (1.2: AXES ‘Matt [Real part of equation (1.2.21) 2X(k_) = —tan (40k)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-30 Amplitude Modulation Systems Following table lists the calculation of | X(k)|_with respect to k 7 & 3 4 5 8 7 8 9 10 $k Here 1x09 35+ By rearranging the equation 54) = 0. 2sine( =) since are = sine (A) Fork=0, — |X(0)| = 0.2 sinc (0) = 0.2, since sinc(0) = 1 by L'Hospital’s rule | i Ray y : T ‘This shape is called sine function it goas through zero at k= 45,210,219, IX)] is symmetric | Since X(ki] is real, | Pe site zero a ited eset ele sd e Beale cl Fig. 1.2.4 Magnitude and phase plots of rectangular pulse trainaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-34 Amplitude Modulation Systems Step 3: Now divide the least common multiple by a number 12 (by which T, and We have, 2n_ 20 Op = aseel b) To expand x(t) 18 46-78 j® —.-je We know that cos@ = Si and sino = Se, then x(t) can be written as, cit pe it gift e-itt alt) = 442. — 43, a i3t 40-j3t 49 pitt 3 jae Atel te +57” 2° = 44¢/30! 4 ,-/3agt 43 ej4ogt 3. ¢-j4mg! 2j Qj Since @p = 1... (1.2.22) ¢) To obtain Fourier coefficients We have, x(t) = S, Xeikeot kace 4 Fork = 4, = Y Xweitoot ken4 = X(-4)e7H400! +x(—3) e130! + x(—2) e120! +. X(—1)e~/@0! +X() +X(1)¢ 10! +X(2) i240 +x(3) ei 30! +x(4)e H4@0! Comparing above equation with equation (1.2.22) we get, x0) = 4 XC1) = XQ) = X-2)=X@)=0 X(-3) = X(3)=1 XC 4) = 0 x@aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.‘Communication Theory 1-38 Amplitude Modulation Systems: 9. Modulation fx) #L4x(w) and y(t) 25 y(w), then 2(8) = x(t) WOE 2(0) = 4 [x(@)« ¥(a)] ++ (1.2.33) Modulation in time domain corresponds to convolution of spectrums in frequency domain. 10. Duality if i) $2, x(0), then x(t) 42528 x(- 0) vs (1.2.34) 41. Symmetry Let x(t) be real signal and X(a) = Xa(o) +i%(a) then x(t) 25 x2 (a) and xt) AL ix,(0) sa .2.38) Here x,(!) and x,(t) are even and odd parts of x(t). 42. Parseval's Theorem or Rayleigh's Theorem if aft) EE, x(.0), then = Fir@ka- LF xe@pao- f ponte 230 Energy of the signal can be obtained by interchanging its energy spectrum. wm Example 1.2.6 : Obtain the Fourier transform of the signal e~u(t) and plot its magnitude and phase spectrum. Solution : a(t) = en*u(t) x(a) =f x() eft at J ecttu(t eietdtaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-42 Amplitude Modulation Systems mm Example 1.2.8 : Find the inverse Fourier transform of the rectangular spectrum shown in Fig. 1.2.11. X(w) 4 WwW Ww Fig. 1.2.11 Rectangular spectrum Solution : Inverse Fourier transform is given as, Oe } X(0) do (1.2.40) Wwe sine (=) (1.2.41) on Equation (1.2.40) goes to zero at 1= 4%, 42% 4 7 By LHospital’s rule, im, — asin w= 4 Fig. 1.2.12 Inverse Fourier transform of rectangular pulse Comment : On comparing the results of this example and previous example, we find that the rectangular pulse and sinc function form a Fourier transform pair.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-46 Amplitude Modulation Systems ‘_ = i, DY 3(w-ka) wy F 5(w- key) ws (1.2.49) ee Fig. 1.2.16 shows the spectrum of impulse train given by above equation. fn Xo). Fig. 1.2.16 Spectrum of impulse train Theory Questions 1. Define CTFS. State its different types. 2. State following properties of CTFS. a) Time shift _b) Frequency shift) Convolution in time. 3. State and prove Parseval's theorem jor CTFS. Explain various types of Fourier series representation and compare them. What are Dirichlet conditions ? What is the significance of these conditions ? State Parseval's power theorem. Define Fourier transform for non-periodic signals and explain its significance. Explain the conditions which are required to be satisfied for the signal to be Fourier transformable. 1. State the following properties of Fourier representations. i) Multiplication in time domain. ii) Convolution in time domain. iii) Differentiation in time domain. iv) Integration in time domain. 10. State the following properties of Fourier transform. i) Time scaling ii) Time shifting ii) Frequency shifting 11. Define the Fourier transform for periodic signals and explain its significance. 12. Slate and prove Rayleigh’s energy theorem. SEN as ewaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-50 Amplitude Modulation Systems and Ee = Enax~En «= (13.6) = Emax — max — Emin by putting for Ey from equation (1.3.5) = Frax +Emin (137) 2 Taking the ratio of equation (1.3.5) and above equation, Enox ~ Emin = Fm 2 "Ee Emus +Enin Z Emax —E, m= Et wa (1.3.8) This equation gives the technique of calculating modulation index from AM wave. 4.3.3 Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth The modulated carrier has new signals at different frequencies, called side frequencies or sidebands. They occur above and below the carrier frequency. ie. fuss = fe+ fu fuss = fe-fu Here fis carrier frequency and fu is modulating signal frequency fiss is lower sideband frequency and usp is upper sideband frequency. Consider the expression of AM wave given by equation (1.3.3), ie., eam = (Ec +Em sin @nt) sin act on (1.3.9) We know that mai from equation (1.3.4). Hence we have Ey =mE,. Putting this value of E, in above equation we get, eam = (Ec +ME, sin yt) sin wet 0 E, (1+ m sin qt) sin Oct E, sin oet +m Ez sin Gye sin Oct (1.3.10) We know that sin (A) sin (B) =F eos -B) -} cos (A +B). Applying this result to last term in above equation we get,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-54 Amplitude Modulation Systems tm Example 1.3.3: An audio frequency signal 10sin 2nx500t is used to amplitude modulate a carrier of 50 sin 2nx 10° t. Calculate i) Modulation index ii) Sideband frequencies iii) Amplitude of each sideband frequencies io) Bandwidth required ») Total power delivered to the load of 600.2. Solution : i) The given modulating signal is v,, =10 sin 2nx5001. Hence, Ey, =10. The given carrier signal is e =50sin2nx105 f, hence, E, =50. Therefore modulation index will be, Em 10 _, ms fhas=02 or 20% ii) From the given equations, @y = 2nx500, Hence fy, =500 Hz And @, = Inx10, Hence f. =10° Hz or 100 kHz We know that fuss = fr + fm =100 kHz +500 Hz= 100.5 kHz fe — fn = 100 kHz —500 Hz = 99.5 kHz. iii) From equation (1.3.13) we know that the amplitudes of upper and lower sidebands is given as, and Pise mE, _ 02x50 5 2 =5V Amplitude of upper and lower sidebands = iv) Bandwidth of AM wave is given by equation (1.3.10) as, BW of AM = 2%, =2x500H7=1kHz v) Total power delivered to the load is given by equation (1.3.18) as By em) 50 (4 ¢ ‘) = 2.125 watts { +n 4 RT | ‘wm Example 1.3.4 : A 400 W carrier is modulated to a depth of 80 % calculate the total power in the modulated wave. Prot = Solution : Here carrier power P, =400W and m=08. From equation (1.3.19) total power is, 2 0.8)? \ Put = re(48F aoo[ +2" | = 528 Waa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Commu tion Theory 1-57 Amplitude Modulation Systems 4.3.6 Amplitude Modulation by Multiple Sine Waves In practice, modulation takes place due to multiple modulating wave. Here let us consider what will happen if two or more sine waves modulate the carrier simultaneously. Let the two modulating sine waves be represented as, emt = Emr SiN Oya t and Cn = Ena SIN Oye t Then the total modulating signal will be, em = ena benz = Ent SiN Ot t+ Enz SIN@n2 t On the basis of equation (1.3.3) we can write equation for AM signal as follows : Eam = Ee + Em Sin@mi t+ Enz SiN Ome t Cam = (Ee +E na Sin Qa f+ Eye Sin Ope f) sino f = —, ( Eat sin yy t+ 22 sin Oya sn wt E E Let m = and, =f, then above equation becomes, eam = Ec (L#my sin @ay t+ mz sin@mn A) sing. t = E, sin@, t+ mE, sin@y, t sin®. t Fitz Ee SiN Om2 | Sine F Here let us use sin A sinB=4cos(A~B)—}.c0s(A +B). Then above equation becomes, E E, Baume sina, += cos (@ Om) t- me €08 (0. +m)! ues 08 (0; 02) F= ie 608 (%¢ + Oy2)t ww (1.3.28) This equation has unmodulated carrier in the first term. Second and third terms represent two sidebands (0, ~ mi) and, +01) due to @y. Last two terms represent two sidebands (0; — G2) and (0, +@y2) due to q2. Fig. 1.3.4 shows the frequency spectrum of AM wave having two modulating frequencies 4 and On.2 with Oy < On2 and my > m2. The total power in the AM wave having two modulating sine waves will be written as, Pout = Po + Pasar +Pusn2 + Pisa + Prse2Communication Theory 1-58 Amplitude Modulation Systems @- Wing = Om, 0, WFO, e+ Oy Fig. 1.3.4 Frequency spectrum of AM wave having two modulating frequencies We can write the above equation on the basis of equation (1.3.17) as follows : Pog = CAMB! , MERE mi EE mp EB nd EB R 8R 8R 8R 8k ~H(,,m mmm - ape a eH mi ym = a pty vw» (1.3.29) ER " - Since P. = 5h, above equation will be, 2 ma Phat = o(g eh ww (1.3.30) Compare this equation with similar relation given by equation (1.3.19) for one sine wave. ie, 2 Poi = 2 (1+) (1331) Thus we can generalize equation (1.3.30) for many sine waves as, m2? m2 m2 Potat = n [itt a] .. (1.332) mp _ me mz ms , Let = “24724734... hence above equation will be, 2° 2°2°2 2 Potat = a(ie] ww (1.3.33) This equation is similar to equation (1.3.31). Now from equation (1.3.32) we can obtain total modulation index m, as, m = fm? +m? +m? (1334)‘Communication Theory 1-59 Amplitude Modulation Systems: 1.3.7 Transmission Efficiency The transmission efficiency of AM signal is the ratio of power contained in both sidebands to total transmitted power ic. = Puss + Pisa Transmission efficiency 1 - 7 m2 Pe (1+ (+ s 2 = aa a» (1.3.35) | tm Example 1.3.8 : Calculate the total modulation index if the carrier wave is amplitude modulated by three modulating signals with modulation indices of 0.6, 0.3 and 0.4 respectively. Solution : Let 7 =06, mz =0.3and ms =04, Consider equation (1.334) for total modulation index, my = fm? +m +m = [06 +03? +04? = 0.781 ‘=> Example 1.3.9: A certain AM transmitter radiates 10 kW with the carrier modulated, and 11.8 KW when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the modulation index. If another sine wave, corresponding to 30 % modulation, is transmitted simultaneously, determine the total radiated power. Solution : Here P. =10 kW, Prot =11.8 kW Modulation index, m = 2 Pt 1 2(18_1\-06 “PB 10 This is first signal. Hence mm =06. The another signal modulates 30 %. Hence mz =0.3, Hence combined total modulation index due to two signals is, m = mz +mz = J0.6? +03? = 0.67 Total power is, Pan = Pe ( +] by equation (1.3.33) 12.24 kW = 1o(1 05" }:Communication Theory 1-60 Amplitude Modulation Systems ‘mp Example 1.3.10 : The output voltage of a transmitter is given by 500 (1 + 0.4 sin 3140 1) sin 6.28 x107t. This voltage is fed to a load of 600 ©. Determine - i) Carrier frequency ii) Modulating frequency iti) Carrier power iv) Mean power output Solution : The equation of the amplitude modulated signal is given as, Cam = Ec(1 +m sin@yt)sinaet Comparing above equation with the given equation, we get E. = 500V, m= 04 ©, = 3140 rad/sec @ = 6.28x107 rad/sec i) Cartier frequency = f =o = 6.28% 107 =10 2n ii) Modulating frequency = Jn = _ 3140 Ot = 500 Hz iti) Carrier power = P. = Ei By equation (1.3.16) = (5007 _ ~ Sego5 7 20833 W . ER (, m2 , ix) Mean power output = $i {1+"5-] By equation (13.18) 2 = 208.33 [14-2 | ~ 295 w. L 24Communication Theory 1-61 Amplitude Modulation Systems 1.3.8 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) We have seen that there are two sidebands and carrier in the spectrum of AM wave. The carrier doesnot contain any power. At 100 % modulation, the amplitude of carrier is double of the sidebands. The power of the carrier is P, = Z Carrier doesnot convey any information. Hence most of the power is transmitted in the carrier, that is not used for carrying information. Hence carrier is suppressed and only sidebands are transmitted. Such modulation is Frequency ‘alled double sideband suppressed ! tthe carrier (DSB-SC). Balanced modulator is . discussed in next section. It is used to Fig. 1.3.5 Spectrum of DSB-SC signal _supress the carrier. Fig. 1.3.5 shows the spectrum for DSB-SC modulated signal. Advantages of DSB-SC i) DSB-SC is more efficient in transmitted power as compared to DSB-FC. ii) DSB-SC has better signal to noise ratio as compared to single sideband (SSB) transmission. Disadvantage Eventhough the carrier is suppressed the bandwidth of DSB-SC remains same as DSB-FC. wm Example 1.3.11 : A carrier wave is represented by equation e,() = 12 sin wt. Draw the waveforms of an AM wave for depth of modulation of i) 1, ii) 0.5, iii) 32 iv) 2/3. Solution : i) For m= 1 m= ie 1- Eq = =m Soin = Emax ~ Fn Emax = Ec + Em = 12412 = av And 2 = 24=Emin W,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-66 Amplitude Modulation Systems Collector modulator The modulated output can be obtained by making the voltage on output electrode to vary according to input modulating signal. Fig. 14.2 shows the collector modulator. ‘The transistor is biased well beyond cutoff so that it operates in class C mode. The class C mode is used because of its high efficiency. The RF drive is a carrier signal used for AM. This carrier amplitude is such that it drives transistor in conduction over part of its cycle. It is applied to the base of transistor. The modulating signal is passed through the power amplifier and applied to the collector through a low frequency transformer. This voltage is shown as v, (1) in figure. This modulating voltage is in series with the supply voltage Vcc. Hence the collector voltage becomes Véc= Voc +m (0. The tuned LC circuit associated tuned transformer on the collector receives the AM signal. Because of modulating voltage, the net supply voltage of transistor changes according to slow variations in v (. Hence the RF carrier signal amplitude is also varied according to variations in v», (t). Thus AM signal is produced across the LC circuit at the collector. Modulating RF bypass capacitor Modulated RF output RF drive Bias T = Fig. 1.4.2 BJT collector modulator (class € amplifier) Advantages of high level modulators i) There is no constraint of linear operation on amplifiers preceding modulator stage. ii) Power efficiency is good.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-70 Amplitude Modulation Systems 499 kHz and amplitude = a 03x10 = fe +f = 500 kHz+1kHz = 501 kHz and amplitude = Similarly sidebands due to fy2 will be, ff: —fora = 500kHz-3kHz = 497 kHz and amplitude = fet fina = 500kHz+3kHz a my E, = 503kHz and amplitude = = =25V The spectrum is shown below in Fig. 1.5.4. 10V 28Vv 25v 15V 15V Frequency 497 kh 490 kHz 500 kHz 601 kHz 503 kHz Fig. 1.5.4 Spectrum of AM signal of example 1.5.2 The carrier power in 50 2 load will be, EW. 2R 2x50 Pos From equation 1.3.19, total power is given as, Prat = Pe (+4) 2 1.58 and P. = 1 W, hence above equation will be, : Pout = 1 (1 | Here m, = 2 = 1168 W um Example 1.5.3 : Calculate the percentage power saving when a carrier and one of the sidebands are suppressed in AM wave modulated to the depth of i) 100 % and it) 50 %.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-74 ‘Amplitude Modulation Systems 1.6 Single Sideband Modulation In the last section we studied Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC) amplitude modulation system. We know that the modulated signal in the DSBFC system contains unmodulated carrier and two sidebands. The unmodulated carrier conveys no information, but consumes around two-third of total power. The two sidebands carry the information. Since the two sidebands are images of each other, they carry the same information. Thus only one sideband is capable of carrying the same information that would be carried by DSBFC system. Thus if carrier and one of the sideband in AM is suppressed, then only one sideband remains. It is then called Single Sideband Carrier (suppressed) Lower sideband (suppressed) t 1 i | Upper sideband (transmitted) fe fot fm Frequency Fig. 1.6.1 SSBSC system Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC) system. Fig. 1.6.1 shows the spectrum of SSBSC system. In this figure dotted line indicates that the component is suppressed. Only upper sideband is transmitted. SSBSC is also called SSB transmission. It has following advantages - Advantages of SSB : 4) Since only single sideband is transmitted, the bandwidth of the transmitter and channel is only f,,. This bandwidth is half of that required by DSBFC system. Thus SSB conserves bandwidth and allows more number of channels to be transmitted in the same band. ii) The power of the suppressed carrier and sideband is saved. Hence transmitter power requirement in SSB is reduced. iii) Because of narrow bandwidth of SSB, the effect of noise at the receiver circuits is reduced. This gives better quality of reception in SSB. iv) Fading effect is absent because of SSB. Fading effect arises at the receiver because of two sidebands and carrier interfere with each other at the receiver. If only carrier is suppressed and both the sidebands are transmitted, then it is called Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) or DSB system. But instead of DSB, SSB is mostly preferred.