POLARIZATION

Only transverse waves may become polarized.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE: LIGHT

EM waves are periodic changes of
electric and magnetic fields in space and
time.

EM waves is transverse waves.

Techniques to obtained Polarised Light

1.Polarisation by Reflection
2.Polarisation by Refraction
3.Polarisation by Double Refraction
4.Polarisation by Scattering

Brewsters Law
The tangent of the angle of polarization is numerically equal to
the refractive index of the medium.

tan i p
i

By Snells Law

sin i p
sin r

Comparing these two equations

sin i p
cosi p

sin i p
sin r

sin r cos i p

sin r sin(90 i p )
o

r i p 90o

XOY 90o
The maximum polarization (vibration in one plane only) of a ray
of light may be achieved by letting the ray fall on a surface of a
transparent medium in such a way that the refracted ray makes
an angle of 90 with the reflected ray

Malus Law
When a completely plane polarized light is incident on an
analyzer, the intensity of the emergent light varies as the
square of the cosine of the angle between the planes of
transmission of the analyzer and the polarizer.

The angle between the transmission axis of the analyzer and

the polarizer is . Eo is the amplitude of the electric vector
transmitted by the polarizer.
Intensity, Io of the light incident on the analyzer is

Io E

2
o

The electric field vector E0 can be resolved into two rectangular

components i.e E0 cos and E0 sin.
The analyzer will transmit only the component ( i.e E0 cos )
which is parallel to its transmission axis. However, the component
E0sin will be absorbed by the analyser.

Therefore, the intensity of light transmitted by the analyzer.

I ( Eo cos ) 2
I I o cos
2

When = 0 ( or 180 ), I = I0 cos2 = I0 That is the intensity of

light transmitted by the analyzer is maximum when the
transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer are parallel.
When = 90, I = I0 cos290 = 0 That is the intensity of light
transmitted by the analyzer is minimum when the transmission
axes of the analyzer and polarizer are perpendicular to each
other.

DOUBLE REFRACTION
The splitting of unpolarised
light into two refracted
component (ordinary light
and extraordinary light)
travelling
at
different
speeds inside medium is
known as phenomenon of
double refraction.
This is observed
using a special crystal
category known as doubly
refracting crystal.
POSITIVE CRYSTAL (re < ro) AND NEGATIVE CRYSTAL (re > ro)

Properties of O ray and E-rays

Two different angle of refraction , i.e. re and ro
Both rays becomes parallel after emerging the
crystal
Ordinary follows the ordinary law of refraction
but not the extraordinary.
Both rays are plane polarised. Ordinary ray :
Plane of vibration is perpendicular to the
principal section while for extraordinary is
parallel to the principal section.
POSITIVE CRYSTAL (re < ro ; e > 0) AND
NEGATIVE CRYSTAL (re > ro; 0 > e)

DOUBLE REFRACTIVE CRYSTALS

Colorless Calcite Rhombohedron

with a long edge of ~12 cm.

The
double
refractive
property of calcite leads to
the formation of two images
as shown in these examples.
The images are related to the
existence of ordinary rays (orays) and extraordinary rays
(e-rays). An analysis of these
rays shows that both these
rays are linearly polarized.

Optic Axis A line passing throgh any one of

the blunt corners and making equal angles
with each of three edges which meet at the
corner is known as optic axis

Principal Section

A plane containing the optic axis of

the crystal and perpendicular to the
two opposite refracting faces is
called principal section of the crystal
for that pair of faces:

Birefringent devices Separation

of the o- and e- rays.

NICOL PRISM-Construction

Thin layer of
balsam cement
with = 1.55

For calcite, again, e = 1.486, o = 1.658

A calcite crystal that is cut,

polished, and painted,
separates the o-ray and eray via TIR (total internal
reflection). A thin layer of
balsam glues two halves of
the crystal. Balsam has an
index of refraction, b, which
is between that of the o- and
e-rays, i.e., e < b < o.
Thus, the o-ray experiences
TIR at the balsam interface
and is absorbed by the layer
of black paint on the side.
The e-ray refracts normally
at the balsam interface an
leaves the crystal at the
bottom. Therefore, the
emitted ray can be used as a
fully linearly polarized beam.