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-78 Amplitude Modulation Systems: % Modulating signal Te g DsB signal Fig. 1.6.5 (a) Equivalent circuit of balanced modulator showing positive half cycle of carrier (b) Equivalent circuit of balanced modulator showing negative half cycle of carrier Consider that a sinusoidal modulating signal is applied to the primary of Ty. This signal will also appear across the T, secondary. In the positive half cycle, the diodes D, andD? are forward biased and they will connect the secondary of T; to the primary of Tz. As a result, the modulating signal at the secondary of 7; is applied to primary of T, through diodes D, andD2. In the negative half cycle diodes D3 andD, are forward biased and they will connect the secondary of T; to the primary of T; with reverse connections. This inverts the polarity of modulating signal when it is applied to primary of T. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.6.6. Fig. 1.66 (c) shows DSB signal at the primary of T>. Thus when Ds andD, conduct, the polarity of the signal is opposite to that of modulating signal. Fig. 1.6.6 (d) shows the DSB output at the secondary of T. Thus carrier is totally suppressed in this signal.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-82 Amplitude Modulation Systems 1.6.2.1 Filter Method to Produce SSB Fig. 1.6.8 shows the block diagram of filter method to suppress one sideband. As shown in the block diagram, the balanced modulator produces DSB output. This DSB signal contains both the sidebands and it is given to sideband suppression filter to remove unwanted sideband. The filter must have a flat passband and extremely high attenuation outside the passband. In order to have this type of response the Q of the tuned circuits must be very high. The required value of Q factor increases as the difference between modulating frequency and carrier frequency increases. Carrier frequency is usually same as the transmitter frequency. For higher transmitting frequencies the required value of Q is so high that there is no practical way of achieving it. In such situations, initial modulation is carried out at a low frequency carrier say 100 kHz by the balanced modulator. Then the filter suppresses one of the sidebands. The frequency of the SSB signal generated at output of filter is very low as compared to the transmitter frequency. The frequency is boosted up to the transmitter frequency by the balanced mixer and crystal oscillator. This process of frequency boosting is also called as up conversion. The SSB signal having frequency equal to the transmitter frequency is then amplified by the linear amplifiers. Sideband Balanced Balanced Modulating signal Carrier signal To linear amplifier Fig. 1.6.8 Filter method to suppress sideband 1.6.2.2 Phase Shift Method to Generate SSB Fig. 1.6.9 shows the block diagram of phase shift method to generate SSB. The carrier signal is shifted by 90° and applied to the balanced modulator Mj. The modulating signal is also directly applied to this balanced modulator. The carrier signal is directly applied to the balanced modulator Mz. The modulating signal is phase shifted by 90° and applied to balanced modulator M2. Both the modulators produce an output consisting of only sidebands. The upper balanced modulator (Mi) generates upper sideband and lower sideband, but each one is shifted by +90°. The lower balanced modulator (M2) generates the upper and lower sidebands, but upper sideband is shifted by +90° whereas lower sideband is shifted by -90°. The outputs of balanced modulators are added by the summing amplifier. Since upper sidebands of both the modulators are phase shifted by +90°, they are in phase and add to produceaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-86 litude Modulation Systems mmp Example 1.6.2 : As SSB signal is generated by modulating an 800 kHz carrier by the signal m(t) = cos 2000 mt + 2 sin 1200 nt. The amplitude of the carrier is A, = 10 Obtain the magnitude spectrum of the lower sideband SSR signal (May/June-2008, 5 Marks} Solution : The given signal is, mt) = cos(2000 xt + 2sin1200 nt) Here there are two modulating signals, =1V and fy, =1kHz 2V and fy, = 0.6 kHz Hence Eq = mE, or Fig. 1.6.12 (2) shows the double sided spectrum of the signal m(). Observe that there are two impulses of amplitude 1 V at + 1 and — 1 kHz. Similarly there are two impulses of amplitude 2 V at 0.6 and - 0.6 kHz. ct bc | Lect eb cal tobias leet llendoaleol ical asl nil Meester dst le bcodesh Fig. 1.6.12 Spectrum of SSB-SC signal (LSB only)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-90 Amplitude Modulation Systems * The sum of any two frequency components in the range f:— fo | Fig. 1.9.1 show the product modulator “ff that generates DSB-SC signal. Let the spectrum of modulating signal be F(w). caniet Then by modulation theorem, the EOS ct spectrum of f(t) cosw, t will be DSB-SC signal {() cos at Product modulator Fig. 1.9.1 DSB-SC modulatoraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-106 Amplitude Modulation Systems |_Resultant_| "R' phasor’ Fig. 1.9.6 Phosor diagram of AM-SC (DSB-SC) * Since the carrier is suppressed, it is shown as horizontal dotted line. * The phasor corresponding to LSB of pen Ec €0s(@, —W,)t rotates clockwise with angular frequency -0,y. * The phasor corresponding to USB of FEnEe c0s(@,+@_,)t rotates anticlockwise with angular frequency @,,. 1.9.5 Effect of Frequency and Phase Error The carrier is generated locally at the receiver and it is used for detection. If there is frequency or phase error in the locally generated carrier, then output is distorted. Let the frequency error be Aw and phase error be ¢ in the locally generated carrier. Thus the locally generated carrier will be cos[(w,+Aw)!+4] The output of multiplier can be expressed as Multiplier output = f(i)cosa;t - cosfw, +Aw)t+ 4] Wl , SO[cos(Awt +9) + cos(2w,t + Awt + 9)] The lowpass filter will block the second cosine term since it contains higher frequency 20,. Hence output becomes, Full) = FflOcos(aat +4) (19.5) Case-1: When phase and frequency error are zero Then Aw = 0 and = 0. Hence above equation will be, fl) = 470) Thus there is no distortion in the outputaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 1-110 Amplitude Modulation Systems 1.11 Comparison of Various AM Systems Following table lists the comparison of various AM systems. Sr.No.| Parameter | AM with carrier] DSB-SC $8B-SC VSB 1. | Method Carrier and ‘ony ‘Only one ‘One sideband and part both sidebands | sidebands | sideband of other sideband, 2. | Bandwidth 2h 2h fon fn < BW< 2 fn 3. | Generation Easy Easy Complex Complex 4. | Transmission | 33.3% 100 % 100 % 33.3 % 10 2 S(t) = Accos(2nf,t)—mAe “AF assent) t= he 5 dander et] 3. | Spectrum contains two sidebands and Spectrum contains infinite number of sidebands carrier. and cartier. 4 | ew BW = 2(8+ frat) It is used for broadcasting and enter Itis used for mobi Table 2.1.2 Comparison between narrowband and wideband FM 2.1.10 Nonlinear Effects in FM ‘Two types of nonlinearities i) Strong nonlinearity : This type of nonlinearity is intentionally introduced in a controlled manner. It is introduced for particular application. eg. square-law modulators, hard-limiters and frequency multipliers. ii) Weak nonlinearity : This type of nonlinearity is introduced because of imperfections in the communication channel. Such nonlinearities reduce the useful signal levels. The transfer characteristic of the communication channel is given as, en(t) = ayej(t)+az e2 H+03 03 «.(2.1.33) Here a; ,22,a3 are constants, ¢o(t) is output and ¢;(t) is input. The angle modulated signal can also be represented by cosine wave as,Communication Theory 2-13 Angle Modulation Systems ei) = E,cosfa,-()+00)] Putting for above ¢;(t) in equation (2.1.33), eg(t) = a, EB, cos[w,(t)+0()]+a7 E? cos? [wt +0(1)) +3 E3 cos [wt +0()] = HEO2Y Ag cogdy = BeOseteos(3) 2 a terms in above equation as per these identities, [ +cos 2[w, 2H We know that cos? x . Expanding the eg) = a, E, cos[w.t+0(0)]+a,E? ‘a ig aL eeED oe = pan Ee +(a) Ee ses E3) cos[a.t+0(8)] + 5a FR cos|2at+20()] + L015 E3 cos|3.a,()+30()] 3 paakde(art, read Jeosl2n fot +00) spn it cos[2n2ft+20(/4 405 ES cos|2n3ft+30()] ... (2.1.34) * Above equation has four terms : first term indicates DC components and subsequent terms indicate FM signals at carrier frequencies of f,, 2f, and 3f, respectively. © The required FM signal at carrier frequency f, should be isolated from all the other FM signals. The closest FM signal is present at carrier frequency 2f.. Fig. 2.1.4 shows arbitrary spectrum of two FM signals at carrier frequencies f, and 2f,, The bandwidth is calculated by Carson's rule. T * Let the frequency aie | ro) deviation at f, be ae ee Af. Then it will be = aca tn 2Af at 2f-. Let the bandwidth of = tected modulating signal be W. Then FM at Le ata 1 carrier frequency f. : will have a } j t t t + ; aod bandwidth of f T i 2 (ar) Fig. 2.1.4 Spectrums at f, and 2 f, in FMaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 2-15 Angle Modulation Systems ii) Modulating frequency (w,, oF frm) = The modulating frequency is, ©», = 1250 rad/sec or Jn = 80 = 1985 He Ii) Modulation index (m) : The modulation index is, m =5. iv) Maximum frequency deviation (8) : Modulation index, m= z int 8 8 = mfm =5%* 198.5 = 994.7 Hz v) Power of FM wave : The total power in the modulated wave is given as, ER R= oR By equation (2.1.24). a a = ox10 =72W This power can also be obtained using bessel functions. For the modulation index of '5' following sidebands are present (from Table 2.1.1). Ig = -018 n Fy = Ey Jo = - 0.18% 12 = - 2.16 Jy = - 033 o E, = EJ, =-033x 12 =— 3.96 Jz = 0.05 z Ey = E,Jp = 0.05 x12 = 0.6 J3 = 0.36 mi Ey = E,J3 = 0.36 x12 = 4.32 Iq = 0.39 o Ey = E.J4 = 0.39 x12 = 4.68 Js = 0.26 Ey = Ec Ig = 0.26 x 12 = 3.12 Je = 0.13 # Eg = EcJg = 0.13 X12 = 156 Jy = 0.05 E, = E,J7 = 0.05 x12 = 06 Js = 0.02 Ey = E,Jg = 0.02 x12 = 0.24 Power in modulated wave is given as, 115 , R= apo by equation (2.1.25)Communication Theory 2-16 Angle Modulation Systems Putting values in above equation, Re it Hey + 3.96)" + (0.6)? + (4.32)? + (4.68)? +(3.12)* + (1.56)? + (0.5)? + cosy] = 7.385 W Observe that it is same as the power calculated earlier. The minor difference is there due to approximation of bessel coefficients. mm Example 2.1.2: The carrier frequency of a broadcast signal is 100 MHz. The maximum frequency deviation is 75 KHz. If the highest audio frequency modulating the carrier is limited to 15 kHz, what is the approximate bandwidth of the modulated signal ? Solution: Here, fe = 100 MHz B= KHz Jn(max) = 15 Kez By Carson's rule of equation (2.1.22), FM bandwidth is given as, BW = { 8+ Jd man | Hz = 2[75 kHz+15kHz] = 180 kHz ium Example 2.1.3: A carrier is frequency modulated with a sinusoidal signal of 2 kHz resulting in a maximum frequency deviation of 5 kHz. Find i) Modulation index ii) Bandwidth of the modulated signal. Solution : Given data : Modulating frequency fn, = 2 kHz Maximum frequency deviation = 6 = 5 kHz i) Modulation index = my = By equation (2.1.16). ii) Bandwidth of the modulated signal is given by equation (2.1.22) as, BW = 28+ finmax)) Here fn(max) is the maximum modulating frequency, which is given as 2 KHz. Hence, BW = 2(5x109 +2x103) = 14 kHz,Communication Theory 2-17 Angle Modulation Systems 2.1.11 Comparison between AM and Angle Modulation Angle modulation has following advantages over AM : i) The amplitude of FM is constant. It is independent of depth of modulation. Hence transmitter power remains constant in FM whereas it varies in AM. ip Since amplitude of FM is constant, the noise interference is minimum in FM. Any noise superimposing an amplitude can be removed with the help of amplitude limits. Whereas it is difficult to remove amplitude variations due to noise in AM. iii) The depth of modulation have limitation in AM. But in FM the depth of modulation can be increased to any value by increasing the deviation. This does not cause any distortion in FM signal. iv) Since guardbands are provided in FM, there is less possibility of adjacent channel interference. ¥) Since space waves are used for FM, the radius of propagation is limited to line of sight. Hence it is possible to operate several independent transmitters on same frequency with minimum interference. vi) Since FM uses UHF and VHF ranges, the noise interference is minimum compared to AM which uses MF and HF ranges. There are some disadvantages of FM compared to AM as follows : i) The bandwidth requirement of FM is much higher than that of AM. ii) The FM transmitting and receiving equipment is more complex and costly. iii) Since FM uses UHF and VHF range of frequencies, its area of reception is limited only to line of sight. This is much lower than area covered by AM. Table 2.1.3 shows the comparison between FM and AM. Amplitude Modi Frequency Modulation 1. | Amplitude of the carrier is varied according to | Frequency of the carrier is varied according to amplitude of modulating signal. amplitude of the modulating signal. 2._| AMhas poor fidelity due to narrow bandwidth. | Since the bandwidth is large, fidelity is better. 3. | Most of the power is in carrier hence less All the transmitted power is useful efficient. 4._| Noise interference is more. Noise interference is minimum, 5. | Adjacent channel interference is present. Adjacent channel interference is avoided due to wide bandwidth,Communication Theory 2-18 Angle Modulation Systems 6. | AM broadcast operates in MF and HF range. | FM broadcast operates in VHF and UHF range. 7. | In AM only carrier and two sidebands are Infinite number of sidebands are present present, 8. | The transmission equipment is simple. The transmission equipment is complex. 9. | Transmitted power varies according to Transmitted power remains constant modulation index, irrespective of modulation index. 10. | Depth of modulation have limitation. it cannot | Depth of modulation have no limitation. It can be increased above 1. be increased by increasing frequency deviation, Table 2.1.3 Comparison of FM and AM 2.1.12 Comparison between FM and PM Table 2.1.4 shows the comparison between FM and PM. modulating signal. Sr. No. Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation 1. ‘The maximum frequency deviation depends | The maximum phase deviation depends only upon amplitude of modulating voltage and | upon the amplitude of modulating voltage. modulating frequency. 2. Frequency of the carrier is modulated by Phase of the carrier is modulated by modulating signal Modulation index Is Increased as modulation frequency is reduced and vice versa frequency is changed. Table 2.1.4 Comparison of FM and PM ‘Actually in FM, when frequency is changed, phase is also varied. FM is basically obtained from phase modulation as we will see next. ‘Modulation index remains same if modulating Theo ry Questions 1. Define the modulation indices of FM and PM. 2. Compare - i) AM and FM ii) FM and PM 3._What are the advantages and disadvantages of FM as compared to AM ? Qt Ans. : University Questions Differentiate between narrowband and wideband FM. [April/May-2004, 4 Marks; May/June-2007, 8 Marks; May/June-2008, 4 Marks; Refer table 2.1.2. Nov./Dec.-2008, 8 Marks}Communication Theory 2-19 Angle Modulation Systems Q.2 Draw the frequency spectrum of FM and explain. (May/June-2006, 5 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 2.1.5. Q.3 Derive the expression for the frequency modulated signal. Explain what is meant by narrowband FM and wideband FM using the expression. INovJDec.-2006, 10 Marks} Ans. : Expression for FM signal : Refer section 2.1.2. Narrowband FM : Refer section 2.1.8. Wideband FM : Refer section 2.1.9. Q4 Discuss the effects of non linearities in FM systems. [May/June-2007, 8 Marks} Ans. : Refer section 2.1.10. Q.5 Derive the expression for the spectrum of a FM signal with single tone modulation. {May/June-2008, 8 Marks; May/June-2009, 10 Marks} Ans. : Refer section 2.1.5. 2.2 FM and PM Modulators We know that in FM, the frequency of the carrier is varied according to amplitude changes in the modulating signal. The carrier frequency is generated by LC oscillators. The carrier frequency can be changed by varying either the inductance or capacitance of the tank circuit. The devices like FET, BJT and varactor diodes have the property that their reactance can be varied by varying the voltage across them. Such devices can be used with LC tank circuits to vary the overall reactance. This reactance can be inductive or capacitive. The change in reactance changes the frequency of the oscillator. There are two types of FM modulators : 1) Direct FM : In this type of angle modulation, the frequency of the carrier is varied directly by the modulating signal. This means, an instantaneous frequency deviation is directly proportional to amplitude of the modulating signal. li) Indirect FM : In this type of angle modulation FM is obtained by phase modulation of the carrier. Instantaneous phase of the carrier is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.Communication Theory 2-20 Angle Modulation Systems 2.2.1 Direct FM Direct FM can be obtained by using FET and varactor diode. These methods are discussed next. 22.1.1 FET Reactance Modulator Fig. 22.1 shows the basic circuit of | FET reactance = 7° modulator. It behaves as reactance : across. terminals A-B. The {is terminals A-B of the circuit may ‘ be connected across the tuned ~] circuit of the oscillator to get FM output. The varying voltage | (modulating voltage) V, across = terminals A-B changes reactance of the FET. This change in reactance Fig, 2.2.1 FET reactance modulator can be inductive or capacitive. Neglecting gate current, let the current through C and R be I). At the cartier frequency, the reactance of ’C’ is much larger than R. We can write equation for I as, Vv 1 + jac Xo2>R Vg = Vos = Since jC >> R, we can write above equation as, I, = jocv From the circuit, Vy = 1,R = joCRV For the FET, Ly = 8m Ves =8n Vy = joCR g,V ves (2.2.1) From the cizcuit, impedance of the FET is, v Vv 1 wos (2.2.2) Ty jO§nCRV ~ Folgy CRI” FOC Here Cy =gm CR. Thus the impedance of FET is capacitive reactance. By varying the modulating voltage across FET, the operating point g, can be varied. Hence this varies C,j. This change in the capacitance will change the frequency of the oscillator. If we connect inductance instead of capacitor, we get inductive reactance in the circuit.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 2-23 Angle Modulation Systems Explanation : When the signal is integrated and then phase modulated, the PM signal is actually FM signal. This is because of integration of m(t). Similarly in above block diagram m(t) is integrated. Then integrated signal is phase modulated. Hence the output of narrowband phase modulator is narrowband FM. The narrowband FM is then converted to wideband FM with the help of frequency multiplier. The frequency multiplier increases the frequency deviation as well as carrier frequency. It is called indirect method because FM is generated from PM. Advantages : i) FM is generated from PM indirectly. ii) Modulation takes place at low carrier frequency. Theory Questions 1. Drew the circuit diagram of FET reactance modulator and explain its operation. 2, How FM is generated with the help of varactor diode ? Explain with the help of neat diagram. University Questions Q.1 Explain the working of a reactance tube modulator and derive an expression to show how the variation of amplitude of the input signal changes the frequency of the| output signal of the modulator. [April/May-2005, 8 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 2.2.1.1. Q.2 Draw the circuit of reactance modulator and explain its principle of operation. Drive an expression for the equivalent capacitance in terms of the 2, of the devices and circuit components. INov/Dec.-2005, 10 Marks} Ans. : Refer section 2.2.1.1. @.3 Explain how varactor diode can be used for frequency modulation. (NovJDec.-2005, 6 Marks; May/June-2008, 4 Marks} |Ans. ; Refer section 2.2.1.2. Q4 Discuss the indirect method of generating wideband FM signal. [Nov/Dec-2006, 8 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 2.2.3. Q5 Explain the principle of indirect method of generating a wideband FM signal with a neat block diagram. [May/June-2007, 8 Marks] Ans, : Refer answer of Q.4. Q.6 Give the method of generation of FM signal. [May/June-2009, 6 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 2.2.1.1.Communication Theory 2-24 Angle Modulation Systems 2.3 FM Transmitters Depending upon the modulation there are two types of FM transmitters : Direct and Indirect. i) Direct FM Transmitter : Such transmitters produce the FM signal whose frequency deviation is directly proportional to the modulating signal. Therefore carrier oscillator frequency is directly deviated. For this purpose crystal oscillators cannot be used since their frequency cannot be varied significantly. Therefore other oscillators are used. ii) Indirect FM Transmitter : Such transmitters produce the FM signal whose phase deviation is directly proportional to amplitude of modulating signal. The frequency of the oscillator is not directly varied by modulating signal voltage. Hence crystal oscillators can be used in indirect FM transmitters. Need for Automatic Frequency Correction : The frequency of the oscillator is directly varied in direct FM transmitters. Hence such oscillators do not produce stable frequency. This problem can be overcome with the help of Automatic Frequency Correction (AFC). 2.3.1 Automatic Frequency Correction (AFC) The automatic frequency correction is incorporated in FM transmitter to keep carrier frequency stable. Fig, 2.3.1 shows the block diagram of AFC circuit. Reactance modulator oscillator Crystal Fig. 2.3.1 Typical AFC circuit The discriminator reacts only to small changes in the carrier frequency but not to the frequency deviations in the carrier (since it is too fast). Suppose frequency of the carrier increases. This higher frequency is fed to the mixer for which the other input frequency is from the stable crystal oscillator. A some what higher frequency will be fed to the discriminator. Since the discriminator is tuned to the correct frequency difference which should exist between the LC oscillator and crystal oscillator, and its input frequency is now somewhat higher, the discriminator will develop a positive dic. voltage. This voltage is applied to the AF INCommunication Theory 2-25 Angle Modulation Systems reactance modulator whose transconductance is increased by the positive voltage developed by the discriminator. This increases the equivalent capacitance of the reactance modulator thereby decreasing the oscillator frequency. The frequency increase in the carrier frequency is thus lowered and brought to the correct value. The correcting d.c. voltage developed by the discriminator may be fed to a varactor diode connected across the tank circuit of the oscillator and be used for AFC purposes. In directly modulated FM transmitters, many times the frequency modulation is carried out at a lower frequency and with a smaller frequency deviation. Then passing this frequency modulated wave through frequency multiplier circuit, the desired cartier frequency and desired frequency deviation is achieved. In this case, it may happen that the frequency multiplication required for getting the desired carrier frequency from a smaller carrier frequency may not turn out to be exactly the same as required for getting the desired frequency deviation from the original smaller deviation. In such situation mixer is used to achieve the final values. 2.3.2 Direct FM Transmitters Here we will discuss two transmnitters that generate FM by modulating the carrier frequency directly. 23.24 Crosby Direct FM Transmitter (Broadcast Band FM Transmitter) Fig. 23.2 shows the block diagram of crosby direct FM transmitter. The modulating signal is given to frequency modulator and oscillator. The frequency modulator can be reactance modulator or voltage controlled oscillator. The frequency of the unmodulated carrier is f. = 5.1 MHz. This frequency is multiplied by 18 to generate the transmitted frequency of 91.8 MElz. It is the center frequency of the FM signal. The AFC loop is similar to that shown in Fig. 23.1. It is used to maintain the center frequency of unmodulated carrier stable. Note that the multiplier output given to the mixer is 6f, = 3¢.6 MHz. The crystal reference oscillator generates 28.6 MHz. The mixer generates the 2 MHz difference of these two frequencies and gives it to the discriminator through amplifier. The discriminator is tuned to 2 MHz. If there is difference in the mixer output frequency, then discriminator generates DC correction voltage. If the multiplier frequency is exactly 6f, = 30.6 MHz (ie. f, = 5.1 MHz), then no frequency correcticn is required and hence DC correction voltage must be zero. However the frequency of 6f, contains FM. This means there is frequency deviation of 6f, depending upon modulating signal. Hence DC correction voltage also contains corresponding variation. Therefore DC correction voltage is passed through lowpass filter to remove the effect of modulation. Such filtered voltage is then used for frequency correction.Communication Theory 2-26 Angle Modulation Systems Modulating signal Crystal Mixer: oscillator AFC loop fy) = 2 MHZ Fig. 2.3.2 Crosby direct FM transmitter 23.22 PLL Direct FM Transmitter Fig. 2.3.3 shows the phase locked loop direct FM transmitter. This transmitter is used to generate high index wideband FM signal. When both the input frequencies of phase comparator are same, then they are locked to each other. Under this situation, phase comparator output is zero. It is passed through lowpass filter to the summer. The summer has modulating signal as another input. This modulating signal is used to control the output frequency of VCO. Thus the output of VCO is FM signal whose frequency depends upon modulating signal. The output of VCO is divided by N and given to phase comparator. If there is any shift in centre frequency (fo) of VCO, then phase comparator generates the correction voltage, which is given to summer through low pass filter. This correction voltage adds to modulating signal voltage and corrects the VCO output. The lowpass filter is used to remove the rapid changes in correction voltage due to frequency variations in FM signal FM output Correction voltage Crystal Phase Low pass. reference | Summer veo dalatahae comparator iT ‘iter Modulating signal . 2.3.3 Block diagram of PLL direct FM transmitterCommunication Theory 2-27 Angle Modulation Systems 2.3.3 Indirect FM Transmitter - Armstrong Method (Use of PM for generating FM) In the last two subsections we study the methods to generate FM, which directly modulate the carrier. This is achieved by varying reactance of the components in tank circuit. Crystals can be used for better stability. But since the reactance of the components is varied directly, the stability is not ensured. Particularly, even if crystal oscillators are used stability problem still exists. Hence direct methods of FM generation are not suitable practically for broadcasting purposes. We have seen earlier that FM is one form of phase modulation. Hence it is possible to obtain FM from PM. This method is called indirect method to generate FM. From equation (2.1.13) we know that phase modulated signal is represented as, epm = E,sin(w.t+mcosw, tf) * ve (23.1) The instantaneous angular frequency w, of the above phase modulated signal can be obtained by, _ doo Pe dt Here 6(t)=«,t + mcosW,¢, hence above equation will be, py 4 [oct + mc0s yt] = WO, =mMsin Ont X Om wes (2.3.2) In terms of linear frequencies above equation can be written as, fp = fo—™ Sm Sin (2fnt) wes (2.3.3) The second term in the above equation represents the frequency shift with respect to center frequency. ie, fp = forAf w= (2.3.4) The above equation shows that frequency of the phase modulated signal varies around the carrier frequency f, with the deviation of A f. This deviation is, Af = mfyy sin(2nfxt) from equation (2.3.3) Hence maximum deviation will be, Af = fxm ves (2.3.5) In the above equation observe that if modulating frequency f,, remains constant, then frequency deviation will be directly proportional to m. Thus as long as the modulating frequency does not change, phase modulation produces FM output. This technique is employed in indirect method.Communication Theory 2-28 modulation Systems The phase modulated signal is obtained by vector addition of carrier and modulating signal as shown in Fig. 23.4. The modulating signal vector AB adds to the cartier signal vector OA with 90° phase shift. The resultant phase modulated vector is OB with phase shift of AO. But this type of scheme works only if both the vectors OA and AB have same frequency. This means carrier and modulating signal should have same frequency. Under this condition phase modulation produces FM output as we have stated earlier. To obtain the modulating signal of same frequency as that of carrier, amplitude modulation is used. The AM signal is first produced which amplitude modulates the carrier of frequency f,. This AM signal vector is shifted by 90° and added to carrier (fe) signal vector. Then as shown in Fig. 23.4, the resultant vector is produced which is phase modulated. Since both the vectors, AM and carrier, have same frequency f,, the output is FM. Here the frequency f, can be thought of as frequency of the modulating signal (Note here that modulating signal is AM signal). Hence phase modulation produces FM output. A ' B Carrier Modulating | sere A 90° phase shift A 8 Resultant vector 0, Phase deviation ° Fig. 2.3.4 lilustration of phase modulation Fig. 23.5 shows the block diagram of Armstrong method which generates FM output based on the indirect method just discussed. Crystal oscillator Audio amplifier Fig. 2.3.5 Block diagram of Armstrong method to generate FM Cartier] Combining FM network output AM alt, AF in 90° phase shifterCommunication Theory 2-29 Angle Modulation Systems The crystal oscillator generates the carrier frequency f.. This is highly stable frequency source. The modulating signal is amplified and given to balanced modulator. The balance modulator generates DSB AM signal at carrier frequency f.. This DSB signal is phase shifted by 90° in the phase shifter. This phase shifted AM signal is added (vector addition) with the carrier signal in the combining network. The combining network produces the FM signal at its output. Observe that AM signal is having frequency f, with amplitude variations. Hence resultant vector addition is phase modulated which is basically FM signal. The buffer isolates the crystal source from combining network so that its stability is not disturbed. Theory Question 1. Draw the block diegram of Armstrong method and explain its operation for FM generation. Why this method is called indirect method. University Questions Q.1 With neat block diagram explain Armstrong method generating FM signal. [Nov./Dec-2003, 8 Marks; April/May-2005, 8 Marks; Nov./Dec.