NICOL PRISM - Working

o-ray absorping paint

e-ray

Air gap

This prism is similar

to the Nicol, prism but
without the use of
balsam cement.

Polarizers take advantage of double refraction and

total internal reflection
Combine two prisms of calcite, rotated so
that the ordinary polarization in the first
prism is extraordinary in the second (and
vice versa).
The perpendicular polarization goes from
high index (no) to low (ne) and undergoes
total internal reflection, while the parallel
polarization is transmitted near Brewster's
angle.
Nicol Prism: made up from two prisms
of calcite cemented with Canada
balsam. The ordinary ray totally
reflects off the prism boundary, leaving
only the extraordinary ray.

Production of Polarised light

x=a cos (t)
y=b cos (t-)

x
y
2 xy
2

cos

sin

2
2
a
b
ab
General eqution of Ellipse

PLANE POLARISED LIGHT IN A VERTICAL PLANE

The intersecting plane

looked at from the front.

PLANE POLARISED LIGHT IN A HORIZONTAL

PLANE

The intersecting plane

looked at from the front.

Superposition

of

plane-polarized

waves.

When two electromagnetic waves plane-polarized in

two perpendicular planes are present simultaneously
then the electric fields are added according to the rules
of vector addition, 'parallelogram rule' (superposition) .

The intersecting plane

looked at from the front.

CIRCULARLY POLARISED LIGHT: CLOCKWISE

Superposition of plane-polarized waves .
The superposition of two waves that have the same
amplitude and wavelength and are polarized in two
perpendicular planes but there is a phase difference of
3/2, 7/2 degrees between them. A phase difference
of 3/2 or -90 means that when one wave is at its peak
then the other one is just crossing the zero line. Right
polarization.

The intersecting plane

looked at from the front.

CIRCULARLY POLARISED LIGHT: ANTICLOCKWISE

Superposition of plane-polarized waves 3.
The following animation shows what happens when
the two waves shown on the previous page are
added with a phase difference of /2, 5/2
degrees

The intersecting plane

looked at from the front.

Circular polarization

Circularly polarized waves

The animations presenting the two types of circularly
polarized light are shown together so that you can compare

them more easily.

Superposition of circularly polarized waves

when a left circularly polarized wave and a right
circularly polarized wave are added.

As we see, the result of superposing two

circularly polarized waves is a planepolarized wave.

The intersecting plane

looked at from the front.

Retardation Plates
1.Quarter Wave Plate
A plate of a doubly refracting crystal where refracting
faces are cut parallel to the direction of optic axis
whose thickness is such that to produce a phase
difference of /2 and a path difference of /4 between
the ordinary and extraordinry waves is called quarter
wave plate.

t=/4(E ~ o)
1.Half Wave Plate
t=/2(E ~ o)

Analysis of Polarised light

General Light

Rotating Nicol

No Intensity
variation

Either circularly
or unpolarised

Intensity
variation with
min zero
intensity

Intensity
variation with
min non-zero
intensity

Plane Polarised

Either elliptically
or partially
plane polarised

Either circularly or
unpolarised

Either Elliptically or partially

polarised light

Incident on quarter wave

plate and then through
rotating nicol

Incident on quarter wave

plate and then through
rotating nicol

Intensity
variation with
min zero
intensity

No intensity
variation

Intensity
variation with
min zero
intensity

Intensity
variation with
minimum nonzero

Circularly
Polarised

Unpolarised

Elliptically
Polarised

Partially
polarised

LECTURES TO BE PREPARED BY
THE STUDENTS

L-13 & L-14

Optical Activity
Specific rotation
Polarimeters

Consider hypothetical point sources of natural light embedded within negative

and positive uniaxial crystals, as shown in the left and right figures.

The shape of the ellipsoids depends on sign of n (+ or -) as shown.

CALCITE CRYSTAL