-2008, 10 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 2.3.3. Q.2 Explain how FM wave is generated by Indirect method. INov./Dec-2007, 16 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 2.33. 2.4 FM Receiver Fig. 2.4.1 shows the block diagarm of FM receiver. a 7 pe Locat oscillator Fig. 2.4.1 Block diagram of F.M. receiverCommunication Theory 2-30 Angle Modulation Systems The RF amplifier eliminates noise in the received FM signal. This amplifier matches antenna to the receiver. It improves the noise figure of the receiver. The mixer downconverts the incoming carrier frequency to IF. For FM receiver, IF is 10.7 MHz. The local oscillator frequency is varied such that IF is obtained at the mixer output. The tuning range of FM receiver is from 88 to 108 MHz, which is small. Hence tracking is relatively simple in FM receiver. The IF amplifier provides gain to the signal. Normally IF amplification is done in two or more cascaded stages. The limiter removes amplitude variations in FM signal. AGC provides automatic gain control in the receiver. It works along with limiter, IF and RF amplifier. The FM signal is then demodulated in the discriminator. The detected signal is then passed through de-emphasis, voltage amplification and given to audio power amplifier. The audio power amplifier drives speaker. 2,5 FM Demodulators The FM receivers are also superheterodyne receivers. But they have different types of demodulators or detectors. FM receivers have amplitude limiters which are absent in AM receivers. The AGC system of FM receiver is different than that of AM receivers. RF amplifiers, mixers, local oscillators IF amplifiers, audio amplifiers etc. all are present in FM receivers. The detection of FM is totally different compared to AM. ‘The FM detector should be able to produce the signal whose amplitude is proportional to the deviation in the frequency of FM signal. Thus the job of FM detector is almost similar to frequency to voltage converter. Here we will discuss these types of FM detectors. Slope detectors, phase discriminator and ratio detector. 2.5.1 Round-Travis Detector or Balanced Slope Detector (Frequency Discriminator) Fig. 2.5.1 shows the circuit of balanced slope detector. It consists of two identical circuits connected back to back. The FM signal is applied to the tuned LC circuit. Two tuned LC circuits are connected in series. The inductance of this secondary tuned LC circuit is coupled with the inductance of the primary (or input side) LC circuit. Thus it forms a tuned transformer. In Fig. 25.1, the upper tuned circuit is shown as T, and lower tuned circuit is shown as T>. The input side LC circuit is tuned to f,, carrier frequency. T; is tuned to f. +5f, which represents highest frequency. And lower LC circuit T is tuned to f. - 5f, which represents the minimum frequency of FM signal. The input FM signal is coupled to T; and T 180° out of phase. The secondary side tuned circuits (T; and T>) are connected to diodes D, and D2 with RC loads. The total output V,,; is equal to difference between V,; and V,2, since they subtract (see Fig. 2.5.1). Fig. 25.2 shows the characteristic of the balanced slope detector. It shows V,,. with respect to input frequency.Communication Theory 2-31 Angle Modulation Systems When = the_—input frequency is equal to fe, both T, and Tz produce the same voltage. Hence Voy and V,2 are identical and they subtract each other. Therefore Voy; is zero. This is shown in Fig. 25.2 Fig. 2.5.1 Balanced slope detector above. When the input frequency is f.+8f, the upper circuit T, produces maximum voltage since it is tuned to this frequency (i.e. fc+8f). Whereas lower circuit T, is tuned to f,-8f, which is quite away from f,+8f. Hence T, produces minimum voltage. Hence the output V,; is maximum where Veo is minimum. Therefore V,,, =V>1 ~ Vio is maximum positive for f, +8f. When input frequency is f,~8f, the lower circuit Ty produces maximum signal since it is tuned to it. But upper circuit T; produces minimum signal. Hence rectified outputs V,y is maximum and Vj, is minimum. Therefore output Voy =Vo1—Vo2 is maximum negative for _f, —8f. This is shown in Fig. 2.5.2. For the other frequencies of input, the output (Vou) is produced according to the characteristic shown in Fig. 2.5.2. For example if input frequency tries to increase above f, then Vo, will be greater than Vip and net output V,; will be positive. It is desirable that the characteristic shown in Fig. 25.2 Fig. 2.5.2 Characteristic of balanced slope detector, or should be linear SYouve between f.~8f and fe+8f, then only proper detection will take place. The linearity of the characteristic depends upon alignment of tuning circuits and coupling characteristics of the tuned coils. V. faut +aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 2-33 Angle Modulation Systems =V, RFC (bj Voltage generator equivalent circuit Fig. 25.4 At the center frequency, both Vp; and Vp) will be equal, since V2 will have 90° phase shift with V;. Fig. 2.5.5 (a) shows how Vp; and Vpp are generated from V and V>. In the figure vector addition is shown and it shows that [Vpx|=|Vnol Hence the net output of the discriminator will be zero. Now consider the situation when input frequency increases above /.. Hence the phase shift between V, and V2 reduces. Therefore |Vp,| is greater than |Vp)| This is shown by vector addition in Fig. 2.55 (b). Hence the net output V, = |V;1|—|Vpo| will be positive. Thus the increase in frequency increases output voltage. Now consider the situation when frequency reduces below f,. This makes |Vpj| less than |Vp9|- This is shown in Fig. 2.5.5 (c). Hence the output V,=[Vp;|-|Vp2| will be negative. Thus the Foster-Secley discriminator produces output depending upon the phase shift. The linearity of the output depends upon the linearity between frequency and induced phase shift. The characteristic of the Foster-Seeley discriminator (ie. S-curve) is similar to that shown in Fig. 2.5.2 with more linearity in the operation.Communication Theory 2-34 Angle Modulation Systems 0.5 Vp 5 Vpt = Vs #0.5 Vp (a) At contor frequency, phase shift betweer My V, and V, is 90°. Hence p11 = Mpal 90° phase shift between V; & Vz atf, Vp2 = V-0.5 Vp 0.5 V2 Vor Phase shift is reduced due to increase in frequency {b) For the frequencies above center frequency, the phase shift between V; and V2 is reduced. Hence [Vpj1> IVpzl {c) For frequencies below center frequency, the phase shift between V, and V, is increased. This makes |Vp4l < IVoal Phase shift Is increased due to reduced frequency Voz Fig. 2.5.5 2.5.3 Ratio Detector Ratio detector can be obtained by slight modifications in the Foster-Secley discriminator. Fig. 2.5.6 shows the circuit diagram of ratio detector. As shown in the diagram the diode D, is reversed, and output is taken from different points. In the above circuit the regular conversion from frequency to phase shift and phase shift to amplitude takes place as in Foster-Seeley discriminator. The polarity of voltage in theCommunication Theory 2-35 Angle Modulation Systems lower capacitor is reversed, since connections of diode D2 are revirsed. Hence the voltages Vj, and V,2 across two capacitors add. (Note that these voltages subtract in Foster-Seeley circuit). And we know that when V,, increases, Vj. decreases and vice-versa as we have seen in Foster-Seeley circuit. Since V; is sum of V1 and Vso, it remains constant. From the circuit of Fig. 2.5.6 we can write two equations for the output voltage V, (Note that V, is the net output voltage and taken across points A and B). The first equation will be a a Yo = 5¥5-Voo From a” é -le |* ome. 7 vf ‘ ly Ive tvet Nea { T ° Yoo f D, Fig. 2.5.6 Ratio detector circuit and Vv, = +4 VitVe Adding the above two equations, WV = Vor -Voo Vo = 5 (Ya -¥n) Since Vo1 =|[Vpi| and V2 =|V2|, above equation will be, $ (Vo1l -|Yp2)) Here Vp; and Vp; are obtained as discussed earlier in Foster-Seeley circuit. The above equation shows that the output of ratio detector is half compared to that of Foster-Seeley circuit. We have seen earlier that, as frequency increases above f..|Vp1| > |Vo2} hence output V, is positive. Similarly if frequency decreases below fe. |\Vpil < [Vpa} hence output V, is negative. The ratio detector has the advantage of reduced fluctuations in the output voltage compared to Foster-Seeley circuit. VoCommunication Theory 2-36 Angle Modulation Systems 2.5.4 PLL FM Demodulator Fig. 2.5.7 shows the block diagram of PLL FM demodulator. The output frequency of VCO is equal to the frequency of unmodulated carrier. The phase detector generates the voltage which is proportional to difference between the FM signal and VCO output. This voltage is filtered and amplified. It is the required modulating voltage. Here frequency correction is not required in VCO since it is already done at transmitter. V FM =| Phase | Low pass | o_ Demoduiated signal detector filler Ample: output vco Fig. 2.5.7 PLL FM demodulator Advantages : i) No need of tuned circuits. ii) Simple circuit that can be implemented in integrated circuits. Theory Questions 1. With the help of circuit diagram explain the operation of round travis detector (Balanced slope detector). x . Draw the diagram of Foster-Seeley discriminator or phase discriminator and explain its operation. » Draw the circuit diagram of ratio detector and explain its operation. What is the advantage of this circuit over Foster-Seeley discriminator ? University Questions Q.4 Explain the indirect method of generation of FM wave aid any one method of| demodulating an FM wave. (April/May-2004, 12 Marks] Ans, : Indirect method of FM generation : Refer section 2.2.2. Demodulation of FM wave : Refer section 2.5.1. Q2 Explain the generation and demodulation of FM signal. [Nov./Dec.-2004, 16 Marks; May/June-2006, 11 Marks] Ans. : Refer answer of Q.1. Q3 Discuss the working of ratio detector. [April/May-2005, 8 Marks; Nov./Dec.-2008, 10 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 2.5.3.Communication Theory 2-37 Angle Modulation Systems Q.4 Explain the working of balanced slope detector. [April/May-2005, 8 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 2.5.1. Q.5 Explain any two techniques of demodulation of FM. [Nov/Dec.-2005, 10 Marks] Ans. : Refer sections 2.5.1 and 25.2. Q.6 Draw the circuit diagram of Foster-Seeley discriminator and explain its working. [Nov/Dec.-2006, 16 Marks; May/June-2008, 16 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 2.5.2. Q.7 How do you demodulate the FM wave using frequency discriminator 7 [May/June-2007, 8 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 2.5.1. Q.8 Discuss on FM demodulation using PLL. [May/June-2009, 16 Marks] Ans. ;_ Refer section 2.5.4. 2.6 FM Noise Suppression Preemphasis and De-emphasis circuits are used for suppression of the unwanted noise. The noise has greater effect on higher modulating frequencies than on the lower ones. The effect of noise on higher frequencies can be reduced by artificially boosting them at the transmitter and correspondingly attenuating them at the receiver. This boosting of higher modulating frequencies at the transmitter is called pre-emphasis. And attenuating them at the receiver is called de-emphasis. Normally pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is carried out according to standard curves. Fig. 2.6.1 shows the 75 us emphasis curves. 1708 | Pre-emphasis 43.48 f~ OdB 3 |. De-emphasis ~1748 30Hz 2420 Hz 415 kHz Fig. 2.6.1 75 ys emphasis curvesCommunication Theory 2-38 Angle Modulation Systems A 75 ps pre-emphasis corresponds to a frequency response curve which is 3 dB up at a frequency whose time constant RC is 75 ps i.e. with RC = 75 pseg 1 1 = po = ——__ = 2120H: F > FaRe 2n x 75 x 10% 2 In Fig. 2.6.2 observe that the emphasis curves have 3 dB frequency of 2120 Hz. Fig. 2.6.2 (a) shows the pre-emphasis circuit. The value of Ry and C are adjusted to get required R,C pre-emphasis constant. Similarly De-emphasis circuit is shown in Fig. 2.6.2 (b). Its RC time constant can be adjusted to get required De-emphasis curve. c 1 1 R ar Pre-emphasized WV —-* AF pL _Wy\y—f—o output - m ro ook Soangintns Ry ‘Time constant RG = 75 is Time constant RC = 75 1s (a) Pre-emphasis circuit {b) De-emphasis circuit Fig. 2.6.2 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis circuits Theory Question 1. What is Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis ? Why it is required ? 2.7 FM Stereo Multiplexing FM stereo multiplexing is used for stereo transmission. It is basically frequency division multiplexing. It is used for FM radio broadcasting. The essential requirement for stereo multiplexing is that it should be compatible with monophonic receivers. 2.7.1 Multiplexer of FM Stereo Transmitter Fig. 2.7.1 shows the block diagram of multiplexer of FM stereo transmitter. Here e;(t) and e,(#) are the two signals of left and right message channels.Angle Modulation Systems ett) Koos(2ni.t) K (amplitide’ multiplier) “> "” Fig. 2.7.1 Block diagram of FM stereo transmitter ©The sim signal [2/(9¥¢,() and difference signal [c;(t)—e, (t)] are generated. The sum signal is directly given to output without any procéssing. It is used by monophonic receivers. © The oscillator frequency of 19 kHz is amplified’ By “k “fines and given td output. It is used as a reference at the receiver for coherent reception. © The oscillator frequency is doubled and used by product modulator.. The ‘product modulator’ produces DSB-SC signal of eitfererice Signal [21 (0-e, OL : ©The fital rn litpiit thus Consists of three a “fejlt) re, (14 ter W)lcos(4n fi) +K eos 2 1) 2.7.2 Semvlliciexes of FM Stereo Receiver Fig. 2.7.2 shows the block diagram of demultiplexer used in FM stereo receiver. As shawn inthis block; ingass the: ee: soultiplexed signals acé-ceparated-by thee appropriate filters.. Baseband eddte it) lowpass, 2e4t) fiter Rendpass et) —+ 2ext) Fig. 2.7.2 Demultiplexer of FM stereo receiverCommunication Theory 2-40 Angle Modulation Systems © The baseband lowpass filter separates sum signal [e;(t)+e,()} The bandpass filter centered around 2f, separates the DSB-SC signal and a narrow band filter tuned to ‘f,’ separates reference carrier of cos(2% f-#). * The reference carrier is doubled in frequency to obtain cos(4nf,). It is multiplied with received DSB-SC signal to obtain [e;(i)~e, (] cos? (41 f, 8). © The baseband lowpass filter then removes the high frequency carrier of 4 f, and gives difference signal e;(t)—e,(t). The left and right channels of message signal are then obtained from sum and difference signals. University Question Q1 Discuss in detail FM stereo multiplexing. [Nov./Dec-2007, 16 Marks, Nov/Dec.-2008, 6 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 2.7. 2.8 Short Answered Questions Q.1— What do you understand by narrowband FM ? Ans. : When the modulation index is less than 1, the angle modulated systems are called low index. The bandwidth requirement of low index systems is approximately twice of the modulating signal frequency. Therefore low index systems are called narrowband FM. Q.2 Why Armstrong method of FM is superior to reactance modulator ? Ans. : Reactance modulator is direct FM, whereas Armstrong method is indirect FM. Armstrong method generates FM from PM. Hence crystal oscillators can be used in Armstrong method. Therefore frequency stability is better than reactance modulator. Q.3 State Carson's rule of FM bandwidth. Ans. : Carson's rule of FM bandwidth is given as, BW = 2(8+fnimax)) Here 8 is the maximum frequency deviation and fymqx) i the maximum signal frequency. Q4 Differentiate between narrowband FM and wideband FM. [Nov./Dec.-2003, 2 Marks] Ans. : In narrowband FM, the frequency deviation is very small. Hence the frequency spectrum consists of two major sidebands like AM. Other sidebands are negligible andaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 2-43 Angle Modulation Systems Q.41 A. carrier of frequency 100° MHz is* frequency’ ‘modillated’- by a ° signal att) =20sin(200m x 10°, What i the bandwidth of the FM signal if the frequency sensitivity of the modulator is 25 ktiz per volt’? [Nov,/Dec.-2003] Ans. : x (t) = 20sin (200 x 103t) Comparing above equation with A sin (2nf,,t) we get, A = 20 V, fy, =100 kHz Here 20 V is peak amplitude of modulating signal. Hence its peak td peak value will be 2 A, ie. 40 V of variation in amplitude. Since sensitivity to frequency is 2B Keigfvolty maximum frequency deviation will be, 8:=. 2A x25:kHz/volt = 40x25 = 1000 kHz z + 2[8 + fon (nexy ] He = 2 [1000 kHz + 100 kHz] = 2200 kHz or 2.2 MHz. Q.A2 Give the frequency spectrum of narrowband FM. [April/May-2004] Ans.” 'TKe narrowband FM equation is given as, BW. et) = Ez cos (Onict) +4 mE, {cos 2m (fz + fy) #~ c082n (f- — fn) f} Above equation shows that there is a carrier frequency (f,) of amplitude £,, upper sideband f, + fn ~ fy of amplitude = This spectrum is same as that of AM. Q.13 Define frequency deviation in FM. [ApriMay-2004] Ans. : Frequency deviation is the shift in frequency of camtier due to modulating signal amplitude. It is given as, a= En ye an Here k, is deviation sensitivity of frequency Ey, is modulating signal amplitude. Q.44 Write the expression for the spectrum of a single tone FM signal. [Nov/Dec.-2004] Ans, : When the carrier is frequency modulated by a modulating signal cos @,,t, then the FM signal is represented using Bessel functions as follows : e(t): = Ey {Jo sina, t+]; [sin (@, +0 »,) t—sin(@,-0 y,) #) + Jy [sin (ae +20) £+8in (0, — 20 py) E] + Jz [sin (@, +30 ) t+sin (@, 30 »,) tf + Jq [sin (@¢ +4@m)t - sin(@.-4@m) t] +. }Communication Theory 2-44 Angle Modulation Systems Above equation shows that the side bands are : Froquency of side band Q.15 | What is the bandwidth required for an FM wave in which the modulating frequency signal is 2 kHz and the maximum frequency deviation is 12 kHz? [April/May-2005} Ans. : f,, = 2 kHz, §= 12 kHz, BW=? W = 2 13+ fin (mexy | He 2 [12 kHz + 2 kHz] = 28 kHz Q.16 Draw the frequency spectra of an FM wave for m; =0.5. TApril/May-2005] Ans.: For my = 0.5 following three Bessel functions are significant, Jo = 0.94, Jy = 0.24, J, = 0.03. FM equation is given as, e(t) = E.{Jg sino, t + Jy [sin (@, +,,) sin (@, — O,,) H + Jz [sin (oe +20) E+ 5in (Oe ~2Oq,) Et ...} = 0.94 E, sinw, t 40.24 E, sin (We +p )f-0.24 E, sin (O¢ — Oy )t + O.03E, sin(o, +20, Jt +0.03E, sin(@, -20,)t +... Fig. 2.8.1 shows the spectrum based on above equation. 0.948, We= 2 We Oy %, e+ My e+ Zl Frequency Fig. 2.8.1 Frequency spectra of FM signalCommunication Theory 2-45 Angle Modulation Systems QA7 Determine the bandwidth of a wideband FM, given that carrier of 100 MHz frequency modulates a signal of 5 kHz with the 50 kz as frequency deviation. (Nov/Dec.-2005} Ans. : fy =5 kHz, 8= 50 kHz BW = 2(8+ fn (ma) = 2(50+5) kHz = 110 kHz Q.18 Determine and draw the instantaneous frequency of a wave having a total phase angle given by (1) = 20008 + sin 108. [May/June-2006] Ans. : Since 6(t) is total phase angle, FM equation is given as, e(t) = E.sino(t) ‘- sin (2000t +sin 10t) Compare above equation with — standard. += FM_— equation _—of e()=E, sin (W,t+ msin@,t) we get, @, =2000 rad/sec, @,, =10 rad/sec and m = 1. Q419 Draw the phasor diagram of narrowband FM. INov./Dec.-2006] Ans. : 1-5 Upper sideband phasor Cartier phasor Fig. 2.8.2 Q.20 What are the applications of phase locked loop ? [Nov./Dec.-2006] ‘Ans. Phase locked loops are used for various purposes in AM and FM communication. i) Automatic frequency correction in FM transmitter uses PLL to keep carrier frequency constant. ii) PLL is used in direct FM transmitter to generate wideband FM signals. iii) PLL is also used in FM demodulators.Communication Theory. 22-46 Q.24 Differentiate phase modulation, and frequency modulation. Ans. : Phase Modulation Frequency Modulation Phase of the carer varies as per | Frequency of the carrier varies as amplitude variations of modulating | "per amplitude variations of signal modulating signal. Instantaneous phase deviation, instantaneous frequency deviation, 80) = k emf) © () = Flog! + 9(0) Modulation index = k E,p, Modulation index = Em On Q.22 A 80.MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal-of 1 V amplitude and. the frequency sensitivity. is ‘100°Hz/V. Find the approximate bandwidth of the FM waveform if the modulating signal has a frequency of 10 KEIz. {May/June-2008, 2 Marks] ° Ans. : Frequency sensitivity = 100 Hz/volt Amplitude of modulating signal = 1 V Hence maximum frequency deviation, 8 = 100 Hz/volt x 1 V ¢ 100 Hz Frequency of modulating signal, fy, = 10 KHz ‘ BW = 218+ fn cniaxil: 2 100 + 10'x 10°] = 202 kee Q.23 What is diversity reception ? INov./Dec.-2008] Ans. : Diversity reception is used when the’signal fades into noise level. There are two types of diversity reception : 1) Space diversity and 2) Frequency diversity. 1) Space diversity : It uses two or more receiving antennas separated by nine or more wavelengths. There are separate receivers for each antenna. The receiver with strongest signal is selected. 2) Frequency diversity : ‘It uses single réceiving’ antenna which works for two or more frequencies. The frequency which has strong signal is selected. Q.24 State the disadvantages of FM. . INov/Dec--2008] Ans. : §) Bandwidth requirement of FM is much higher. ii) FM transmitting and receiving equipment is more complex and costly. iii) Distance of reception is limited only to line of sight.Communication Theory 2-47 Angle Modulation Systems Q.25 Obtain the bandwidth of the FM signal c(t) = 10 x cos [2107 xnt+8cos(1000x1)} [MayfJune-2009, 2 Marks] Ans. : Compare the givesn FM signal equation with standard FM signal equation, et) = E, cos(a.t+ mcos@,, t) Here, m = 8, @,, = 1000n hence 2n f,, =1000n or f,, = 500 Hz 8 = mfm = 8x500Hz = 4000 Hz By Carson's rule, BW = 2(8+ fna(onax)) 2(4000+500) = 9000 Hz or 9 kHz. Q.26 What do you understand by FM stereo multiplexing 7? [May/June-2009, 2 Marks] Ans. : FM stereo multiplexing is used for stereo transmission. It is basically frequency division multiplexing. It is used for FM radio broadcasting. The left and right channel signals are used to generate sum and difference signals. The difference signal frequency modulates the carrier. The difference signal, FM difference signal and carrier are combined together and sent. Such FM multiplexed signal can be coherently received by stereo as well as mono receiver. goo(2 - 48)Noise Theory 3.1 Introduction * A signal is called random if its occurrence cannot be predicted. Such signal cannot be represented by any mathematical equation. * The random signals are represented collectively by a random variable. The random variable takes its value from the specified set of values. But which particular value will be taken at particular time is not known. * The random variables are analyzed statistically with the help of probability, probability density functions and statistical averages such as mean, variance etc. » We have learned two types of signals : 1) Deterministic and 2) Random. Most of the interference taking place over the channel is random. The thermal noise generated in electronic components is also random in nature. A random process means random signals generated at multiple points are considered collectively. * Random processes are analyzed statistically such as mean, autocorrelation, power spectral density etc. » The noise is defined as any unwanted signal that tends to interfere with the required signal. Because of noise, the transmission of the signal is disturbed and errors are introduced in the received signal. ‘+ The next section presents briefly some sources of noise. The mathematical representation of noise is very important. This representation helps in analyzing the effect of noise on the performance of system. This chapter covers all these topics of noise 3.2 Review of Probability * Some of the important concepts related to probability are discussed first. 3.2.1 Experiment Definition : It is the process which is conducted to get some results. (3-1)Communication Theory 3-2 Noise Theory «An experiment is also called trial. For example, throw of a ¢oin’‘is an experiment or trial. «The trial or an experiment has outcomes. For example throwing a coin has two outcomes head (H) or tail (T). “9! Outcomes of'an’ experiment are call equally likely if all of them have equal chance. of occurring. -For example, head and tail are equally likely. 3.2.2 Sample Space (S) Definition : A set of all possible outcomes of an experiment #8 called] sample space of that experiment: * Examples : Ifa coin is:thrown, outcomes are head (H) and’ tail (1). Hence sample space will-be, = (H, TH If three coins are tossed simultaneously, then each experiment will have an outcome which will be combination of H or T. The sample will be as follows : S=GhIbH; HyibT HiTHy Tibi Wht THT THs TT] T) 3.2.3 Event * Definition : The expected subset of the sample space or happening is called an event. © Example : Consider an experiment of throwing a dice. Then sample space will be, = (1,2,3,45,6) An event ‘A’ for setting number greater than 4 will be, = 45,6) * Hlementary event : Event contains only one outcome. * Null event : Event not possible. * Contain event : Event contains all outcomes of sample space. * Independent event : If happening of 'A' has nothing to do with happening of 'B', then A and B are independent. © Dependant event : If outcome of one event is affected by other, then they are called dependant events.Communication Theory 3-3 vocod | eoNeise Theory 3.2.4 Definition of Probability Relative Frequency Let us consider that an event ‘A’ is the set of possible outcomes and the subset of the sample space ‘S’, When. the experiment is repeated ,‘N’ times, an. event A may occur Ny times. Then the ratio of Nj to N is called frequency of occurrence of A or relative frequency of A. ie., . Number of times an event occitrs (N.4 Relat az Number of times an event overs (N 4 J tive frequency Total number of trials (N) Na N Probability of event 'A’ is defined as the ratio of number of possible favourable’ outcomes to total number of outcomes. ie., ae lim N4 . Probability, PUA) = Ne 4 vs G21) ___ Number of possible favourable outcomes (322) ~ Total number of outcomes — Example : Probability of getting head in tossing a coin is, 1(Head) Pe ~ D(Head +Tail)~ Here favourable outcome fs orlly one, i.e: head and total number of duitcomes are’ two, ie. head: and tail: fi a Permutations and Combinations f Combination of ‘n’ taken “at a time, no, = "5 ++ (8.23) Permutations of ‘n’ taken ‘r’ at a time, tp, = ++ (3.2.4) nt (n-1)! Yum Example 3.2.1: A perfect cubic die is thrown. Find the probability that (i) an even number comes up. (ii) a perfect square comes ip? ~~ Solution : i) The sample space of cubic die contains six numbers i.e. S = {1,2,3,4,5, 6} ie nls) = There are three outcomes in the event; je. even numbers. A = '{2,4,6}ie. n(A) =3Communication Theory 3-4 Noise Theory Therefore by definition of probability, Number of frvourable outcomes _ _n(A) PA) = Tapia = 05 ii) The sample space contains only two perfect squares, i.e. 1 and 4. Therefore n(A) = 2 here ws Pla) = & = 0.3 imp Example 3.2.2: If 3 of 20 tubes are defective and 4 of them are randomly chosen for inspection. What is the probability that only one of the defective tubes will be included ? Solution : Four tubes can be selected out of 20 in 20¢ , ways. Possible ways = 20, nf We know that ne, = Gy 20! N (20-4jr 41 or Noe 201 , 20x19x18x17 x16! “ F6Tdi ~ T6txEx3x2x1 = 4845 Now there are three defective tubes. Now since only one defective tube should be included in set of four, this tube can be chosen in 3c , ways. Thus in the set of four defective tubes one tube should be defective and three tubes should be non defective. That is, those three tubes can be selected in 17c¢, ways. 31 17! (=1)Mt” G7=3)13! 3x2!) 17 x16x15x14! 2Ixt 141X3X2x1 o Na = 3c,* Wes = = 2040 wil be, FOPADHIY of selecting only one defective along with three non defective tubes PIA) = Number of favourable ways Total possible ways = Na : _ 2040 = =\t from equation 321 = FE = 042Communication Theory 3-5 Noise Theory wm) Example 3.2.3: From a well shuffled pack of cards three cards are drawn at random. Find the probability that they form a King, Queen, Jack combination. Solution : Three cards can be drawn in 52c, ways. ie. . _ 52 N= Sc, = @-3I31 52x51x50x 49! 49!x3x2x1 = 22100 Now King, Queen and Jack can be chosen each in 4c, ways. Si Na = 4¢,X%4c,%4c, = 4 Na et N 22100 = 289 x103 imp Example 3.2.4: A bag contains three white and five black balls. What is the chance that a ball drawn at random will be black ? Solution : There are total eight balls. One ball can be drawn in 8c, ways out of eight balls. ie. N = 8c, = 8 ways. Black ball can be selected from five black balls in 5¢, ways. 5! o Probability = ie. Na = 5c) = @=pnT = 5 = 0.65 ‘=> Example 3.2.5 : A room contains three sockets for bulbs. From the collection of bulbs out of which 4 are defective, 3 bulbs are selected at random and put in the sockets. Find the probability that the room is lit. Solution : Three bulbs can be selected out of eight bulbs in 8c, ways. The room will lit if one two or three bulbs are non defective. Therefore it is better to calculate the probability that room will not lit. That is all three lamps are defective. These three defective bulbs can be selected out of total four defective bulbs by using 4c, ways.Communication Theory 3-6 ie. Na = 4c3 . era: waits Be mee a2 Bb shine “@=3B! * TIx3! and ws 8x7x6x5! 3x2x1 Probability that room will not lit (dark) will be:P'= 4 1/4: Now the two possible events here are room will be dark or it will lit. P(room lits) + P(room dark) = 1 P(room lits) = 1 ~ P(toom dark) = 1 =f “= 0.928 3.2.5 Axioms (Properties) of, Probability ‘ r The outcomes of the trial are said to be mutually exclusive, ifthe occurrence of one of them precludes the occurrence of all other outcomes, For example in, tossing.a coin, events Head and Tail are mutually exclusive, In throw of a die the occurrence of number ‘4’ will automatically exclude the occurrence of numbers 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6. * If an event contains all the outcomes then it is called certain event. Then probability of this event is unity. ie, ; P(A) = BS) =1 -» (325) * We also know that probability of any event is always less than or equal to ‘1 and non negative. ic., 0S PIA) S1 i : 2 G26) + Just now we have defined mutually exclusive events., The occurrence of such events precludes over each other. Then if A + B is the union of two mutually ‘Gichitsive events, then ! S BAKB) =, P(A) + POB)s, 1 tek vi BRA, which states that probability of-union of mutually sexélobive ‘events is equal to sum? of their independent probabilities. Equations (3.2.5) (3.2.6) and (3.2.7) are the basic properties of probability.Communication Theory 3-7 Noi: Property 1: P(A) = 1- P(A) +» (3.28) Here A denotes the complement of event A. Proof : Let the sample space be the union of two mutually exclusive events A and A . ie. S=A+A By taking probability of both sides, P(S) = P(A).+ P(A) We know that P(S) = 1 from equation 3.2.5 2 1 = P(A) + P(A) or P(A) = 1- P(A) Property 2: If M mutually exclusive events Aj, Ap....Ay have the exhaustive property. Ay tAgtinntAy = S then PUA) FP(A2) +... P(Ay) = 7 . w- 329) Proof : AytAzt..tAm = S Probability of both sides, P(A, +Aq +...Aq) = P(S) We know that P(S) = 1, > Itis certain event PAY t+Ag tiAm) = 1 From equation (3.2.7), P(Aq) + P(Ag) +. PlAm) = 1 If all events Ay, Ag, .....Ayy have same possibility of occurrence (equally likely), then P(A;) = P(Ag) = P(A3)=....-=P(Am) = xCommunication Theory 3-8 Nois Theory Property 3 : If events A and B are not mutually exclusive events, then the probability of the union of A or B is given as, P(A+B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(AB) we» (3.2.10) Here P(AB) is called the probability of events A and B both occuring simultaneously. Such event is called joint event of A and B, and the probability P(AB) is called joint probability it is defined as, PCAB) = tim Nas 211) Now N If events A and B are mutually exclusive, then the joint probability P(AB) = 0. 3.2.6 Conditional Probability Definition : Conditional probability is required in conditional occurrences of the events. Let us assume that an experiment involves two events A and B. Then Probability of B given that A has occurred is represented by P(B/A). Alternately P(A/B) represents probability of A given that B has occurred. P(B/A) and P(4/B) are called conditional probabilities. They are defined in terms of their independent and joint probabilities as follows. The conditional probability of B given A is defined as, — PAB) P(B/A) = Pay w+ G.2.12) Here P(AB) is the joint probability of A and B. Also the conditional probability of A given B is definec. as, P(AB) P(4/B) = a oe 8.2.13) The joint probability has commutative property ic., P(AB) = P(BA) .- G.214) 3.2.7 Bayes’ Rule or Bayesian Policy Let By, By, B3, ..... By be mutually exclusive events and event A occurs only when any one of By, By, B3, ..... By occurs. Then, P(B) P(A /B, paisa) = —PBDPIALB) ¥ PB )PCA/B;) + 218) a This relation is called Bayes’ rule or Bayesian Policy.Communication Theory 3-9 Noise Theory Proof : We know from statement of Bayes’ rule that By, Bz, B3 wm By exclusive events and event A occurs only when any one of By, By, By That is event A occurs jointly with any one of By, By, B3 ..... By. In other words ‘A’ occurs certainly whenever AB; or AB) or AB or ...... AB,. occurs. Therefore we can define probability of event A in terms of joint events AB, AB2, AB3, .... AB, . Le. P(A) = P(AB,) + P(AB;) + ..... + P(AB, ) (82.16) : AB,, ABo, ... AB, are mutually exclusive events. Equation 3.2.16 can be written as follows, P(A) = x PAB; ) w+ G.217) i=l We know from equation 3.2.12 that _ PAB) POB/A) = ay P(AB) = P(A)P(B/A) o» (3.2.18) Also equation 3.2.13 gives, = PAB) PAB) = a5 i P(AB) = P (8) P (A/B) w= (3.2.19) Now if B has multiple mutually exclusive events By, By, B3 .... By then equation 3.2.18 can be written as, P(AB;) = P(A) P(B)/A) (32.20) and equation 3.2.19 can be written as, P(AB;) = P(B;) P(A/B;) s+ 32.21) From equation 3.2.20 and equation 3.2.21, P(AB;) = P(A) PBA) = PCB) PCAB,) ie. P(A) P(B;/A) = P(B;) P(A/B;) POB/A) = PO eB) w+ (82.22) Let us substitute value of P(AB;) from equation 3.2.21 into equation 3.2.17. i.e., P(A) = s P(AB;) = y P(B;) P(AB;) ist islCommunication Theory 3-10 Noise Theory P(A) = y PCB; ) P(AB;) w» (3.2.23) isl Putting value of P(A) from above equation in equation 3.2.22 gives, PRB; ie et S AB:) PLA/B:) isl 3.2.24) This is the complete proof of Bayes’ Rule. The denominator of the above equation can be expanded to write, PB) PA /B) © PB,) P(A/B)) + PBz) PA/B2) + PGE “¥PE,) ALB, w+. (3.2.25) We will define priori and posteriori probabilities in next section. Bayesian policy is useful in probability calculations of binary symmetric channel. 3.2.8 Probabilities of Statistically Independent Events Definition : If A and B are the two events possible from an experiment, and| possibility of occurrence of B simply does not depend on occurrence of event A then these events are called statistically independent events. We know that from equation 3.2.12, P(AB) P(B/A) = pay w+ (3.2.26) This gives probability of B given that event A has occurred. Now since occurrence of B does not depend on event A, probability of event B is same as conditional probability P(B/A). ic., P(B/A) = P(B) o= (8.2.27) ‘Therefore from equation 3.2.26 and equation 3.2.27, P(AB) = P(A) P(B) v= (3.2.28) Also equation 3.2.13 gives probability of A given that event B has occurred, PCAB) PAB) = os 82.29) PB) ¢ ) Now since events A and B are statistically independent, probability of event A is same as conditional probability of A given that event B has occurred. P(A/B) = P(A) +» (3.2.30)Communication Theory 3-11 Noise Theory . From equation 3.2.29 and equation 3.2.30 we have, P(AB) = P(A) P(B) which is same as equation 3.2.29. Equations 32.30 and 3.227 shows that occurrence of one event gives no information about probability of occurrence of other event. tm Example 3.2.6: There are two identical boxes ‘x’ and 'y’. Box ‘x’ contains 4 white and 3 red balls and box ‘y’ contains 3 white and 7 red balls. One ball is drawn at random from the box. If the ball is white, what is the probability that it is drawn from box ‘x’ Solution : Let's call event A representing drawing of white ball. Event B, represents selecting box ‘x’ and By represents box ‘y. Then probability of selecting box ‘is P@,) = 5 *: One box is selected out of two boxes. Similarly probability of selecting box ‘y’ is P(By Selection of white ball from box ‘x’. Total possible ways to select a ball out of (4 white + 3 red = 7 ) 7 balls will be, N = 7 7 . = Genii from equation 3.2.4 7x6! = ere? Possible ways to select a white ball out of 4 white balls from box ‘x’ will be, Na = 4e ih fre tion 3.2.4 Toya ‘om equation 3.2. = 4 . Probability of selecting one white ball (event A) given that box ‘x’ (event B,) is already selected will be, = Nalé4 PAB) = Wor7 Selection of a white ball from box ‘y’, This box contains total (3 white + 7 red) 10 balls. Total possible ways to select one ball out of 10 balls will be, N = 10,Communication Theory 3-12 Noise Theory 10! (10-1) 10x9! = ger = 10 ways from equation 3.2.4 Possible ways to select a white ball out of 3 white balls from box ‘y’ will be Na = 3c, 3! Na (3-1)! 3x2! 2!x1 from equation 3.2.4 = 3 ways ss Probability of selecting one white ball (event A) given that box ‘y’ (event By) is already selected will be, Na. 3 POAB,) = 4A= 5 Probability of getting a ball from box ‘x’ (event B,) given that it is white (event A) is given as, P(By) P(A / By) P(B,)P(A /By)+P(Bz)P(A/B2) P(B,/A) from equation 3.2.25 P(B,/A) ‘> Example 3.2.7 : One box contains two black balls, A second box contains one black and one white ball. We are told that a ball was withdrawn from one of the boxes and that it turned out to be black. What is the probability that this withdrawal was made from the box that held two black balls. Solution : Let event A represents withdrawn of black ball. Event By represent selection of box containing two black balls and event By represent selection of box containing one black and one white ball.Communication Theory 3-13 Noise Theory Since selection of the boxes is equally likely, the probability of selecting any box will be, PB) = PB,)-5 Selection of black ball from first box. This box contains both balls black. The probability of getting black ball given that first box is selected will be, P(A/B,) = 1. Since both balls are black; certain event. Selection of black ball from second box : Since there is one black and one white ball in this box, the probability of getting black ball will be, 1 P(AIB:) = $ From equation 3.2.25 (Bayes’ Rule) probability that black ball is selected from box that held two black balls will be, P(By) P(A/By) P(By) P(A / By) +P(B3) P(A / Bz) Ge) ey 2 3 P(B/A) = 7 T 2 ‘a> Example 3.2.8 : Two factories produce identical clocks. The production of the first ‘factory consists of 10,000 clocks of which 100 are defective. The second factory produces 20,000 clocks of which 300 are defective. What is the probability that a particular defective clock was produced in the first factory ? Solution : Lets assume that event A represents defective clock. Event B, : Selection of first factory. Event B, : Selection of second factory. Since the factories selection have same probabilities of occurrence, ae PB) = P@B)=5 Selection of defective clock from first factory. + al o|Communication Theory 3-14 Noise Theory This factory produces 10,000 total clocks out of which 100 are defective. One clock can be selected out of 10,000 total clocks in 10,000¢, ways. ie., N = 10,000¢, 10,000! oe ek at 4 = Gow=TyT * " Example 3.2.9: A certain computer becomes inoperative, if two components A and B both fail. The probability that A fails is 0.01 and the probability that B fails is 0.005. However the probability that B fails increases by a factor of 4, if A has failed. Calculate the probability that the computer becomes inoperable. Also find the probability that A will feil if B has failed. Comment on the result of conditional probability. Solution : The given data is, P(A) = 0.01 P(B) = The probability that B fails if A has failed is P(B/A). It is given as, P(B/A) = P(B) x 4 = 0.005 x 4 = 0.02 i) Probability that computer becomes inoperable : Computer is inoperative if A and B both fail simultaneously. Hence this probability will be represented by joint probability P(AB). From equation (3.2.12) we have, P(AB) P(A) P(AB) = P(B/A) P(A) = 0.02 x 0.01 = 0.0002 ii) Pest that A fails if B has failed : ‘This probability is P(A/B). From equation (3.2.13) we have, _ P(AB) _ 0.0002 PAB) = Sa 005 P(B/A) = = 0.04 im) Example 3.2.10 : A biased coin is loaded such that pun =1F8, with 0 < \e\< 1. Show that probability of a match in two independent tosses will be greater than 5 Solution : Given data is, PU) = = Hence, PIT) ie 1 , R & \ dee zaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 3-18 Noise Theory Adding above joint probabilities, P(A By) + P(A2B,) + P(A 3By) + P(AgB)) = P(Ax)- P(By) + P(A2)- PB) +P(A 3)- (By) + P(Ag)- PBy) = [P(A 1) + PA2) + PA 5) + Ag)! PB) Here P(A;) + P(A2) + P(A3) + P(Ay) = 1. Hence above equation can be written as, P(By) = PLA;By) + P(A2B,) + (A3By) + P(AGBy) Similarly other probabilities can be expressed as, P(Bz) = P(A;B3) + P(A2B2) + P(A3B2) + P(AgB2) P(B3) = P(A;B3)+P(A2B3)+P(A3B3) + P(AgB3) Putting values in above equations, P(B,) = 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.05 + 0.11 = 0.31 PB) = 0.08 + 0.03 + 0.12 + 0.04 = 0.27 P(B3) = 0.13 + 0.09 + 0.14 + 0.06 = 0.42 timp Example 3.212: An honest wheel of chance is divided into three equal segments coloured green (G), red (R) and yellow (Y). The wheel is spinned twice and the outcome in the form of resulting colour sequence. GR, RG, ... etc. is taken. If A is the event “neither colour is yellow" and B is the event “Matching colours”, calculate P(A), P(B), P(AB) and P(A + B). Solution : The sample space for the experiment will consist of 9 outcomes as follows : S = {GR, GY, RG, RY, YG, YR, GG, RR, YY} All the above outcomes are mutually exclusive and they are equally likely. Hence their probability will be, , i=1,2,..9 P(A;) = + Thus each event has the probability of 5. i) To find the probability that neither colour is yellow i.e. P(A) Neither colour is yellow consists of following subspace. A = {GR, RG, GG, RR} a 2 od Hence P(A) = P(GR) + P(RG) + P(GG) + P(RR) = 5th 4545 .e, 2 9Communication Theory 3-19 Noise Theory ii) To find the probability of getting matching colours Matching colours consists of following subspace ie., B = {GG, YY, RR} i alglgbetet Hence P(B) = P(GG) + PY) + PIRR) = 545457 575 iii) To determine P(AB), i.e. neither yellow and matching colours Intersection of sample space A and B will be, AB = {GG, RR} Hence P(AB) = PIG) + PIRR) = 3+ iv) To determine P(A+B), i.e. neither yellow or matching colours From equation (3.2.10) we have, P(A +B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(AB) = 3 S26 9*9-979 im Example 3.2.13 : An experiment consists of observing the sum of the numbers showing up when two dice are thrown. Events A = (sum = 7}, B = {8 < sum S 11}, C = (10 < sum). Draw the Venn diagram and find the probabilities P(A), P(B), P(C), P(A NX B), PAC), P(AU B), PAU C), BOC). Solution : Sample space : When two dice are thrown, they take on values from 1 to 6. Hence, the sum of the outcomes from dice will be 2 to 12. This can occur in 36 combinations. The sample space and Venn diagrams for events A, B and C are as shown below : Fig. 3.2.1 Sample space and Venn diagrams for events A, B and C To obtain P(A) A " {sum = 7} (16 25 34 43 52 6,1) There are total 6 outcomes that given sum = 7. 0Communication Theory 3-20 Noise Theory P(A) Blo ole To obtain P(B) A = {8 Example 3.2.15: The outcome of an experiment is an integer whose value is equally likely to be any integer in the range 1 <1 < 12. Let ‘A’ be the event that I is odd, let 'B’ be the event that I is divisible by 3 and let ’C’ be the event that | is divisible by 4. Find the probabilities of the events A, B,C, AB, AC and BC. | Solution : S = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12} A = {1,3,5,7,9, 11} B = 3, 6,9, 12} C = (4,8, 12} Ble Bio ele nieCommunication Theory 3-22 Noise Theory 31 PC) = 5 To obtain P(AB) or P(A. B) ANB = {3,9} 201 PUB) = 35> To obtain P(AC) or P(A ©) (AnO = imal P(AC) = Dt 0 To obtain P(BC) or P(B OC) BNC = {12} tl P(BC) = DR Mum) Example 3.2.16 : A student arrives late for a class 30 % of the times. Class meets 5 times a week. Then find : i) Probability of student being late for at least three classes in a given week. ii) Probability of student being late for two classes in a given week. iii) Probability of student will not late at all during a given week. Solution : i) P(late for at least 3 classes) Here P = 3 and n = 5. Then, P(late for atleast 3) = P(late > 3) P(3) + P(A) + P(5) P(X =k) = ne, p* (1—-p)""*, Here “X’ means ‘late’ P(X = 3) = Sen @ 3) (a.7)e-3 -& en 3)3.(0.7) = 0.1323 Similarly, P(X = 4) = 5c, (03)4 (07)5~4 1 oF and P(X =5) = Bes (03) (07)5-5 (0.3)4 (0.7) = 0.02835 -& eon on" = 0.00243Communication Theory 3-23 Noise Theory 2. P(late for at least 3) = 0.1323 + 0.02835 + 0.00243 = 0.16308 ii) P(late for two classes) P(late = 2) = Bea (aay? cor? ~ EE ao (07)3 = 0.3087 iii) P(Not late for any day) This means student comes late for ‘0’ days. P(Note late) = 5¢q (03)° (07)5-8 = eau” = 0.16807 wm} Example 3.2.17 : An information source produces 0 and 1 with probabilities 0.3 and O.7 respectively. The output of the source is transmitted via a channel that has a probability of error (turning a 1 into 0 or a 0 into 1) is equal to 0.2. i) What is the probability that at output 1 is observed ? ii) What is the probability that a 1 wns the output of source if at the output of channel @ 1 is observed ? Solution : Let ‘0’ be represented by Ag and 'I' be represented by A, at the input. Similarly let By and By represent ‘0' and ‘1' at the output. Then we have, P(Ag) = 03, P(Az) = 0.7 P(BolA1) = P(B:140) = 0.2 i) To obtain the probability of getting 1 at output : This is the case of binary communication channel shown in Fig. 3.22 For this channel we can write, P(B)) = P(By|A1) P(A7) + P(Bi|Ao) P(Ao) Here P(B;|Ag) = 0.2 Ato 28 PIA) PBA) PIB,) Fig. 3.2.2 Binary channel Now P(B;|Az) can be obtained by following relation, P(B1141) +P(BolAr) = 1 P(By{Az) = 1-P(Bg|A1) =1-02 = 0.8 aCommunication Theory 3-24 Noise Theory Hence, P(B]) = 08x07 +0.2x0.3 = 0.62 This is the probability of getting 1 at output. li) To obtain P(B,|A;) : This is already obtained, ie. P(B,|A,) = 08. ‘a> Example 3.2.18: A box contains red and blue balls. When two balls are drawn without replacement, the probability that both are red is 1/3. Find the smallest number of balls in the box. Solution : Let there be minimum of 'n' number of balls. Two balls can be selected from ‘n' balls in nc, ways. ie, n(n—-1)(n—-2)! (1-2) !2x1 = " Let the event ‘A’ indicates that both balls are red. Let there be 1(,9;) balls in the box. Hence two balls can be selected from 1(,,,) balls in "Ca ways. ie., tat) Pret (tt ~1) Cit 2)! Na = "ed = _§_s=z A © Crea —2) 121 (req = 2) 1 2x1 = Tred (Mred 1) Probability of getting both balls red is i ie, pa) = NA ad Nred (red ~1) . -3 Tred red =7) 1 n(n 3 The minimum number of red balls can be 2. Hence ttreq = 2. Then above equation will be, 2(2-1) n(n=1) a wn n2—n =Communication Theory 3-25 n n-6 = (n-3)(n+2) = 0 n= 3 of n=-2 Since n = ~ 2 is not possible, n = 3. ‘Thus the box contains minimum 3 balls. Unsolved Examples | 1. Three honest coins are tossed simultaneously and the resulting sequence of heads and tails is observed. Let A be the event in which “first two tosses match”. Let B be the event representing “exactly to Reds”. Find ont PA), PAB), BUA) and PCA). (Ans, : PUA) = 3, PB) : 2, P(BIA) = + and P(AIB) = 4] 8 4 3 2. A long binary message contains 1428 binary 1's and 2668 binary 0's. Whai is the probability of obtaining binary 1 in any received bit? [Ans, : P(A = 1) = 0.5486) 3. Prove that P(A + B + C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) - P(AB) ~ P(AC) — P(BC) + P(ABC) (Hint : Put B + C= Die P(A + B + C) = P(A + D) this can be written as, P(A + D) = P(A) + P(D) ~ P(AD)] 3.3 Random Variables Definition : A function which takes on any value from the sample space and its| range is some set of real numbers is called a random variable of the experiment. * A random variable is not random since it takes values from well defined sample space. It is not variable since it has fixed value when it occurs ! «If the outcome of the experiment is the sample point ‘s’, then the random variable is represented as X(s) or simply X. * Example : For example if we tossed a coin, the possible outcomes are Head (H) and Tail (T). Therefore the sample space $ contains two sample points; ie., = {HT} If we define the function X such that x= { 1 when $=H + 3.3.1) -1 when S=T e22Communication Theory 3-26 Noise Theory Then, X= (-11). Consider another experiment of throwing a die. The sample space for this experiment consists of six possible outcomes i.e., S = (1,2,3,4,5,6} If we define a random variable as X = S?; then, X = {1,4,9, 16, 25, 36} w+ (3.3.2) Next we will discuss the two types of random variables ; 1) Discrete random variables and 2) Continuous random variables. 3.3.1 Discrete Random Variables Definition : The random variable X is a discrete random variable if X can take on only finite number of values in any finite observation interval. Thus the discrete random variable has countable number of distinct values. For example, X = (1,4,9, 16, 25, 36} is discrete random variable. 3.3.2 Continuous Random Variables There are many physical systems (experiments or trials) that generate continuous outputs (outcomes). Such systems generate infinite number of outputs (outcomes) within the finite period. Continuous random variables can be used to define the outputs of such systems. Definition : If the random variable ‘X’ takes on any value in a whole observation interval, X is called a continuous random variable. Example : The noise voltage generated by an electronic amplifier has a continuous amplitude. Therefore sample space S$ of the noise voltage amplitudes is continuous. Therefore the random variable X has continuous range of values. The random variable takes uncountable number of possible values. 3.3.3 Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) Cumulative Distribution Function provides probabilistic description of a random variable. Definition : The Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) of a random variable ‘X’ jis the probability that a random variable ‘X’ takes a value less than or equal to x.Communication Theory 3-27 Noise Theory Here x is the dummy variable. Let us consider the probability of the event X x9. Event Event Event Xsx Xy x}. The probability of all these events will be, PX S$ xy) + Plxy xg) = 1 + 83.7) “: x varies from — « to + and probabilities of above defined mutually exclusive events covers the complete range (- =: < x < =) of x. Summation of probabilities of all the events covering complete range (- « < x <=) will be equal to 1. By definition of CDF given by equation (33.3) we have PIXSx1) = Rey) +++ 83.8) Now P(X > xg) + P(X Sx2) = 1 1 B39) This is because X > x, X S xp covers the complete range if (~ © < x, < =). Therefore summation of probabilities of these events (also called complementary events) is equal to 1. By definition of CDF we can write equation (3.3.9) as, P(X > x2) + x(x) = 1 since P(X $x) = Fy(x2) or P(X > x9) = 1- F(x) s+ (8.3.10) Putting the values of P(X < x;) from equation (3.3.8) and P(X > x2) from equation (3.3.10) in equation (3.3.7), we have, F(x) + Plays X Sx) +1—- F(x) = 1 PCy , Since P(x, < X < x2) is the probability function, it will be non negative. ie. P(x) 0 We have from equation (3.3.11), Flea) — Flay) = Pls: 0, 3.11) We can write equation 3.3.12 as, Fx(x2) - Ae(e1) > 0 for x2 > x1 +++ 83.13) or Fx(t2) > Fx) for xg > xy . B3.14) or Fx(q) S Fx(xq) for x, $x, «+ 3.3.15) Thus as x2 > x1 ; Fy(x2) > Fx(e;) ie. F(x) goes on increasing as variable x goes on increasing. Therefore the name cumulative is given.Communication Theory 3-29 Noise Theory 3.3.3.2 Calculation of CDF for Discrete Random Variables We know that if ‘X’ is discrete random variable it takes on values at discrete points. The Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) given by equation (3.3.3) as, Fx) = P(X Sx) Now if X is discrete random variable, then we may represent x in terms of Xq, Xp, X3, -+---2qs Here random variable takes on values x1, x2, 3, .--..%q- Fig. 3.3.2 shows how random variable X assigns these values to outcomes of an experiment. SX S%q XK MEM x ——x:-0 Xe Fig. 3.3.2 Mapping of outcomes of discrete events (x1, Xo, X3, ++.--Xn} along the line Let us find the CDF for this Discrete random variable. By definition of CDF given by equation (3.3.3) we have, Fez) = P(XS3) ‘There are no events (possible outcomes) below X < x1. P(X x, includes all possible events CDF for x > x, will be equal to 1. F(x) = 1 For x > X, s+ B.3.18) Combining equation (3.3.16), equation (3.3.17) and equation (33.18) we can write CDF for complete range of x as, 0 for x%qCommunication Theory 3-30 Noise Theory From this equation it is clear that CDF of a random variable at certain event is equal to summation of probabilities of random variable upto that event. As x goes from — = to =, Fx(x) looks like a staircase with upward steps of height P(X = x)) at each x = 3;. The CDF remains constant between the two events (steps) map Example 3.3.1: A three digit message is transmitted over a noisy channel having a probability of error as P(E) = 2 per digit. Find out the corresponding CDF. Solution : The probability of error is PIE) = Z per digit Probability of the correct digit is, PC) = 1-PCE) 3 ~ 12223 sc = 1-3 = 5 per digit There are total eight patterns in the sample space as shown below. Let ‘C’ denote correct digit, and ‘E’ denote error digit. The sample space for 3 digits will be, S$ = {CCC, CCE, CEC, CEE, ECC, ECE, EEC, EEE} +++(3.3.20) Now let a random variable X denote the number of errors in the received message. Then the four possible values of random variable will be, X = {no error, one digit in error, two digits in error, all digits in error} (3.3.21) This is discréte random variable and assigns any one value (out of four) to the events in the sample space given by equation (3.3.20.) Now let us have a dummy variable x;, i = 0, 1, 2, 3 to denote discrete values of random variable X. From equation (3.3.19) the CDF for discrete random variables is given as, F(z) = 0 for x x3 so (8.3.22) Here we have taken initial value of x as xp instead of x1. But it does not matter because it is just the notation we have given. Let us expand. equation (3.3.22) as follows, Fy) = AX = x9) + P(X = xy) + PX = x») + PK = x5) ... B32) Now we have to calculate the probab jes in the above equation.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 3-52 Noise Theory The quantity inside integration is the product of f,(x) and (x- my )?. Because of this product, an effective width of the probability density function fx(x) is shifted across mean m,. im Example 3.39: PDF of @ continuous random variable is said to have Laplace distribution given by fx) = fel pc ecx 0 X2() £ AX(HX(t+ 4+ X2+0) 20 Le. F2XKOXt+0) < X24X2%t+0) Let us take expected value of above equation, E(¥ 2X@QX¢+D] < E[X2()+X2(t+7)] ie. F2 EX()X(E++)] < EIX?]+ EIX2¢+ 0] Here E[X?2(] = Rx (0) and EIX7¢+ 9] = Rx(. Also E [X(t) X(t + 1] = Rx(a). Then above equation will be, F2Rx(t) S Rx(Q+Rx( ie. IRx()|_< Rx@ Thus maximum value of autocorrelation function is (0).Communication Theory 3-86 Noise Theory 3.6.5 Crosscorreiation Functions Let there be two random processes X(i) and Y(t). Let their autocorrelation functions be Ry(t,u) and Ry(t,u). And their crosscorrelation functions be defined as, Ryy(t,w) = EIX(®Y(u))and w+ (3.6.9) Ryx(t) = ELY®X@)] and +» (3.6.10) The above autocorrelation and crosscorrelation functions can be expressed in the matrix form as follows : Rx Ryy Ritu) = +(3.6.11) i ate Ry asl Gent) This matrix is called correlaton matrix. For the stationary process, the correlation is the function of only time difference. Hence let t=t—u be the time difference. Then above matrix will be, Ry(t) Ryy 7) Ri tae © [xe RO Crosscorrelation have symmetry property ie, Ryy() = Ryx() 3.6.13) mp ~Example 3.6.1: Show that the random process X(t) = Acos(@,t+8) is wide sense stationary. Here @ is uniformly distributed in the range —m to 7. +-(3.6.12) Solution: Here the phase 0 is uniformly distributed random variable, Its pdf can be given as, 1 fo = [2g Pr-msOsa 0 elsethere Definition of Wide Sense Stationary (or Weakly Stationary Process) The process may not be stationary in strict sense, still the mean and autocorrelation funcitons are independent of shift of time origin. Such process is called wide sense stationary process. All processes in practice are non stationary because every process has some start and end. This means statistics of such process are dependent on time. A truly stationary process should start at f = - and should not stop till t = =. Such type of process is not possible practically. The process may appear stationary over a certain period of time. Then this will be wide sense stationary process.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 3-94 Noise Theory 3.9.1.3 Industrial Noise Industrial noise is produced by automotive ignition systems, electric motors and generator brush contacts. An electrical equipment when abruptly switched ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’ produces ‘transients’ that create noise. Fluorescent light also produce noise. Industrial noise, being man made noise, can be minimised by controlling it. However, best way to control it is to use high powered signals for transmission which will increase signal level at the receiving point, making it far above the noise level. 3.9.2 Internal Noise So far, we have discussed external noise sources. The noise is generated internally in the circuit. Electronic components such as resistors, diodes and transistors produce noise. Although this is a low level noise, it can interfere with weak signal. The internal noise is found to obey certain laws, and hence it is possible to design the equipment in which the effects uf noise are minimized. The noise power developed across a resistor is directly proportional to the temperature. A large value resistor at room temperature can have, across its terminals, the noise voltage of the order of several microvolts. It is comparable, many times, to many weak RF signals. Some RF signals may have an amplitude less than that of noise, and thus these signals will be totally lost in the noise. The internal noise can be classified into following groups : 1. Thermal noise 2. Shot noise 3. Partition noise 4. Low frequency or flicker noise 5. High frequency or transit time noise Let us discuss these types of intemal noise in detail. 3.9.2.1 Thermal or Thermal Agitation or Johnson Noise The electrons in a conductor possess varying amounts of energy by virtue of temperature of conductor. The small fluctuation in energy are sufficient to produce small noise voltages in the conductor. These random fluctuations produced by the thermal agitation of the electrons are called the thermal, or thermal agitation or Johnson (after its discovery) noise. The average noise power is proportional to bandwidth and absolute temperature of the conductor. The equation relating average noise power to temperature and bandwidth is, PB, = kTB watt w= G91) where P, = Average noise power, T = Temperature of conductor (resistor), °K,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 3-407 Noise Theory But noise power at input, Py; = KIB Hence, noise power at output is Pyo = FGKIB 3.11.1 Noise Figure If the noise factor is expressed in decibel, it is known as “Noise Figure” for the circuit. Thus Noise figure = 10 log IF] -- @.11.4) If R, = 0, then F = 1, and Noise figure = 10 log (1) = 0 dB For improvement of the noise figure of a receiver the active devices used in the radio receiver should have low noise. In this respect, diodes and FETs are more suitable. Also to reduce the thermal noise a receiver is operated at low temperatures. This principle is followed in the receivers used in the satellite communications. We have seen that the noise power at output is P,o = FGKTB ; where G = Power gain. Then total noise power at the input is pas vie Total Py; = fe = FKTB Out of this, source contributes KTB and hence the amplifier contributes noise power, Pra, given by, Pyq = Total P,; - P, due to source Se Pig = FKTB — kTB = (F-1) kTB. The fraction of total available noise contributed by the amplifier = eum FE 7 3.11.2 Cascade Connection of Amplifiers (Friis's Formula) Consider two amplifiers connected in cascade. For one amplifier, the power gain is G, and its noise factor is Fy; while the corresponding figures for the other amplifier are Gp and Fp, respectively. This is shown in the Fig. 3.11.1.Communication Theory 3-109 Noise Theory The overall noise figure is, Noise figure = 10 log [F] = 10 log [1.07394] 10.443 dB University Question Q.1 Derive the Frits formula. [NovJ/Dec.-2008, 10 Marks} Ans. : Refer section 3.11.2. 3.12 Noise Temperature Definition : The available noise power is directly proportional to temperature and it is independent of value of resistance. This power specified in terms of temperatures is called as noise temperature. This representation is more convenient at microwave frequencies in connection with the noise at the receiver input. We have seen that noise power due to amplifier, having a noise factor F, is Py, = (F - 1) KTB. If T, represents equivalent noise temperature representing noise power, then Pha = KUeB, as per definition. Equating, KIB = (F -1) KTB “ Te = (F-UT +. (3.12.1) This indicates that equivalent noise temperature T, is just an alternative way of representing noise factor. Using Friis’ formula, equivalent noise temperature of overall circuit having number of amplifiers connected in cascade, can be found as follows : Friiss’ formula is 2 Ro FeRht Gy Subtract 1 from both sides of this equation. Fy-1 F3~1 F-1 = R-1+4—+ A G "6, G If Ty is overall equivalent noise temperature of the cascade, while T,1,Tyz , »-- are corresponding values for each amplifier in cascade, then from equation (3.12.1). We can write above equation as,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 3-114 Noise Theory Let us define autocorrelation function of white noise as, R(t) = Ry (2) and we know that S(f)=5,, (f) : Ry(® = IFT {S.(f} No IFT et No Mo acy 3.13.3) Thus the autocorrelation function of a white noise is delta function weighed by a factor x at t=0. This is shown in Fig. 3.13.1 (b). Since Ryy(t) is zero at all times except at origin any two samples of white noise are totally uncorrelated. As previously stated, the white noise has a Gaussian distribution. Hence any two samples of white noise are also statistically independent. Thus white noise samples are statistically independent as well as uncorrelated. Thus the white noise is totally random. The noise analysis of the communication system uses white noise as the reference. Thus the white noise is used as the tool for noise analysis just like other mathematical tools. Theory Question 1. Define white gaussian noise and explain its power spectral density function. What are the other characteristics of this noise ? 3.14 Frequency Domain Representation of Noise In communication systems filters are mainly described by their frequency response. Therefore input/output signals are also represented in frequency domain. This frequency domain representation of signals and systems make the analysis simple. We know that noise interferes with the signals in communication systems degrades the performance. Hence such performance analysis of systems in presence of noise becomes very important. Therefore it is convenient to represent noise in frequency domain. We know that signals can be represented by Fourier series and Fourier transforms in frequency domain. Consider a particular sample function of noise as shown in Fig. 3.14.1 (a). From this sample function select an interval of duration T (ie. -T/2 to + T/2) as shown in the figure.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 4-17 Performance of CW Modulation Systems 4.3 FM Receivers Fig. 4.3.1 shows the block diagram of FM receiver. This FM receiver is also superheterodyne type. It has limiter and discriminator as the different stages compared to AM superheterodyne receiver. The amplitude limiter following the IF section removers the amplitude variations in the signal. These amplitude variations normally result from noise. Bacoband]_, Output LPF ‘signa? Noisy FM signal Fig. 4.3.4 Block diagram of FM superheterodyne receiver The discriminator produces hybrid modulated wave in which both the amplitude and frequency vary according to message signal. The envelope detector inside the discriminator then obtains the message signal according to amplitude variations. The baseband low pass filter has the bandwidth such that it passes only the message signal and all other out of band noise components are attenuated. 4.3.1 FM Receiver Model To evaluate the noise performance of FM receiver, the model shown in Fig. 4.3.2 can be used. The FM signal at the input is s(t). It has carrier frequency f, and bandwidth By. w(t) is Gaussian noise of zero mean and power spectral density of Xe st) ) ra w(t) vt) Output signal Fig. 4.3.2 FM receiver modol Hie) Fig. 4.3.3 shows the ideal IF filter characteristic As shown in this characteristics, the FM signal has the frequency range of f. +55. In the analysis we will assume that IF filter has ideal bandpass characteristic. The bandwidth By is small compared to the midband frequency f;. Hence we can represent Fig. 4.3.3 IF filter characteristic output filtered noise by narrowband noise. Frequencyaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 4-28 Performance of CW Modulation Systems. Equation 4.7.4 can be written as, rig) = Flea) + 7 OMle0s2 fo t~ jsin 2m ft = En(t) cos? fo t+ fit) sin 2 fo] +i 51 0827 fo tn) sin 2a fo 4] Equating real and imaginary parts of above equation with equation 4.7.5, n.()=n(t)cos2n fo t+ A(t) sin 2n fy ‘| g(t) = f(t) cos2n fo t—n(t) sin 21 fo t| G78) Above equation gives relationships between quadrature components of noise. University Questions Q4—_ Define Hilbert transform with a suitable example. [May/June-2007, 6 Marks] Ans. : Refer section 4.7. 4.8 Comparison of Performance of AM and FM Systems Table 4.8.1 lists the comparison of noise performance of AM and FM systems. ‘Sr. Parameter AM envelope AM DSBSC or SSB FM No. detection (Nonlinear)| linear detection +. | (Swe), and (SWF), (sna), = (Snr), = (SR), |(SwR), = $m2(SNR), mm te Frag (SNR), = ‘my, is modulation index YONA). form, =1 img= ken b®. modulation index 2. Bandwidth 8; 2w 2w (psBsc) BW form, = 2 w (ssasc) 46W for my = 5 3. Threshold effect Present Absent Present 4._[_ Noise performance Poor Better Good Table 4.8.1 Noise performance of AM and FM Comments, © From above table figure of merit for AM is, _ (GNR)o 1 YAM = GNR). ~ 3aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 4-32 Performance of CW Modulation Systems (SNR)p _ So/No (SNR), SiJN; Figure of merit = Q.7 What is the purpose of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM ? INov/Dec.-2006, May/June-2007] Ans, : The psd of noise at the output of FM receiver usually increases rapidly at high frequencies but the psd of message signal falls off at higher frequencies. This means the message signal doesnot utilize the frequency band in efficient manner. Such more efficient use of frequency band and improved noise performance can be obtained with the help of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM. Q.8 — What are extended threshold demodulators ? [Nov/Dec.-2006] Ans. : Threshold extension is also called threshold reduction. It is achieved with the help of FMFB demodulator. Refer answer of Q.1 for working of such demodulators. Q.9 What is threshold effect with respect to noise ? [May/fune-2007} Ans. : When the carrier to noise ratio reduces below certain value, the message information is lost. The performance of the envelope detector deteriorates rapidly and it has no proportion with carrier to noise ratio. This is called threshold effect. Q.10 Define pre-emphasis and de-emphasis. {Nov/Dec-2007] Ans. : Pre-emphasis : It artificially emphasizes the high frequency components before modulation. This equalizes the low frequency and high frequency portions of the psd and complete band is occupied. De-emphasis : This circuit attenuates the high frequency components. The attenuation characteristic is exactly opposite to that of pre-emphasis circuit. De-emphasis restores the power distribution of the original signal. The signal to noise ratio is improved because of pre-emphasis and De-emphasis circuits. Q.11 Write the expression of the SNR for a synchronous detector. Ans. : DSB - SC receiver uses synchronous detection. Its signal to noise ratio is given as, Qo00aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 5-2 Information Theory 5.2 Discrete Messages and Information Content The information source generates the output which is random in nature. The source can be characterized interms of its statistical properties, but its exact output cannot be predicted. If the source output is known exactly in advance, then there is no need to transmit it. The information source can be discrete or analog. 5.2.1 Discrete Information Source The information source is said to be discrete if it emits any one symbol from the finite number of symbols. For example, the discrete source which emits a sequence of letters selected from the finite alphabet. Consider the binary source which emits a binary sequence 100101110.... etc. Here the alphabet or symbol is either 1 or 0. But the occurrence of 1 or 0 is not known in advance. Hence this is the discrete information source. To prepare the mathematical model of discrete information source, let us consider that the source generate ‘L’ number of set of alphabets : (t1/x2/x3.....%z} Thus the information source generate any one alphabet from this set. Let us further consider that each letter in the alphabet (x1,x2,x3.....x1) has the probability of occurrence as px- That is the probability of occurrence of random output (which can be represented by random variable “X’) ‘x;’ is given as, pe = P(X=x), SESE woe (6.2.1) Here p;, is the probability of occurrence of random output X=x;. And the summation of probabilities of all letters (from x; to x,) is equal to unity ie, L Yo = 1 w= (6.2.2) ket The above equation and equation 5.2.1 represent the discrete information source. 5.2.2, Discrete Memoryless Source A source whose individual output letters are statistically independent is called disctete memoryless source. In such source, the current letter is statistically independent from all past and future outputs. 5.2.3 Stationary Source If the output of the source is statistically dependent on past and future outputs, then it is called stationary source. For example a source which generates English text is stationary in nature. The joint probabilities for any arbitrary length sequence generated from the stationary source are identical even if the time origin is shifted.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 5-7 Information Theory Solution : The definition of amount is, 1 I, = | ‘td k 108 2 Px The individual amounts carried by messages m, and mz are, I, = logy (3) and I, =logy (4) ws (6.37) Pi. Pa Here p; is probability of message m, and p> is probability of message m . Since messages m, andm are independent, the probability of composite message is p p- Therefore information carried compositely due to m, andmy is, Iy2 = toga (54) By definition ‘tell log (4) +1082 (4) since log [AB]=log.A + log B Pa P2. " 5 co XN —S al w From equation 5.3.7 we can write RHS of above equation as, z= +h = 63.8) 5.3.2 Physical Interpretation of Amount of Information We know that Pune University declares large number of results. Suppose that you received the following messages - 1. Result is declared today 2. Result is declared today 3, Result is declared today 4. Electronics and E & Tc results are declared today. When you receive first three messages, you will say “Oh ! what is new ?, It’s job of University to declare results” and you will forget it. Thus these three messages are very common. Since large number of examinations are conducted, every day results are declared by university. Therefore such message give very less information to you. But when you receive last i.e. 4!" message, you will forget every thing and go to collect the result. Thus the amount of information received by 4!" message is very large. And 4 message can occur only two times in a year since results are declared semesterwise for every branch. This shows that probability of occurrence of 4!* message is very small but amount of information received is great.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 5-41 Information Theory Consider that the source generates five messages mg,1,....m4. The probabilities of these messages are as shown in 24 column of Table 5.8.3. 1. The messages are arranged according to their decreasing probabilities. For example m3 and m4 have lowest probabilities and hence they are put at the bottom in column of stage-I. The two messages of lowest probabilities are assigned binary ‘0’ and ‘1’. The two lowest probabilities in stage-I are added. Observe that the sum of two probabilities is 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2. The sum of probabilities in stageI is placed in stageII such that the probabilities are in descending order. Observe that 0.2 is placed last in stage-II. 5. Now the last two probabilities are assigned ‘0’ to ‘1’ and they are added. Thus the sum of last two probabilities in stage-II is 0.2 + 0.2 = 0.4. 6. The sum of last two probabilities (ie. 0.4) is placed in stage-III such that the probabilities are in descending order. Again ‘0’ and ‘I’ is assigned to the last two probabilities. 7. Similarly the values in stage-IV are obtained. Since there are only two values in stage-IV, these two values are assigned digits 0 and 1 and no further repetition is required. Now let us see how the codewords for messages are obtained. ep » To obtain codeword for message mg : The Table 5.8.3 is reproduced in Table 5.8.4 for explanation. The sequence of 0 and 1 are traced as shown in Table 5.8.4. The tracing is started from stage-I. The dotted line (.......) shows the path of tracing. Observe that the tracing is in the direction of arrows. In stage-I digit ‘1’ is traced. In stage-Il digit ‘1' is traced. In stage-III digit ‘0’ is traced. In stage-IV digit ‘0’ is traced. Thus the traced sequence is 1100. We get the codeword for the message by reading this sequence from LSB to MSB, ie. 0011. Thus the codeword for my is 0011. To obtain codeword for my : The center line shows (--- --- - ) the tracing path for message mg. The tracing is started from stage-I. No binary digits are occurred in stage-I, II and HI. Only digit ‘1’ is occurred in stage-IV in the path of tracing. Hence codeword for message mig is 1. Thus single digit is assigned to mp since its probability is highest.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Communication Theory 5-45 Information Theory probabilities to calculate average number of binary digits (binits) per message. It is calculated as follows : Average number of binary _ s (recone *) «(ee es) digits per message message in codeword w (0.4.x 1) +(0.2x 2) + (02x 3) +(01x 4) +(01x 4) 2.2 binary digits / message w» 689) ‘Thus it is clear from equation 5.8.8 and equation 5.8.9 that Huffman coding assigns binary digits to each message such that Average number of binary digits per message are nearly equal to average bits of information per message (ie. H). This means because of Huffman coding one binary digit carries almost one bit of information, which is the maximum information that can be conveyed by one digit. Disadvantages of Huffman coding : 1) It requires probabilities of the source symbols. 2) It assigns variable length codes to symbols, hence it is not suitable for synchronous transmission. 3) Inter character dependencies are not considered. Hence compression is less. 5.8.4 Lempel - Ziv (LZ) Coding Principle : The source data stream is parsed into segments that are the shortest subsequences not occurred previously. These shortest subsequences are encoded adaptively. Algorithm : The LZ algorithm can be ex ‘ained with the help of an example as follows : Step 1: Data stream and initial subsequences Let the data stream to be encoded is, 000101110010100101 Let the initial shortest subsequences stored be ‘0’ and 'I' in the code book. Step 2: To obtain first shortest subsequence from given data In the given data observe that first symbol is ‘0’ which is already stored as initial shortest subsequence in the code book. In other words ‘0’ is occurred previously hence let us take first and second symbols of the given data stream ie 00 as the shortest subsequence. Datastream:0 001011100101001021 Se Shortest subsequence: 0 0 Fig. 5.8.4Communication Theory 5-46 information Theory Step 3 : Encoding the shortest subsequence The code book now consists of three entries 0, 1 and 00 which are first three subsequence entries ic., Numerical positions in code book} = 1 2 3 ‘Subsequences in code book o 1 00 t Innovation symbol The last symbol of each subsequence in the code book is called innovations symbol. In the above table ‘0’ is an innovation symbol for 3°! subsequence 00. This innovations symbol distinguishes the subsequence from all previous subsequences stored in the code book. Following Figure 5.8.5 shows encoding of subsequence 00. Numerical location with binary equivalent 1 inicode daok p—— Preceding bit is Subsequence >) 00 0’ for subsequence 00 AY | 1novations syrn Encoded block To] o—— Innovations symbol eo is written at LSB. ‘This is the binary location of preceding bits of subsequence in code book. Fig. 5.8.5 LZ Coding «The first row indicates numerical location of subsequence in the code book. The second row indicates binary equivalent of these locations. The third row indicates subsequences. Thus ‘0’ is stored at 1 (001), ‘I’ is stored at 2 (010) and ‘00’ is stored at 3 (011). * For third subsequence '00' innovations symbol is ‘0’. It is written at LSB of encoded block. The preceding bits of encoded block indicate the binary address of the location where preceding bits of innovations symbol are stored. In this case preceding bit is ‘0’ and it is stored at location 001. Hence the encoded block for subsequence ‘00’ is 0010.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for 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viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CLC cise} Review of spectral characteristics of periodic and non periodic signals: Generation ancl demodulation of AM, DSBSC, SSB and VSB signals; Comparson of amplitude modulation systems: Frequency translation: FDM: Nee ee ce Ces iy oS ues ae eR ta ee rene er ee eee a Cece oe ea Re te pee el nent een ee oe ‘Thermal noise and White noise; Narrow band noise; Noise temperature, Noise figure. Oe rome cen Ore terra Supetheterodyne radio receiver and its characteratics. SNR. Noise in DSBSC systems using coherent CS ee Ce ee eee eee eee pete tg ene eet cet er Com ts Discrete messages and information content, Concept of amount of information, Average information, Entropy, Information rate, Source coding to increase average information per bit, Shannon-Fano coding, Huffman coding, Lempel-Ziv (LZ) coding, Shannon's theorem, Channel capacity, Bendwidth S/N trade off Mutual information and Channel capacity, Rate distortion theory: Lossy source coding, First Edition : 2010 Price INR 230/- ISBN 978-81-8431-763-3 nh Technical Publications Pune PaaS uO Ara MT ae ee a RC See) Zeca ues Ona eel etal Visit us at : www.vtubooks.com